Alternance Training for Young People: Guidelines for Action. INSTITUTION European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Berlin (West Germany)

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 270 627 CE 044 586

AUTHOR Jallade, Jean-Pierre TITLE Alternance Training for Young People: Guidelines for Action. INSTITUTION European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Berlin (West Germany). REPORT NO ISBN-92-825-2870-7 PUB DATE 82 NOTE 105p. PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Cooperative Planning; Coordination; Educational Cooperation; Educational Policy; *Education Work Relationship; Employment Programs; *Foreign Countries; *Job Training; *Nontraditional Education; Public Policy; School Business Relationship; Secondary Education; Training Methods; *Transitional Programs; Unemployment; *Youth Employment; Youth Programs IDENTIFIERS Europe

ABSTRACT Alternance training and employment policy should improve youth employment prospects in the European community in three ways. It should enhance young people's employability, improve youth's motivation and clarify vocational options, and better prepare youth to adapt to abrupt changes in job content. Because alternance training is concerned with young people's transition from school to work, the supply of alternance training places should be geared to the number of those leaving the school system. Guidance, acquisition of skills, and social integration are the three primary aims of alternance training. No single formula can be applied throughout the European community to determine who will need alternance training. Training needs must instead be determined on the basis of school experience, employment situation, socioeconomic attributes, and local labor market requirements. Alternance training schemes must combine in-school learning and in-plant experiences in a way that is more than a mere juxtaposition, but is rather mutually reinforcing. For this, the efforts of teachers and trainers must be coordinated and mutually reinforcing as well. (Appendixes to this report include the resolution of the Council of the European Communities on linked work and training for young persons and a list of organizations represented at the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training Board). (MN)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** Aitemance training for young people: Guidelines for action CEDEFOP f CV .C) C) uS DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS e of Educanonal Relearen and improvement MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY UCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER IERIC) ha document nas been retarOduCed as CVkrece,ved from ne person or Organizat.on CM orromatrng A C Minor Changes have been made to improve L/ rePrOduCtrOn Ouairty

Pants ot we., a oar000s stated ,rt Mat:loco- ment do not neCeSdanly represent odrcrai TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES OE RI positron or poirCy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

ON 9 01, This study was undertaken by Jean-Pierre Jal lade Institute of Education/European Cultural Foundation, Paris on behalf of , CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of uj Vocational Training 0 The Centre was established by Regulation (EEC) No 337/75 of 1 Wthe Council of the European Communities 0 Published by: European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Bundesallee 22, D-1000 Berlin 15, Tel.: (030) 88 10 61 This publication is also available In thefollowing languages:

DAISBN 92-825-2868-5 DEISBN 92-825-2869-3 FRISBN 92-825-2871-5 IT ISBN 92-825-2872-3 NLISBN 92-825-2873-1 Cataloguing data can be found at the end ofthis publication

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities, 1982 Design: Rudolf J. Schmitt,Berlin

ISBN 92-825-2870-7

Catalogue number: HX-32-81-714-EN-C

Reproduction in whole or in part of the contents of thispublication is auth- orized, provided the source is acknowledged

Printed In the Federal Republic of Germany 4 Foreword by Roger Faist Page 8

Introduction 10

I What exactly is altemance training? 16

1. The economic, social and cultural context of alternance training 17 A. Alternance training and employment policy 17 B. Alternance training and education policy 18 C. Alternance training and youth policy 20

2. Definition and scope of alternance 21

3.The aims of alternance training 25

2 Altemance training: For whom? 30

3 An approach to a pedagogy of altemance 1 38 1. Content of alternance training 39

2. Pedagogical guidelines for alternance training 43 A. Relationship between trainers and trainees 43 B. Rehabilitation of in-plant training 43 C. Pedagogical coordination between school and company 44 D. Setting training goals and routes 46

4 Organization of altemance training 50

1. General institutional characteristics 51 A. Consultation between the social partners 51 B. Decentralization of initiative and responsibility 52

2. Organization of alternance training schemes 53 A. Unity of responsibility 53 B. The duration and cycling of alternance 54 C. How training is tested 56

3. Inspection and assessment of alternance training schemes 58

4. Status and protection of trainees 60 5 1 5. Altemance training and the company 66

1. Participation of companies in training 67

2. The company as a place of training 70

6uTeachers and trainers 74

1. Teachers and trainers: the situation today 75

2. Teachers and trainers: resolving the dichotomy 78 A. Producing the ideal 'teacher-cum-trainer' 78 B. Developing a common language for teachers and trainers 78 C. Towards a tripartite responsibility for the trainingprocess 80

7. Costs and financing of altemance training 84

1. Expenditure on alternance training: general trends 85

2. Cost-sharing 88

Conclusions: Guidelines for action 93

Annex I: Council Resolution of 18 December 1979 96

Annex II: List of organizations represented at the Cedefop Board 98

Cedefop Publications 100

6 Foreword 2. The work of analysis and reflection The acute youth unemployment pro- presented here under the title 'Alter- blem coupled with foreseeable long- nance training for young people: term labour market trends calls for a Guidelines for action' is an extension radical reappraisal of vocational of the programme of the Commission training systems as at present under- of the European Communities. The stood. At the same time, under the first phase of this programme combined effects of the economic (1976-78) was marked by Communitycrisis, the redistribution of jobs initiatives relating to 'young people across the globe and the speedof and the transition from school to dissemination of new technologies, working life'. The object of the pres- some jobs are disappearing,others ent phase is to encourage Member are changing in content,and new States to give concrete expression to ones are being created. Itit being re- the proposals in the Resolution of the cognized more and more that young Council of Ministers of the European people coming on to the labour Communities of 18 December 1979 market must be equipped with the (see Annex I) on 'Linked Work and wherewithal to give them a degree of the Training for Young Persons'. autonomy, freedom of choice, and The paper presented here is the ability to act on their environment. outcome of the technical working This explains current efforts to de- sessions organized by Cedefop and velop vocational training' systems has been drawn up by the Instituteof which strike a reasonable balance Education of the European Cultural between basic training, know-how, Foundation on the basis of the find- and learning from experience, i.e. ings of a European Conference in which impart a sufficiently flexible June 1980 held under the joint aus- range of occupational skills. pices of Cedefop and the Commis- The road ahead is a long one, for sion, as well as on an analysis of the the present situation is far from en- many new developments inMember couraging. In the various countries of States which reflect their concern to the Community, the proportion of explore a variety of ways and means young people entering thelabour market with no occupational training to enhance the effectiveness of train- 40%. In ing systems. ranges from 15 to more than the framework of strategies to increase the ratio of trained tountrain- ed young people, alternance training is likely to become one of the prime instruments. It represents a means of structuring training and fostering

8 7 positive motivation through an appropriate mix of theory and practice. The value of aitemance training lies not so much in the help it may afford in remedying ills but rather in eliminat- ing these at source.

3. This paper is intended as much for the policy-maker as for the practi- tioner engaged in the concrete realities of vocational training in the different EC countries. It has been designed as a contribution to decision- making. The underlying assumption is that aitemance training is destined to develo) beyond the experimental stage in those countries where it is as yet still in its infancy. With this in mind it was important to createaware- ness and offer matter for reflection. Some grey areas subsist on which more light must be thrown: How can we foster cooperation between vocational school teachers and company- based trainers? How can we design Jobs for young people in which the phases are pedagogically coherent? How can funding be ensured? Each of us can play a part in this endeavour in the knowledge that we can count on the help of others as they can count on us. Cedefop is conscious of its role in facilitating Roger Feist these forms of concrete cooperation. Director of Cedefop 8 9 ntroduction

AN This short monograph is designed to characteristics. In defining young per- provide organizations and individuals sons what counts is less their age responsible for alternance training than the difficulties they encounter in orogrammes with a set of guidelines making the transition from school to for their planning and implementa- working life and their consequent tion. Altemance training is taken here training needs. as meaning: There are many types of alternance `the development of effective links training in the EC countries. The between training and experience on notion of alternance has been with us the Job These links should involve for a long time in the form of appren- establishing coordinated program- ticeship schemes where the aim is mes and structures making for co- to produce skilled workers by com- operation between the various bodies bining work experience in the 'real', responsible.' i.e. non-scholastic, world with gene- idea of combining training and ral and vocational training. The Brit- practical work experience is not a ish sandwich courses are based on new one and can be appliea toall similar principles. Training for the levels and types of training. It is not professions, such as medicine and the intention here to provide a com- engineering, associates work ex- prehensive overview of the various perience and 'on the job' training as a forms of altemance training to be matter of course on the premise that found in the EC member countries. experience in the working milieu is a The aim is rather more modest: precondition for the exercise of a pro- namely to investigate altemance fession inasmuch as many of its training schemes for young people aspects cannot be taught in a lecture poised between school and working theatre. The recent development of life. It might be tempting to define the lifelong learning has much in com- categories of young people according mon with the notion of alternance, to age group say those between 16 linking as it does vocational expe- and 20 but this could result in the rience and training in a specialized in- exclusion of a large number of young stitution. people who, though over 20, have sim- These considerations do not, how- ilar training needs and personal ever, suffice to explain the renewed interest in alternance on the part of many European countries and inter- national institutions. There are a I Resolution of the EC Council of Ministers of number of reasons for this: 18 December 1979, on linked work and training for young persons: see Annex I.

