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Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Component-I (A) - Personal Details

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Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Component-I (A) - Personal Details Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Component-I (A) - Personal Details Role Name Affiliation Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Paper Coordinator, if any Dr. Taruna Bansal Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Content Writer/Author (CW) Dr. Janki Jiwan Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi Content Reviewer (CR) Dr. Chandreyi Banerjee Assistant Professor Department of Geography BSR Govt Arts College, Alwar, Rajasthan Language Editor (LE) Component-I (B) - Description of Module Items Description of Module Subject Name Geography Paper Name Geographical Thought Module Name/Title Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Module Id GEOG/09 Pre-requisites Evolution of Geographical thought and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Objectives To study evolution of geographical thought and disciplinary trends in the USA Keywords Evolution, American Geographical Thought, Emerging Disciplinary Trends etc. 1 Component II - e-Text Evolution of Geographical Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in the USA Janki Jiwan, Ph.D. I. Introduction The Scientific study of geography began in the United States of America in the middle of 19th century and even before the establishment of the British school of Geography. During this period, geographical thinking in this country was dominated by environmental determinism. In last decades of 19th century and early 20th century, Ratzel’s disciple E. C. Semple focused on environmental determinism and pointed out that every action is guided by the environment. Likewise, Huntington also favoured this concept. However, some scholars like Gorge Parkins Marsh (1801-1892) in the 19th century and Isaiah Bowman in the middle of the 20th century were independent thinkers whose influence was maximum on the current geographical thought in the USA. Later Griffith Taylor, who proposed the concept of neo- determinism, wrote on a number themes like human races, nations, cities and human civilization. In the modern period, Carl O. Sauer believed in possibilism and favoured the development of a mechanism for human adjust with the environment. Besides, Arnold Guyot, Richard Hartshorne, William Morris Davis, E. C. Sample, W. W. Atwood, Ellsworth Huntington, A. H. Robinson, C. D. Harris, E. L. Ullman, B. J. L. Berry, J. R. Whitaker, W. Isard, D. S. Whittlesey etc. contributed in developing various disciplinary trends in the USA. Gorge Parkins Marsh (1801-1892) He promoted the concept of conservation and wrote a book entitled “Man and Nature” in 1971. This book focused on conservation of nature and discuss the imprints of human actions on the environment. Arnold Guyot (1807- 1904) He was Switzerland national who became a prominent professor of Geology and Geography at Princeton University in the USA. He contributed to establishment of American Geographical Society of USA. In addition, he developed concepts of landforms, structure, and process of erosion. His book named The Earth and Man had got a reputation in the Country. 2 William Morris Davis (1850-1934) Davis was the great geographer in the USA who proposed the concept of Geographical Cycle of Erosion. This concept was developed based on his experience from his works in Meteorology and geology. Actually, he was appointed as a professor for general Geology at Harvard University in the USA. Davis was influenced by Darwin’s concept of biological evolution. This concept inspired Devis to propose Geographical Cycle of Erosion. His theory was time oriented and deductive and causative and based on the concept of uniformitarianism proposed by Lyell. In this cycle of erosion, a landform develops gradually in systematic three stages like youth, mature and old in a sequential manner following normal organic life cycle. Existing condition of landforms depends upon the function of its structure, processes, and stages. In the geographical cycle, first of all, a peneplain (featureless plain) is uplifted and after upliftment river begins its erosional process hence the variety of landforms develops depending upon existing rock structure, the intensity of river and stages. German scholars like Alfred Hattner, Walter Penck, Siegfried and Passarge criticised the Geographical Cycle of Erosion on various grounds. Opposing to the Davisian concept, Walter Penck pointed out that geomorphic forms are an expression of the different phases not stages and rate of uplift in relation to the rate of degradation. He assumed that interaction between upliftment and degradation is a continuous process. He criticised Davisian view that erosion process starts only the end upliftment. Further, as per the Penck view, upliftment and erosion proceed simultaneously. According to Penck, landforms, evolution may not complete in stages because of rejuvenation or other factors. However, the concept of stages or time-framework in the formation of landform is still relevant. Further, in contrary to time-dependent theory of Devis, Grove Karl Gilbert proposed time- independent dynamic equilibrium theory explaining the development of various landforms. This theory brought about a methodological shift in geomorphology in the USA. Ellen Churchill Sample (1863-1932) Sample was a disciple of Great German Geographer Ratzel. Her influential personality and a firmed believe in environmental determinism had wide impacts on geographical thoughts in the USA. Her first professional book was “American History in Its Geographical Conditions (1903)”. In which she tried to offer a mechanical approach to explain geographical influences on the course of history. The concept of environment determinism has been well explained with numerous examples and illustrations in her second book entitled “Influences of the 3 Geographical environment (1911)”. Explaining her concept of determinism, she pointed out man to be ‘a product of the Earth Surface’, a child of the Earth, the dust of her dust, which has entered into his bone and tissues, into his mind and soul. However, her writings have contradictory principles in explaining environmental determinism. Albert Perry Brigham (1855-1932) He was the disciple of Davis and Shaler and a staunch supporter of environmental determinism. He had a pragmatic approach towards geographical influences and control. He further tried to test scientific validity of determinism with empirical generalization. According to his view, generalization can be our goals but the formulation of general theory and law is not possible to prove the concept of determinism. Rollin D. Salisbury (1858-1922) He was a professor at the University of Chicago and rejected the idea of simple causes and effects related to explain physical environment and human responses. Harlan H. Barrows (1877-1960) He also rejected the concept of determinism as a paradigm in geography. As per his view, Geography is a study of man’ adjustment to nature or human ecology. Barrow pointed out that geographers should focus on how man are adjusting themselves to their environment. Human beings are free to choose their choices within the limit set by nature. Therefore, he was possibilist. W. W. Atwood (1872-1949) He was a professor of Geography who wrote on various themes like physiography and economic geography. His books on “Physiographic Provinces of North America” and “the Rockies Mountain” got wide appreciation in the USA. Ellsworth Huntington (1876-1947) He was trained scholar in geology and climatology and later became a professor at Yale University. He had developed his interest in studying impacts of climate on human beings, their activities, and civilizations. He was a prolific writer who authored more than 55 books and above 175 research articles. His main books were “The Pulse of Asia” (1907), Palestine and its Transformation (1911) and Civilization and Climate (1915), Character of Races 4 (1904) and The Main Springs of Civilization (1945). His book entitled “Civilization and Climate” discussed temperature of 21-degree centigrade as ideal conditions for the evolution of civilization. He had taken an isotherm of 21-degree centigrade as an areal limit for the same. As per his view, all human social, economic, cultural activities are guided by the environment. He pointed out that environment not only influenced human bodies and their civilization but their various forms of government, races, religions, education, and others. Isaiah Bowman (1878-1950) Bowman was a disciple of W. M. Davis and Physiographer but later he became an assistant professor at Yale University. Being a prolific writer, he wrote several books. His book entitled the “New World: Problems in Political Geography (1921)” discussing the political regions in the world and their associated problems. This book was criticised as a text of American geopolitics. His another work was “the Andes of Southern Peru (1916)” containing physical and human facets of geography based on his field studies. His popular book the “Pioneer Fringe (1931)” covers demarcation of agricultural belts along with the details of regional people and spread of their settlements. In addition, his book titled “Geography in Relation with the Social Science” discussed nature, scope and study methodologies of geography. Under his leadership in American Geographical society, a series of maps on Latin American were prepared and “Geographical Review” became a reputed research journal. Griffith Taylor (1880-1963) Taylor was born in Britain
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