10 9 Firstly, there is the problem of youth employment. Whether this takes the form of widespread unemployment This monograph comprises seven often on a far greater scale than for chapters. Chapter I attempis to the other social groups or of achieve a closer definition of alter- 'fringe' employment of a temporaryor name training, briefly recalling the occasional nature (odd jobs followed aims of alternance and its links with by periods of inactivity), the pheno- education and employment policies. menon is too prevalent to be treated Chapter 2 identifies those groups and lightly by the authorities. Since poorly situations for which alternance train- or inadequately trained young people ing is particularly suited. The under- are precisely those who fare worst on lying pedagogical principlesare dis- the labour market, complementary cussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 deals training on the alternance principle with problems of organization and can serve to enhance their employ- consultation among the variouspar- ability and ease the transition be- ties concerned. Alternance training tween school and work. necessarily involves the active participation of industry; the problems The vocational underqualification of this raises are the subject of Chap- young people is matched by a dis- ter 5. The success or failure of any turbing lack of information on work- given type of training hinges on the ing life. This information gap isre- quality of the instruction and alter- sponsible for many false starts during nance training is no exception to the transition period and turns many this rule; Chapter 6 focuses on this young people away from the formal aspect. Finally Chapter 7 tackles the job market. Here again, alternance question of costs and the various training emerges as the most appro- ways in which alternance training Rum priate instrument to help young may be financed. C:?; people decide on a career. ui.0 There has been a noticeable waning in enthusiasm for raising the school lin2', leaving age, on the grounds that action along these lines only serves to defer the break between school and working life and tends to make young people feel that they are 'char- C,) ity cases' hardly the ideal approach to adulthood. Moreover, many young people are hostile to lengthy school-bound training. A dual system such as alternance can here play a LI 4 useful role. 0)

10 11 Alternance training

What is alternance training? Alternance training: For whom?

C I

___INIL______111__ Alternance training andthe company Teachers and trainers

12 11 A pedagogy of alternance Alternance training

Costs and financing A 12 13 1-Tr 131 si letiM L. What exactly is alternance training?

15 As has been said elsewhere, the concept of alternance has gained acceptance in most EC countries and is already being applied in a variety of ways. What is new, however, is the economic, social and cultural context in which it is currently developing. This chapter opens by describing this context and goes on to define the scope of alternance and what it is designed to achieve for young people in the light of the problems they are encountering in entering the working world.

IThe economic, social and culturalcontext of ottoman** training In the range of measures to assist youth policy in general, the develop- young people in the framework of emment of aitemance training comes ployment and education policies and well to the fore.

A Altemance training and employment policy 1'4 Present thinking on altemance is this further training which fre- necessarily coloured by the grim em- quently consists in an adaptation to ployment prospects of young people the 'style' and 'spirit' of the company CD= in the EC countries,' reflected in high is certainly acquired more rapidly rates of unemployment or unsatisfac- when new recruits already have some tory work situations (temporary or work experience. This is borne out by unstable jobs, 'moonlighting') which the Swedish firm Ericsson which af- may ultimately result in exclusion firms that new entrants with a purely from the formal labour market. academic background need at least a Altemance training should help to year to become fully operational remedy this situation in three ways: while those who have enjoyed some It enhances young people's employ- form of linked work and training accli- ability. Admittedly, few training pro- matize much more rapidly. grammes can in fact claim to present Altemance training, by improving mo- employers with a 'finished' product; tivation and clarifying vocational op- (69 companies are as a rule obliged to tions, stems excessive mobility which provide complementary training is perceived by manpower experts as geared to their specific needs. But a significant factor in unemployment. Lastly, those who have benefited from altemance training are consider- ' See: 'Altemance and Employment Policy for Young ed to adapt better to abrupt changes People' by Burkett Seiiin InAltemance Training for Young People In the FEC,Conference Report, in job content than those who are CoderoP, Berlin 1961. either 100% college trained or who 16. 17 have learnt on the job. In the case of other. NothinC would be more prejudi- the former, curriculum and methods cial to the idea of altemance than to may become fossilized through lack use the novelty. of the concept to of contact with the working world, kindle hopes that the labour market is while In that of the latter, there is a in no position to satisfy. In other risk of ov,sr-specialization in a narrow words, deVelopment of altemance range of skills which may swiftly must go hand in hand with a dynamic become obsolete. youth employment policy. This said, it would be utopian to be- In the absence of such a policy, al- lieve that iris development of alter- temance training can only maintain nance training could in itself resolve young people in the insecure jobs in the problem of youth unemployment; which all too often they already find it could not, and should not, serve as themselves. To prevent this perversion an alibi for a laissez-faire employ- of the notion of altemance it is vital ment policy. that the training leads to qualifica- One might go further and argue tions recognized by employers on the that altemance training will succeed labour market both on recruitment only if there is a concurrent improve- and in the collective agreements de- ment in the employment situation, termining the respective rights and since the one is the outcome of the duties of management and labour.

B Altemance training and education policy

The development of altemance train- number of those leaving the school ing for young people is an integral system on reaching school-leaving part of the general training effort of age. This is no doubt what underlies every society, an effort which is the Easter guarantee proposed under rooted on the one hand in the systemthe British Youth Opportunities Pro- of full-time education and on the gramme (YOP). Under the terms of other in the opportunities affotded forthis guarantee, all young jobless lifelong learning. It must hence be school-leavers in a given year will be coordinated with both. In this respect found a place in the programme by it should be recalled that altemance Easter of the following year. is not designed to make good the This major measure is aimed at failures or shortcomings of compul- making altemance training an alter- sory schooling which remains the native to unemployment for all prime source of acquiring basic school-leavers. Other countries have knowledge and skills. Altemance is gone a step further, taking the view concerned with young people's tran- that, in the long term, altemance sition from school to work, which im- training could become a 'normal' or plies that the supply of places in al- even obligatory transition stage be- temance training be geared to the tween full-time schooling and full- 18 ,17 time employment. The idea of part- situation in Germany the most sa- time obligatory training following on tisfactory in Europe in this respect full-time compulsory schooling has al-is in marked contrast to that of ready made some headway in the France where to embark on an appren- Federal Republic of Germany and the ticeship is tantamount to accepting Netherlands. Such arrangements may that one has left school for good. serve to extend altemance training to In many respects the growth of al- all young school-leavers, provided of temance training for young people course that the altemance principle isprefigures that of recurrent education genuinely respected, i.e. that part- for adults. It constitutes, however, a time training is combined with response to very specific economic, periods of work experience to attain aeducational and cultural imperatives clearly defined pedagogical goal. as well as to pedagogical considera- it is of course important that alter- tions bound up with the characteris- nance training be clearly defined vis- tics of its clientele young people i-vis full-time instruction in terms of with no knowledge of the realities of equivalence of diplomas. As long as the working world. Many, moreover, the scope of altemance training ex- are poorly motivated and experience tends only to very limited groups of difficulties in adapting to working life. young people, the absence of clearly All in all, altemance is to be viewed in defined relationships between diplo- the context of the transition from mas is of minor importance. But once school to work. Altemance training the system assumes a certain scale must not be confused with lifelong there is a real risk that those graduat-education for adults, which has been ing from altemance training will be at discussed in general terms else- a disadvantage compared with those where.' who have received full-time training. This having been said, while the Altemance training may come to be groups concerned differ both in seen as training on the cheap and theregard to age and degree of vocation- diplomas awarded could well be con- al and social integration, it is none sidered inferior to those of establish- the less true that the pedagogical ments providing full-time courses of principles underlying altemance train- similar quality. Lastly, a policy of di- ing and lifelong learning have much in ploma equivalence is needed to common. And just as there is a need enable those on linked work and train-for a minimum of coordination being schemes to return to full-time stu- tween the development of full-time dies at a later date should they so formal education and that of alter- wish. The opportunity to return to nance training, so must there also be school is a popular option in the Fed- an effective articulation between the eral Republic of Germany where latter and opportunities for lifelong young people who have completed an learning throughout working life. apprenticeship may pursue a two-year full-time training course in a Fach- schule and become a technician. This possibility has certainly helped to See: The development of permanent education In give apprenticeship a better image in Europe, by Henri Janne and Bertrand Schwartz, Commission of the European Communities, Studies the eyes of the German public. The Collection, Education series No 3, Brussels 1976. 18 19 BEST COPY AVAILABLE C Altemance training and youth policy Some governments justify the de- We have 3nly to look at the plan- velopment of altemance training nct ning criteria underlying the develop- only as a .neans of tackling youth ment of altemance to realize that cul- unemployment but also as an ingre- tural rather than economic considera- dient of overall youth policy. In the tions tend to be uppermost. Officials view of many observers, what may be still talk of the economy's need for called the 'malaise' of the younger skilled manpower, but they now generation is in part due to the exces- appear more concerned to 'do some- sive inflexibility and paternalism of thing' for the 20 or 40% of the age the institutions catering for young group that reaches the labourmarket people. Just as prolonging full-time with no other training than compul- education fails to meet .he desire of sory schooling. Often the argumentis many people to assume responsibili- expressed both in terms of the de- ties and acquire financial autonomy, mands of the economy and the needs so exposure to the cold realities of of young people seen as a demogra- the world of work equally falls to sat- phic group, i.e. in terms of the labour isfy their justifiable need for critical supply. refiexion. Altemance training pro- Since the present economic cli- vides a better response to the aspira- mate is reflected in virtually zero tions of today's youth and as such growth in demand for skilled man- could form part of an arsenal of mea- power, it is more or less certain that sures designed to help young people arguments of the first type will give make the transition to adulthood. way to those of the second. Thisis This point has been stressed by indeed already the case with the ex- many writers on the subject who con- pansion in apprenticeship schemes sider that altemance is a way of which tend to be justified more by the acting on young people's motivations presence of a large body of unskilled and helping them assume their res- young people than by any increase in ponsibilities. Alternance confronts actual needs for qualified personnel. them with a 'real-life' situation, allows them to 'perform actual tasks and make real objects', to 'take initiatives', activities which all serve to motivate those who are 'put off' by school-type learning. Apart from its capacity to motivate, alternance is often credited with stimulating a sense of responsibility, accelerating 'psychological maturation' and the 'transition to adulthood'; it is said to teach 'self-control' and 'autonomy', Edmond Mouret, 'Vehemence: reperes theorlques et champ d'applicatIon. dans Actual to de la Formation Permanent., help adolescents 'develop personal No 2, INFFO Centre, September-October 1979. This article projects' and learn to do without the Is reprinted In the special Issue of Vocational Training, No 411980, on Linking Work and Training for young persons in overprotection and mollycoddling of the European Community, under the :me 'A general survey of school and university.' the theory and practice of alternating training In France'.

20 19 2Definition and scope of altemance

The Communication of the Commis- training in a way that is mutually rein- sion of the European Communities to forcing, Learning at work and learn- the Council of Ministers defined alter- ing In school should be combined in nance as 'the linking of practical appropriate sequences to ensure training obtained by the exercise of interpenetration between the socio- vocational activity at the place of professional and academic milieux. work with theoretical training obtain- This point is taken up in Chapter 3 ed in a training service, organization which discusses the pedagogy of al- or establishment'.' This is a very temance. loose definition which must be A system of linked work and train- tightened up if it is to have any opera- ing can cover a wide variety of forms tional utility. In order to limit the field of training, some of which already of application of alternance we pro- exist, while others remain to be de- pose to reserve this term for any work vised. Similarly, the principle of alter- situation allowing the worker to nance might conceivably be extended devote at least 20% of his time to to certain types of full-time training. some form of training in a specialized An alternance strategy thus calls for establishment and, conversely, for a three-pronged approach: any training programme in which at least 20% of the time is spent acquiring on-the-job experience. This is a quantitative criterion which is obviously arbitrary. It is, however, useful in that it excludes work-training schemes where one or other of the components is negligible as, for example, in the case of training courses offering a full school-year's instruction with a brief summer placement, or job contracts where only a fraction of the time is devoted to training. This quantitative criterion has its uses in defining the scope of alternance but is not in itself sufficient, since alternance claims to give unique pedagogical results byl3om- CO bining periods of in-plant training MINN with periods in vocational school. But it is not enough simply to juxtapose these two types of training, even though this can serve to develop rs awareness of the world of work. True 1 'Linking Work and Training for Young People In the = Community', Communication from the Commission alternance calls for systematic plan- to the Council, COM(79)578(Finai) Brussels, ning of work experience and in-school 29 October 1979.

6 oo Ar.T'Ili.1 20 former under the combined pressure of employers and of the short- term demand for skilled manpower. Many educationalists, especially in France, extending existing forms of alter- have spoken out against theover-nar- nance training such as apprentice- row specialization of some schemes. ship schemes and setting upnew In the United Kingdom, for instance, ones; many apprentices do not benefit from in-school training, though this is clearly stipulated in the collective agreements. The new economic climate prevailing since 1973 has been marked by extending the prioapie of altek.ti sluggish growth, a radical restructur- nance to existing general's/0,1/o; ing of industry, considerableuncer- cations] training schemes; tainty as to the likely impact of technological innovation on employment, and, what is perhaps more serious, rising youth unemployment. A variety of measures have been taken orare under consideration with the aim of adapting apprenticeship schemes to these new circumstances reflecting eschewing 'faire' aitemance the ever-increasing pace of change in SC:VMS& job content and skills and the sharp rise in numbers of young job-seekers.' Firstly, it is essential that the number of apprentices continue to Apprenticeship is a type of alter- grow. Government assistance may nance training which is firmly im- well have to be stepped up since the planted in all the EC countries. natural reaction of employers to the During the boom years, apprentice- current economic crisis is to cut back ship schemes mushroomed to meet the number of places on offer. the burgeoning need for skilled man- Secondly, new types of apprentice- power. As regards content, the object ship must be devised to prepare of apprenticeship is to equipyoung young people for the new jobs to be people with vocational skills which created in future growth sectors. will enable them to perform a limited Lastly, new forms of alternance train- and in some cases strictly de- ing are being introduced in thisarea, lineated range of tasks. Appren- with greater emphasis on off-the-job ticeship schemes tend, however,to general instruction in an attempt to be confined to the traditional trades avoid premature specialization. The and this often militates against the acquisition of new skills. The split 'Trends in Apprenticeship in the European Com- between work experience and train- munity, Chris Hayes and David E. Wheatley, Employ. ment and Vocatioral Training Directorate. EC, ing is often weighted in favour of the July 1979. 22 -2/1 BEST COPY AVAILABLE most striking examples of this ap- Is a step in the right direction, al- proach are to be found in Denmark though the current programme and the Federal Republic of Germany cannot yet be said to amount to real where all apprentices must undergoa alternance training. While in some full year's technical instruction in a countries Belgium, France and the training establishment before em- Netherlands for instance vocatio- barking upon the traditional work/ nal training for technicians takes the study sandwich in the second year. form of full-time college instruction, At the same time apprenticeship in others notably the Federal Re- schemes are being streamlined to public of Germany and to a lesser cover fewer but broader vocational extent Denmark and Luxembourg categories (seven in Denmark and it is increasingly being replaced by al- thirteen in the Federal Republic of ternance training, I. e. apprenticeship, Germany) into which the young supplemented for the more gifted by people are slotted in their first year. two to three years' college training. It is only subsequently that the ap- The occupation of technician, epito- prentices acquire more specific skills mizing the link between theory and and decide on the trade they wish to practice, is precisely the type of acti- pursue. This effort to overhaul the vity for which alternance training is system points to the vitality of the al- ideally suited. temance concept even in as tradi- Some educationalists, like Ber- tional a training cycle as apprentice- trand Schwartz in France, go further ship. and would like to see alternance Alternance training would thus made compulsory for all at the end of seem particularly appropriate for im- their ten years' basic schooling, i.e. parting the new skills demanded by during the second cycle of secondary the new computer technologies.' education.' As Bertrand Schwartz While experience in handling the new himself admits, this is not for today machines can be acquired only on the nor yet tomorrow; its justification is job, the more `abstract' subjects such more cultural (de-cloistering second- as mathematics and the logical rea- ary education, gearing education to soning required for such technologies current needs, fostering a sense of can only be gained in the classroom. community) than economic (helping Many educationalists are now young people find employment) but coming round to the idea that the the mere fact that the idea is being principle of aiternance might be ex- aired would tend to indicate that tended to some forms of full-time in- heightened interest in aiternance is struction following on compulsory no passing fad. education. The systematic introduc- On a more modest sale, the tion of in-plant training into the Netherlands and the Federal Republic three-year courses provided by the of Germany have instituted part.time French vocational training colleges compulsory instruction two days a (tycess d'enselgnement professionel) week for 16-year olds and one daya

'Micro-Electronics and Vocational Trailing In the Eu ropean Community', report prepared by Chris Hayes and Associates for the Directorate-General V of the ' Unv autre acute, Bertrand Schwartz, Flammerlon, EC. Paris 1977. 22 23 week for 16-18-year olds. This system which picks up where compulsory schooling leaves off, is designed to combine vocational training and work experience. Although the practical problems should not be underestimated low motivation has been given as the main reason for the high level of absenteeism noted in the courses the system points to the possibility of extending some form of linked work and training to a significant proportion of the age group in the countries concerned. Lastly, several European countries have recently taken initiatives to alie- viate the problem of unemployment, some of which are tantamount to alternance training. The French 'em- plci-formation' (employment-training) contracts, the Irish Work Experience Programme, the Italian fixed-term training contracts, the Unified Voca- tional Programme and Youth Opportu- nine-a Programme in the United King- dom are all attempts to combine in differing degrees work experience and further training in colleges or training centres. The in-plant placements introduced in France on the other hand, cannot be considered altemance training in the true sense of the term, although 120 hours of training are provided in the course of the four months' practical work. A French Ministry of Labour survey has revealed that only one young person in three effectively receives some form of organized training; the remainder have to learn on the job if at all.'

Inguitite sur (Insertion protessionnelle des jeunes ayant effectuO un stage pratique en entreprise: pre- miers disultats', J. Simon and M. Gourmelen, Travail et Emplol, No 1, 1979.

24 23 ,- The aims of altemance training

The ultimate aim of ilternance train- On these key issues guidance, ing for young people is to facilitate acquisition of skills and social inte- their transition from school to work gration alternance training ap- ing life, by helping them find their pears likely to give far better results bearings in a world with which they than traditional vocational training; are largely unfamiliar. equipping there are three reasons for this: them with marketable skills and steering them into full-time stable employment.

CO(4.01%, A.. , rt4IM altt r,I totit Atif ett,ti164.mir. :101Mrtt Guides* implies familiarizing young overhasty and uninformed decisions; people,aath the working world and furthermore, training can build on this hel scover their aptitudes work experience and therefore open and t so that they can make up a wider range of options. an initialed choice of vocation. The linked work and training formula lends itself admirably to this purpose: the opportunity for work experience during training avoids the pitfall of ipreclan . -1- v-t-1-1 -.* ."vmmuNhalmos The aolgsition of skills has always with others. It is clearly crucial that been t rime aim of traditional vo- such training be recognized on the cational *Nein. Alternance training labour market in just the same way as attempts totto a step further since it traditional vocational training. is aimed nio* only at facilitating the acquisition of knowledge but also at developing expertise and problem - solving ability in real life situations, implying a capacity for basic research, decision-making and working Alternate training can ennance the tomy in which full-time training is vocati I integration of young succeeded by full-time employment, MP* them progress in linked work and training schemes are theft or stable full-time em- better adapted to a process of inte- (1) ploy asmuch as it provides a gration characterized by a series of 11=111 network of training programmes while occasional or part-time jobs, periods at the same time stimulating their outofwork interspersed with employ- awareness of the realities and con- ment and by wait-and-see work straints of the labour market. Repre- situations which do not overcommit senting a shift away from the traditio- the young person concerned. nal and somewhat constricting dicho-

25 BEST COPYMu:RIF 24 These three objectives guidance, one to the exclusion of the two acquisition of skills, and integration others. It is none the less the case are never fully separable and it that some programmes whether would be unrealistic to have special implicitly or explicitly do tend to training programmes catering for any focus on one particular objective. imimmomm4 Such vocational training program- Conversely, the prime aim of the mes as De Putgraaf in Heerlen French 'employment-training' con- (Netherlands) or Intaskill in Birming- tracts and of the British YOP pro- ham (United Kingdom) tend to give gramme is vocational integration, I. e. greater weight to the first in the form maintenance in the job on comple- of youth guidance and vocational pre-tion of training. This has virtually training.' in both cases the prime aim been achieved in France where, ac- is to help young people define their cording to Ministry of Labour esti- work goals and give them the means mates, some 85% of the 200 000 to plan their careers. The periods of young people in the scheme during in-centre training are interspersed the period 1977-81 remained with with in-plant placements designed to their employers. The degree of suc- familiarize the trainees with different cess of the British YOP programme work situations. In this way the young can also be gauged from the place- people acquire a number of vocatio- ment rate of the young people involv- nal skills even though they cannot ed, though this has admittedly fallen aspire to the status of 'Mailed worker' from 68% in 1978 to 55% In 1979.1 In on completion of their training: the both cases, the young people acquir- time allocated for this is too short ed a complementary training, but this one year at most, and in practice training poorly monitored and often less. closely geared to companies' specific needs is clearly not the prime purpose of the scheme.

'Estimates based on a 'follow-up' study of the trainees by the Manpower Services Commission. The Vocational Preparation of Unemployed Young fact that the placement rate has fallen off does not People, a study based on vocational preparation reflect a deterioration In the quality of the pro- projects In five Member States of the European gramme, but rather the saturation of the labour Communities, by Jeremy Harrison, Cedefop, market for young Jobseekers. See Chapter 4, Berlin 1980. Section 3. 26 25 On the other hand, under the 'dual training to another. Correctly guided system' applying in the Federal Re- and motivated by appropriate pre- public of Germany which 'alternates' training, they will be better prepared vocational in-plant training and part- to acquire real and recognized skills time vocational in-school instructIon, and to embark on their adult working first priority is given to the acquisi- life. tion of skills. The practical .and theoretical skills expected.df the trainees in each trade are stipulated in ,detall and the content Is regularly up- Alated"by the Federal Institute of Vo- cational Training), whose directives must be followed by. the vocational schools and enterprises. Moreover, the length of the training, varying from two to three and a half years, de- monstrates that the aim is something more than guidance or job integration. Lastly, the importance attached to the acquisition of skills under linked work and training schemes is currently borne out by the incentives introduced in a number of countries to actively promote apprenticeship, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Whether these incentives take the form of direct grants to employers offering apprenticeship contracts as in Denmark, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, or relief from social security contributions as in France, the aim is identical: namely to foster the production of skills recognized on the labour market through alternance training. Clearly, young people should be enabled to progress from one type of 26 27 28 r\D RD

^ 2 , rani ,reuoler <0. . :Fo r whom? c6) Alternance training: For whom?

a? A substantial proportion of those who leave school when they are entitled to do so by law some 35 to 55% of the age group according to country effectively drop out of full-time education. Most of them have no real vocational skills and are likely to encounter serious problems when they come onto the labour market. In some countries notably. Denmark, Luxembourg and the Federal Republic of Germany some 50 to 80% enter apprenticeship. In others far fewer are catered for in this way. In France, for instance, only 40% of the age-group embark on apprenticeships; in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom the proportion falls to one in four while in Italy and Ireland it is no more than one in seven.

Apprenticeship schemes thus cannot full-time schooling after failing their meet all the training needs of the age-exams, while others may have had to group. If it is accepted that all young leave to earn a living. Some may have people leaving the full-time compul- a clear idea of what they want from sory school system have the right to life and are highly motivated, while training, whatever their position on others have become permanent drop- the labour market, there is clearly outs or even delinquents. scope for strengthening and, if neces- Recognition of the disparate nature. sary, overhauling the apprenticeship of the target groups in regard to moti- system as well as for promoting othervation, school performance, knowl- forms of linked work and training. Theedge of working life and of the socio- aim should be to provide all young economic environment, is central to school leavers with some kind of al- any discussion of aitemance training temance training, either by extending which must always respect the needs the principle of altemance to the moreof the groups concerned. inevitably traditional forms of vocational train- the way in which altemance is applied ing or by creating new altemance will reflect this diversity. The idea of a training structures. eagletypeof training to replace The problem is as much qualitative those already existing is clearly out of as quantitative. Not only should the the question; the aim must rather be number of training places be increas- to initiate and foster an array of trained, but the training programmes them-ing mechanisms, geared to local con- selves must be geared to the needs ofditions and based on the principle of the group in question. Naturally theselinked work experience and school- needs vary widely. Some young based training. The first step in plan- people may already have acquired a ning any altemance training pro- degree of work experience, while gramme is thus to gain thorough others have known nothing but unem-knowledge of the attributes of the ployment. Some may have abandonedtarget groups concerned. 0. 0 31 i {CST co.Pv HARARE There can be no universal formula for defining these groups and existing alternance training schemes all too often suffer from a lack of precision in identifying the groups at which they are aimed. In the present economic climate, it is imperative to focus on training job-seekers and young people who are vocationally ill-equipped. Yet the definitions are too woolly to be of any real value in planning training programmes. The following list, while not exhaustive, is an attempt to identify the key criteria for defining reason- ably coherent groups of young people:

*NW

--CI. Ale- "Inar..,:r

32 3 1 aEsT.COPY,AVAllid31._ Lwow% JOA :Wiwi! eougweily 4 Much can be learnt in this respect most deprived, in the labour market. from experience in Germany. Here, Even if the advocates of alternance more than 1 400 000 young people are may not share this view, it is essential Involved in vocational training which that the fears underlying it be under- . is on a far bigger scale than else- stood so as to ensure the integrity of where; yet demand is still in excess ofthe alternance concept. Some of the supply and there is hence keen com- safeguards which might be envisaged petition among young people for the are discussed in the following chap- places on offer. This situation de ters. OH' facto favours successful school- leavers over those who leave school empty-handed currently estimated at around 100 000 and children of immigrant workers who number around 200 000. With a view to the special needs of the least favoured groups, a pilot project has been launched in Rosselsheim (a centre of the automobile industry),' stressing close coordination between the plants

III involved and calling on psychologists and career guidance specialists. The fact that the Federal Government is bearing more than half the costs of the operation points to the firm intention of the authorities to redress the balance in favour of the under-priv- ileged groups. Doubts have been expressed whether such a policy of positive discrimination can be pursued over the long term in view of the high costs entailed. There has even been some scepti- cism in regard to the principle of alternance training per se on the grounds that it would always be considered in some way second class. The only way to obviate these discriminatory effects would be to extend the alternance principle to all training, including fuli-time post-school instruction. The all-or-nothing attitude which is prevalent in some circles, particularly among the unions, could conflict with the gradualist approach which aims at achieving a real Improvement in Inte- grating young people, particularly the Frankfurter Rundschau, 12 February 1981.

35 34 ca 36 A pedagogy of alternance 833 An approach to a pedagogy of alternance

37 It is now widely recognized that linked work and training facilitates the learning process and that young people tend to 'learn better' when their training follows this pattern. It should not, however, simply take the form of role-sharing between company and training establishment; rather it should serve as a vehicle for educational progress and enhance the effectiveness of the training. Much is expected of alternance. For some it fosters cross-fertilization between theory and practice; for others it serves to high- light the material aspects of the problems, offsetting the 'bookish' approach of in-school training; for yet others, it facilitates the learning process because it is more geared to the aspirations of the youth of today. This said, it is easier to point to the benefits whether real or perceived of alternance training than to identify the underlying pedagogical principles. Despite the many experiments under way, there is no universal formula to ensure that the goals will be reached. The chapter starts out by briefly outlining a number of approaches to the content of linked work and training schemes and goes on to review the pedagogical principles on which they are based.

Content of aitemance training 1 In the same way as any other system part, are not thinking so much of a of vocational training, G,Iternance first job, but in terms of a career, they training must strive to strike a bal- want to acquire knowledge and skills ance between companies' short-term that will allow them to switch jobs requirements for specific skills and in-within the company, move elsewhere dividuals' long-term needs. The alter- and even change occupations. They nance between school or training perceive vocational training as a per- centre and work should help to sonal l',-.-Jstment safeguarding them achieve this. Companies obviously against the vagaries of the labour tend to stress the acquisition of parti- market. cular theoretical and practical skills In practice this conflict of aims is which may even be company-specific rarely so clear cut. In their desire to and which can immediately be used take any kind of employment, young on the job. The young people, for theirpeople may frequently be eager to 33 39 BEST COPY AV31iARII: acquire skills that fit them for the spe- The only way of scientifically group- cific demands of their first job even if ing over-specialized forms of training this may be acting counter to their Is to identify the transferable or long-term interests. Conversely, many 'generic' skills which lend them- companies, particularly the larger selves to a range of work situations. ones, are conscious of the dangers ofMany countries are currently engaged overspecialization since it can impedeIn job analysis. In France, the CEREQ redeployment within the company. is in the process of compiling a 'Re- pertoire frangais des Emplois' (French In the matter of content, it is cus- job directory), based on the 'model tomary to classify skills into three job' approach encompassing a whole main groupings: basic skills, transfer- range of actual job situations. This able skills (between sectors or oc- approach differs from such traditional cupational areas) and skills which concepts as: might be dubbed company-specific. trade (métier), which supposes a The more the training is geared to lasting link between the individual skills specific to occupations or tasks and a particular product or tech- to be performed in pre-determined nique; conditions, the greater its short-term effectiveness and the less the trainee occupation (profession), which car- Is equipped to cope with future tech- ries statutory and social implica- nological change. Conversely, the tions. greater the emphasis on basic training and transferable skills, the greaterIt attempts to go beyond the notion of the degree of choice afforded to the 'job', which tends to be defined in individual in terms of jobs and ability terms of tasks, and describes the rela- to adapt to changes in his working tionship of the individual with the life. company in terms of 'activities' which escape the arbitrariness of task allo- Today there is a definite will to de- cation within the firm.' This work will velop aiternance training as a means radically transform the systrn of job of countering over-narrow specializa- classification to incorporate the im- tion and promoting labour mobility. In pact of technological change, e.g. In Denmark and Germany, for Instance, such sectors as printing. occupations and vocational branches Once there is better knowledge of have been streamlined into seven and the principal activities constituting thirteen broad vocational groups. the model jobs, the latter must then There is a one-year core course fol- be broken down in terms of the lowed by specialist courses in the theoretical and practical skills to be various options. A similar effort is fostered. A CEREQ study on jobs in being made In the engineering sector data processing shows that when in the United Kingdom with a view to companies bring in computer techno- associating forms of training which have hitherto been distinct. ' See CEREO, te Repertoire frangals des emplois*, press briefing, 18 October 1979 and the ten Cahlers on model Jobs by sector Issued 1975-80.

40 39. logy, there is an initial tendency to This effort to identify a hardcore of create new specialized courses; then, transferable skills is crucial to de- as computerization is Introduced veloping new training programmes more widely, the trend shifts to gene- but the problems it poses for thecom- ralization and Vompftlallzation' of pany should in no way be belittled; training, with data processing being these are immense and may be attri- incorporated into existing schemes.' buted to three factors. This is a useful general approach in training policy but one that fails to pinpoint the theoretical and practical skills to be developed. There isno easy solution to this problem. Per- haps the most promising line ofap- proach is that taken by the 'London into Work' programme sponsored by the United Kingdom Department of Education and Science and the Inner a) London Education Authority.2 More than a thousand Jobs for semi-skilled 0 or unskilled young workers have been analysed on the basis of a grid of transferable skills to determine the extent and importance of the latter.' Three criteria are used to decide whether a particular skill merits inclusion in a training programme: how often it occurs in a particular job, how often it is used on the Job and theper- centage of young people interviewed stating that this skill is needed for the NON Job. The prellminry conclusions of the study which has not yet been 0 completed indicate that the skills most frequently cited are reading, oral communication and problem-solving. l 'Recherches sur les competences professionnelles developer dans les enseignements. Les activites gen6r6es par Is developpement des systemes Infor- matiques de gestlon', Mission Pedagogique du CEREQ, Formation-Qualification-Emplol series, December 11;60. s Skill Development and the Curriculum, by C. Town- send and C. Devereux (ror.soed). s This grid takes the form of a very detailed question- naire comprising some 300 Indicators broken down Into seven types of skills: basic calculations,mea- surement drawing, practical skills, listening and talk- ing, reading snd writing, planning, problem-solving. The survey is conducted by interview.

40 41 Firstly, the skillscorresponding to e given Job will varyaccording to work environment. in otherwords a job may require totally differentskills depend.. ing on its context (workorganization within the company,industrial sector, outlets). The mass ofspecial cases is hardly conducive tothe identification of transferable skills. Secondly, how theskills are applied will very muchdepend on the motivation and attitudesof the individuals concerned vis-a-vistheir work. A equipyoung personwho in theory is ped for the job heoccupies, may lack motivation and hencebe deemed `inapt' by his employer.Conversely, a highly motivated youngworker may quickly acquire theskills he lacks. All the too often jobanalysis is limited to cognitive aspects andneglects the problem of motivationand attitudes. Lastly, job content islikely to change radically under thecombined impact of technologicaldevelopment and changes in workorganization, and this will be reflectedin the number and type of transferableskills needed. There is thus anecessity to keep training programmes generally recognized as cumbersome perma- nently under reviewand revise them The problem of definingjobs in terms as needed. of aptitudes to bedeveloped within the training system canbe put In very much the same termsfor both vocational training of thetraditional type and alternancetraining. The interest of the latter, however,is that it does not artificially removetraining from its context as doesthe former. It can also test individuals'motivations in a real situation. Lastly,training can be brought more rapidlyinto line with current needs whenboth trainers and trainees are experiencingtechno- logical and organizationalchange within the company. 41 42 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2Pedagogical guidelines for altemancetraining

It is generally accepted that the value be more than a mere juxtaposition of of altemance training is that itcom- training experiences and is to be mut- bines periods of in-school learning ually reinforcing, a certain number of with in-plant experience. If this is to conditions must be fulfilled.

A Relationship between trainers andtrainees

A major difference between in-school of mutual trust in working towardsa and in-plant training is that, in the common goal should thereby be gene- latter case, the trainees voluntarily rated. Every effort should be madeto accept a certain number of contrac- avoid recreating a classroomatmos- tual obligations. Their relationship phere which the young people feel with their trainers is no longer based they have grown out of and to adopt on the traditional pupil-master rela- teaching methods which accorda tionship. Work experience puts the large place to teamwork andgroup young person on an equal footing discussion. Trainees should be active- with other adults and, in the best of ly involved in the trainingprocess as a cases, allows him to assume respon- means of strengthening their often sibilities within the group. A climate waivering motivation.

B Rehabilitation of in-plant training

True altemance implies giving full working conditions and thepresence weight to the training value of work of industrial tutors in the workplace.A experience. Thls is not to belittle the group of teachers, trainers and voca- benefits afforded by schools and tional counsellors in the United King- training centres in the form of syste- dom, have drawn up a list ofsome matic instruction nor to assume that fifty skills which could be learnt all work situations have training through on-the-job experience:these potential, but rather to restore the include punctuality, perseverence, ob- balance between in-school and serving safety precautions, abilityto on-the-job training. There aremany communicate, etc.' A study is cur- educators who consider that a large number of skills can be acquiredon the job given a certain flexibility in I 'Learning at Work Study', Manpower ServicesCom- mission, Special Programmes Division (roneoed document).

42 rently being made in the framework oference to the factors favouringthe ac- the YOP programme to assess the quisition of skills and the impedi- training potential of the work expe- ments to such acquisition.' rience so acquired, with particular ref- 'Learning at Work Develbpment Project, Progress Report: 11 February 1981' by L Hltgendorf and E. Stem, Tavistock Institute of Human Relations.

C Pedagogical coordination betweenschool and company Many so-called altemance training The Maisons familiales males in schemes view in-plant training merelyFrance are a good example of this ap- as a period during which thetheore- proach. Aimed at young countryfoik, tical knowledge gained at school is altemance training is here based pri- put into practice; this is notably the marily on the 'cahier d'exploltation fa- case for the traditional end-of-studies miliale' (family smallholding record) placement. Though none would deny which is used as a means of stimulat- the worth of such placements in pro- ing awareness of their milieu. viding an insight into the world of work, their value in terms of training is limited inasmuch as they are deemed to come a very poor second to theoretical teaching in the acquisition of skills. A true pedagogy of altemance will strive to upgrade the image of on-the-job learning by using the work situations experienced by young people as a starting point for a critical assessment of experience acquired on the job. The object of theexercise which can only be conducted in a training establishment away from the workplace is to strengthen the young person's grip on his environment and develop his capacity to transfer the skills so attained from one work situation to another. Inother words, once the transferable skills re- ferred to in the first part of this chap- See 'Altemance: its significance for the development of learning' by Chris Hayes In Youth unemployment ter have been assimilated, it should and altemance training In the EEC, conference re- then be ensured that the young Port. Cedefop, Berlin 1981. 2 See Daniel Chattier, 'Nalssance d'une pedagogie de_ people are effectively capable of ap- l'altemance', Mesonance, No 1.1-1978, p. 150 et seq. plying these skills in a variety of work Organisation and Lemorte der BerufsbIldung, by situations.' Antonius Upsmeier, Juventa Verlag, Munich 1978. 44 43 The principles underlying the Maisons familialesmay be summed up as follows: start from the activities of the young person and his milieu; encourage him to observe, ask questions and learn to formulate them; respond to the needs expressed by providing him with the elements ofan answer; help him resolve his present problems so as to better equip him forthe future and assume the role of community leader.2

Despite its interest, the Maisons fami-less real enough and are partly why a liaies experiment underlines the diffi- year of basic vocational training culties inherent in coordinating at the(Grundbildungsjahr) has been intro- teaching level in-school and in-plant duced, which is designed to ensure training in a full-scale system of alter-the system's cohesion and increase nance training. in this respect the ob- the vocational mobility of the young stacles encountered by the dual train-people who have completed the ing system in the Federal Republic of course. Germany give food for thought. This system which has been hailed abroad for its virtues, is criticized at home precisely because of its failure to achieve this coordination.3 it is not the principle of plurality of learning sites (vocational school, training centre and company) which is called into question; on the contrary, the respective contribution of each is analysed and assessed on its merits.3 The problems of coordination are none the 44 45 D Setting training goals and routes Considerable flexibility is called for in level, should then be translated into regard to training goals because of programmes subdivided into distinct the tack of homogeneity of the groupsand capitalizable units (credits), allow- concerned.' ideally, the store of ing two-way traffic between company knowledge of each target group and training establishment, and should be identified at the outset so more importantly a continuous pro- as to gear the training goals to labourgression from one training stage to market requirements. These goals the next. must be as specific as possible so The French credit system which is that training routes can be mapped tocurrently being introduced in prepar- take in the respective contributions ofing adults for the `Certificat d'aptitude school and company. The goals, con- professionelle' illustrates this effort sisting in a number of skills which at enriching teaching. Its main may be graduated by performance features are outlined below.'

' See Chapter 2. 'Le systems (cancels des unites capItallsables', Agence pour le Developpement de l'EducatIon 45 Permanents (ADEP) (roneoed document). 46 ,It'IS goal-oriented Vi`:AThe programme is less concerned bilities. Vocational aptitudes are de- .tT with getting the student to digesta termined by a yardstick specific to given syllabus than training his capa- each vocational area.

,The training route is staked out by credits ,:;.By identifying performancelevels, it isunit so defined, he is awarded the ap- rt possible to define a series of graded propriate certificate. This is valid for credits for each type of skill (ranked in five years, after which time he is order of importance). Each credit is deemed to have lost some of the "distinguished from the previous one theoretical and practical skills so ac- = not-In terms of additional knowledge quired. Within the five-year period,an and know -how but of greater mastery adult, even if he has interrupted his And autonomy in the skills concerned.training, is not required to give further :7. When an adult has attaineda per- evidence of his abilities at that panic- formance-level corresponding. to a War attainment level in his branch.

Negotiated training goals On entering training, an Individual aspirations. If on testing it is found can gain some idea of what the pro- that in some fields the skills he al- ; gramme is designed to achieve and ready possesses qualify him for the how it matches up with his personal final credit, he is awarded the latter.

Continuous assessment of training As the student acquires skills in the, credits. When the final credits have different areas, this is recorded in his been gained, he is automatically en- personal file with supporting evidencetitled to the diploma. and he is awarded the corresponding

In 1979 some 10 000 adults in France workedtowards their CAP in this way. As yet there has been no evaluation of the system andso far it is not planned to extend it to alternance training foryoung people.

46 SA, .crCO 4=b 48 Alternance trainina ccs. Organization of alternance training

0 .Any comprehensive investigation of the organizational problems posed by alternance training must take a three-stage approach: the general institutional characteristics, organization including evaluation and inspection, and lastly the status and protection of ,trainees.

General Institutional characteristics

The institutional context of present efforts to promote altemance training may be epitomized in two key words: consultation and decentralization. ,The presence of both these factors is admittedly no guarantee of success, but if one or other Is lacking or not accorded its proper weight, serious problems are almost certain to ensue.i

A Consultation between the social partners ` ...The development of systems of velopment of linked work and trainingGS linked work and training (is) impos- and the division of responsibility GS sible without the will to maintain and among the social partners. 560 expand cooperation among the social This consultation and cooperation groups involved, as well as between between employers, unions and gov- these groups and the public authors emment Is needed at national, local ties.' This was one of the major con- and plant level. At the national level, it;smII cluslons to emerge from the seminar is the expression of a common politi- i on altemance training for young cal will which is a prerequisite for re- CO people sponsored jointly by the Cede- leasing the fends to develop alter- fop and the Directorate-General for nance training and eneuring its corn- Employment and Social Affairs of the patiblllty 5oth with the education L. EC Commission in June 1960. It mightsystem and the demands of the labour in be added that this cooperation, if it Ismarket. At the local level, coneulta- to serve any useful purpose, must be tion between the social partners le Zw, concretized in a frame-agreement crucial since it Is here, as we shall desgo setting out the main lines for the de- see, that the administrative responel 5 0 51 bilities are the greatest; at this level same time the company should be en- 'the prime issue is to determine who couraged to participate in alternance should be "master' and responsible training schemes for young people in for the training imparted'.' Ministries a wider context. of education should not assume an exclusive role though it would be equally unwise to give employers a totally free hand. Joint bodies should be set up on an ad hoc basis to start up the programmes and supervise their implementation. Lastly, at plant or company level, the dialogue between workers and management should lead to the establishment of a 'training 'La comblnalson d'un emplol et d'une formation: le contrat d'apprentissage et le contrat emplolforrne- plan' for young and unqualified work- Hon', Raymonde VatInet, In Drolt Social No 6, June ers within the works, while at the 1979.

B Decentralization of Initiative and responsibility Given the wide variety of local situa- vision. Lastly, it should serve to chan- tions and the consequent diversity of nel public funds to all the parties inaltemance training programmes, it is volved. Important that administration of the This decentralization of responsibi- training be decentralized to the great- lity calls for appropriate information est degree possible. While it is virtual-circuits between the decision-makers ly impossible to determine In the ab- and those implementing training stract the 'ideal' decision-making policy in the field. A free flow of infor- level, it might be useful to specify mation is vital to avoid the system some of its features. being 'fragmented' Into compartmen- Firstly, this local body should have talized programmes. A good example some responsibility for Information. of such decentralization is seen in the As alternance training schemes gain Netherlands. Here the municipalities ground, the demand for information have played a major role in planning on the part of companies, unions and occupational training programmes by individuals correspondingly Increases setting up a Programmes Commission and this demand must be met in orderwhich consults all the interested par- not to waste time and duplicate effort.ties and takes cognizance of the Secondly, it should be endowed with theoretical and practical skills de- the means to analyse the local labourmanded by each occupational branch. market so as to keep the 'promoters' The Commission then makes recom- of training programmes abreast of de-mendations to the Ministry which velopments. Thirdly, it should have then gives its ruling. Similarly, the powers of recognition and super- United Kingdom Manpower Services 52 51 Commission has set up area boards to promote and supervise training programmes at the local level. These boards on which sit representatives of unions, management, local training and employment authorities, as well as of voluntary organizations, play a major role in decision-making and the allocation of public funds.

Organization of aitemance training schemes

The organization of linked work and training may take a variety of forms depending on local conditions. There are, however, a number of basic features which should underlie all such schemes:

A Unity of responsibility is of particular importance in that twotraining stages are truly complemen- very different worlds the company tary. His title 'training director', and school or training centre are 'leader' or 'programme coordinator' endeavouring to pool their resources is of little importance. What is essen- in working towards a common trainingtiai is that he be capable of Instituting goal. All too often, for want of an effective collaboration between the authority capable of bringing these firm and the training establishment.' two worlds together, aiternance schemes remain a mere juxtaposition of work experience and training in a specialized workplace. Responsibility should therefore devolve on a single individual to ensure that the various See below Chapter 5, Section 2C. 52 53 B The duration and cycling of alternance iisxmorwwwsmst will be planned flexibly in the light of Republic of Germany, the building the capabilities and training needs of industry has adopted an alternance the particular target group. The dura- system varying from year to year, tion of alternance training schemes structured as follows:' has been found to vary from a few weeks to several years depending on what they are desk. led to achieve. In France, for example, there are two types of employment-training contracts, one for six months and aimed at the occupational integration of trainees, the other for at 'east one year and aimed at the acquisition of skills. In theory, the maximum duration of the training cycle under the British YOP programme is one year, but in practice training tends to be for six Year 1: months. In the case of apprentices, 20 weeks in training centre the length of training is three years in 20 weeks in vocational school the Federal Republic of Germany for 12 weeks in a company (Including most trades; in France it was cut fror,holidays) three to two years in 1971 but subsequently increased to three years for some thirty trades. In-plant place- -4 ments whose main purpose is work- orientation, tend to be a great deal Year 2: shorter. 13 weeks in training centre The same variety is found in the 39 weeks in a company and vocatio- cycling of alternance. Decisions must nal school (including holidays) be reached on (i) the length of the sessions which may vary from a week to a year, (II) their frequency (ono week of in-plant training every two or three weeks, or one month per quarter), and (iii) the pattern and place of training; Year 3: in the course of a 3-year period, for 4 weeks in training centre instance, some schemes repeat the 32 weeks in a company and vocatio- same cycle of in-school and in-plant nal school (including holidays) training each year while others vary the pattern; some schemes use the same companies throughout, while other prefer to change.' See 'OrganIzatIon of alternance' by the ADEP In: Youth In France, apprentices spend three unemployment and alternance training in the EEC, weeks in the company for every week conference report, Cedefop, Berlin 1981. in a training centre. In the Federal Industrlegewerkschaft Bau-Stelne-Erden.

54 53 "..7111161 CJI a ce_ rain C How training is tested depends on what teaching techniques Firms in regard to the most appro- are used.' Four aspects are of particu- omi of testing for alternance lar importance: ra ,continuous assessment with per c reports attesting to the suc- ces I completion of each training sta Id appear more suitable tha aditional more formal ex- aminat on; diplomas should be defined in terms of 'capabilities' or 'skills' to be attained in a particular vocatio- See Chapter 3. nal area;

The nition of aitemance trainingBut there is no gainsaying that in a on t ur market is a controver- world where workers are hired on the si and part of a wider debate strength of diplomas, to deny such re- o generally. On the one handcognition to alternance training is im- se who feel that the qua- plicitly to depreciate it. ing is demonstrated by The problems posed by alternance the pe nd professional suc- diplomas and their ranking in the hier- cess of the.reciplents, I. e. its validity archy of certification are strikingly il- is borne out by contact with rer ;ity. lustrated by the apprenticeship re- Others, however, consider that train- forms in France during the seventies. ing should be officially sanctioned in To stem the growing unpopularity of the form of a diploma which.would this type of training it was decided allow the young person to claim his Inter ally to accord it recognition by due and attest to the worth of the awarding the same diploma as that value of the training received. given for full-time training in the voca- Management, needless to say, incline tional training colleges (lycees d'en- to the former view, while the unions seignement professionnel).1 In other and training officials tend to stress words the goal is the same, only the the value of a diploma. This, they be- means for attaining it are different. lieve, situates the degree of skill im- Admittedly this measure cannot re- parted by the training within the over- solve the problem of recognition at all hierarchy of diplomas, especially the stroke of a pen. The high failure those awarded for full-time studies. rate of apprentices in the CAP exams One can well appreciate the anxieties bears out that, in their present form, of management who fear that the these exams still accord greater award of diplomas might impede the weight to the theoretical aspects of flexibility of personnel management. learning than to expertise acquired on 56 55 nt should cover both the A training examinations nd non-cognitive aspects dministered by joint rain While the former pose few boa hich both training authori- probl: it is much more problema- ties anagement are represent- tic est non-cognitive skills, not- Wer her party not to be in- ty for critical analysis d spect of the training ob or the ability to MEW Eoverlooked. transfer skills. Here we are forced to rely on the opinion of the training officer on each of his trainees.

the job, and much remains to be done'training certificate' detailing the if apprentices are to enjoy the same knowledge and skills acquired during opportunities as their comrades in training. This certificate would help in full-time technical training. Neverthe- deciding where the young people less, the reform is along the right should be placed on the wage scale lines inasmuch as linked work and on entering employment and allow training is now sanctioned byd diplo- them to apply, should they so wish, ma which has its place in the hier- for a more advanced course of train- archy of existing diplomas and whose ing. worth is recognized on the labour market.2 Whia apprenticeship with its long tradition would seem to lend itself fairly readily to recognition by diploma, the same cannot be said for other and newer forms of alternance training whose impact is intended to be more area-specific. The problem is compounded by the fact that most of the programmes are too short to allow acquisition of high level skills. Since the prime object of the training is to help young people find their first jobs, it is in the interest of the main parties ' The CAP or Cart Moat d'Aptitude Professionrelle concerned employers, training offi- (certificate of vocational aptitude). cers and worker representatives to 2 Jean Pr lour 'La reforms de I'apprentissage', Actua- Ilte de la Formation Permanente, No 36, Septem- collaborate in devising some kind of berOctober, 1978. 56 57 3inspection and assessment of aitemance training schemes Inspection and supervision of alter- tutional basis and take on a more per- nance training schemes is crucial in manent character, such inspection ensuring minimum standards and ob- will clearly be needed. Meanwhile, a servance of the contractual obliga- minimum first step might be, for tions incumbent on each party. In the example, to systematically record and vast majority of cases, in-company detail all the practical and educatio- training is on-the-job and there is a nal experience of young people who temptation to limit it to merely fami- have undergone such training. Though liarizing the trainee with a particular only a beginning, it is a key move in machine or production process. Simi- view of the wide variety of courses al- larly, in-school training could simply ready existing or in the pipeline. onsist in repetitive courses ill-adap- In a decentralized altemance train- ted to the individual's training needs ing system aimed at meeting the and having little relevance for his in- needs of the young, assessment must plant training. A sine qua non for pro-become a pivotal function serving the gress in this area is the establishmentinterests of the system as a whole. It of a qualified corps of inspectors whoshould be possible at any moment to would supervise training conditions state whether or not a given program- and ensure proper coordination be- me is likely to achieve its goals. Rea- tween in-school and in-plant training. sons for success or failure should be One of the corps' tasks would be to looked into and borne in mind when see that due account is taken of the reformulating programmes or launch- information gathered by the joint su- ing new ones. pervisory boards and by the authori- Some separation of powers in this ties responsible for assessing the pro-area is sound practice: theindividuals grammes. managing or implementing program- Except in the case of apprentice- mes should not be responsiblefor ship, few linked work and training their assessment. Given the import- schemes are subject to any kind of ance of feedback in the system, the real inspection. Inspection corps do function of assessment should carry exist in some countries but their re- some authority so that it is taken ser- sponsibilities would seem to be con- iously by all the parties concerned. fined to matters of finance. The The foregoing considerations would number of inspectors is as a rule too suggest that this task be entrusted to small for them to fulfil their role of a specialized central governmentunit `quality control'. Some schemes are with powers to investigate individual as yet in their infancy and still exper- training programmes. The work of iencing teething troubles. They are these 'external' investigators would having to cope with a whole array of be greatly facilitated were there to be organizational problems and are a self-assessment unit attached tothe hardly ideal candidates for inspection,programme itself. Especially in regard especially since no guidelines yet to data gathering such units can be of exist in this area. In the longer term, invaluable service in formulating a as the schemes acquire a firmerinsti-diagnosis.

58 Several European countries have al-above all by converting the pro- ready undertaken major assessments gramme into a permanent alternance of a number of altemance training training structure for all 16 to 18-year schemes. The UVPP pilot scheme, forolds wishing to benefit from instance in the United Kingdom has been the subject of detailed evaluation by the National Foundation for Educational Research.' The French employment-training contracts have also been scrutinized in a recent Ministry of Labour study.2 The current discussions regarding the extension of the British YOP programme bear witness to the interest and difficulty of using assessment findings in formulating an alternance strategy. Faced with the programme's loss of credibility In view of the steadily declining placement rate on completion of training, the government is now forced to choose between closing it down or revising it radically. The decision by Parliament in November 1980 to double the size of the YOP programme' was taken against a background of intense lob- bying to improve its quality` by increasing the length of training for all from six months to a year, by expand- ing the training components and

Unified Vocational Preparation: an Evaluation of the Pilot Scheme, Monika Jamieson Wray, Christine Moor, Sheeiagh Hill, NFER Publishing Company, 1980. 2 'Les pactes nationaux pour l'emplol des jeunes' by F. Pate, G. Bez, P. Koepp and M. Tardieu, In Travail et Emplol, No 8, October 1980. 3 The total number of entrants Is due to rise from 218000 In 1979180 to 440 000 In 1981182. 4 'Quality or Collapse, Report of Youthaid, Review of the Youth Opportunities Programme. 5 At present, one trainee In three spends his entire time in the scheme In a company and receives no training whatsoever. Youthald now proposes to limit Implant experience to three months, the other nine months being spent in training. 58 59 4Status and protection of hahnes

From the standpoint of the trainee, or-Variation in the rate of grants and ganization of altemance training pre- aids in the EC (9) sents three major problems, namely The diagram indicates the highest his legal status, remuneration, and and lowest level of assistance job prospects on completion of training. The legal status of young people in Secondary-school pupils altemance training schemes varies Maximum grants and aids for pupils widely in view of the diversity of their at upper secondary level and as a per- backgrounds and the courses that arecentage of the average industrial offered. Some altemance training wage in 1979/80 schemes e. g. apprenticeship often take on their trainees fresh from school, while other schemes are primarily intended for young workers who have never received an adequate vocational training. Clearly, the contractual obligations differ in the two University students cases. The status of the first group isMaximum grants and aids for stu- similar to that of students a high dents not living at home, as a percen- proportion of training time outside thetage of the average industrial wage in workplace and low wages while 1979/80 that of the second is more akin to that of a full-time worker, with slight differences in working hours and wages to compensate for time spent in off-plant training. Where altvnance training is designed primarily to cater for the young jobless, work experience and Unemployed school-leavers off-the-job training can be combined Promotion aids for 16 to 17-year-olds with some flexibility, though it should as a percentage of the average in- be ensured that the remuneration of dustrial wage 1979/80 trainees be at least on a par with unemployment benefit. Between the two extremes of full- time student and full-time worker, there are any number of possible com- binations of work and training. Appren- ticeship, in the countries where this system is practised, is a case in point. Depending on the rights and duties Apprentices which it entails in regard to number ofInitial and final remunerations as a hours of work and training, social se- percentage of wage for an adult curity, leave, wages etc. which vary

60 59 BEST COPY AVAILARt F s F. 4

Source Youth unemployment and vocational training. The material indacial standing ofyoung people during transition from school to work. Conference report. CEDEFOP 1981. 61

BEST COPY AVAILABLE from country to country and year to proposed based on how trainees' time year, it may be situated anywhere in at work is allocated:1 the spectrum between worker and student. (a) time spent in productive labour; To clarify matters, a distinction (b) time spent in specific in-plant should be drawn between alternance training; training schemes designed with voca-(c) time spent in training related to the tional integration in mind and those particular firm's sector or branch; aimed at the acquisition of qualifica- (d) time spent in general education. tions. In the first case, a work contract taking into account the training Wage levels can also be based on the aspect would suffice, while in the value of the work done by the train- second, an ad hoc training contract ees, though this is hard to establish. would have to be worked out. The con- In the Federal Republic of Germany, tent of these contracts would have to wages of apprentices are some be negotiated between the social part-20-30% of those of a skilled worker ners and the result embodied in col- in the first year, rising to 40-50% in lective agreements. the last year of training. There are The extent to which government is wide variations in earnings, however, involved in these negotiations will between the different occupational depend on the traditions of the coun- sectors. In France, young apprentices try concerned. In France the govern- receive a wage amounting Jo 15% of ment plays a very important role whilethe national minimum wage during in the Federal Republic of Germany their first six months of training, while government participation is minimal. young people on traineeships receive The diversity of work and training sit- 25% of this minimum wage. uations in which young people find Clearly, a balance must be struck themselves would seem to indicate between what firms are prepared to that government intervention may be pay and what is needed to encourage essential in imposing minimum condi-young people to embark on training. tions in respect to length of training But given the employment problems and wages. This would, moreover, do they are facing, the free interplay of much to upgrade the image of alter- supply and demand is likely to oper- nance training in the eyes of the gen- ate to their disadvantage and result eral public and of young people in par- in abuses; hence the need for govern- ticular. By taking systematic mea- ment intervention either in setting sures to shield trainees from poor minimum wage levels or in subsidiz- working conditions, control the qual- ing part of the cost of trainees' ity of the training and ensure decent wages.2 wages during training, governments could do much to attract the mass of unskilled young people into alternance training. 'Social and material standing of young people during There would appear to be no gene- transition from school to working life', Cedefop Se- minar, Berlin, 11 and 12 November 1980. ral policy in regard to wages. In 2 See Chapter 7: 'Costs and financing of elternance setting wage levels, criteria have been training'. 62 61 :f.: Except in the case of schemes for this would provide them with a pretext onskilled workers such as the to restrict the scope of training to s 't/hIfie#Vocational Preparationthose skills which are immediately AtirgiroKhe,Aritinees haveno guaran- useful to them and make them extre- ttelp*Ottient on completion of mely reluctant to take part in alter- ledoorsirAithiittedly, placement is nance training programmes. But, were kriOntObjettNe of many alter- they to be allowed simply to 'dump' r; .erie'iril.hiqg,Oemes, some of trainees on completion of their 4100I'ArfgallY*Taiint to a selection course, this would equally lead to iiiiesslit-th4#0:90rovide thecom- abuses and spawn a mass of tem- fan.Xie.ititiOppo,:duhity to get to porary underpaid jobs. how,uttraineeeMict:put their If it is impossible to guarantee jobs yeakvoilitSLand see how for all trainees, it has been suggested .,?=th; reeti..6ntibility. In manythat priority be accorded to those who .4..'",==.1ristandektreirieetutire hiredas much have successfully completed their ee-10tilliiietrehatOtittie Mutual confi- training cycle. Trainees should also be VdericeAtilaWritirInglielhing as on offered an opportunity to return to vAtheir full-time training. We need in a sense ohwise to to 'follow-up' trainees and so help to kiito firms to lakebn all theyoung improve their chances of integration PeOPligherhave helpedto train sinceinto working life.

62 63

Alternance traininand thecam an Alternance training and the company

RN Experience of working in a company and its corollary, on-the-job training, constitute an essential ingredient of alternance training. Without the active participation of industry, the alternance principle is no more than a pious hope devoid of any real significance. It is thus imperative to convince companies of the need to participate in the training effort and to do so effectively.

Participation of companies in training 1

Without company participation, alter- plying the skills he is in the process of nance training cannot exist. Once thisacquiring. The smaller firms have, principle is recognized, the difficultieshowever, the possibility of pooling posed in applying it must be squarely their efforts and setting up inter-com- faced. Whatever their wishes in the pany training centres equipped with matter, not all companies are in a all the requisite facilities. position to participate appropriately. The next step is to encourage com- Many are too small or can only pro- panies with the means to participate vide Jobs which are too arduous or in the training effort to do so. Press, hazardous for young inexperienced TV and radio campaigns to sensitize adults. The pattern of work organiza- firms to the issue and encourage tion may also involve a high degree of them to play their part in tackling specialization and may hence not lend youth unemployment have been suc- itself to training. cessfully waged in a number of Euro- The first step is thus to identify the pean countries, notably France. Ex- companies and jobs which are suited perience has shown that the more to the training effort. The factors to becampaigns are geared to local labour taken into consideration here include needs and to a specific geographic size of firm, type of product, produc- area, the greater the Impact on em- tion techniques and working condi- ployers. By and large, once compa- tions. In training young people for the nies have been made aware of the craft trades, it is probably the small problem, they tend to give their whole- firm where the young person is ap- hearted support to the training effort. prenticed that can provide the best Many of the major companies have environment for the acquisition of the always taken their responsibilities necessary skills. The same does not seriously in the matter both in regard hold true fcr the industrial trades to their own workforce and to new- where generally only the medium and comers; they have no need to be large companies can provide suffi- prompted by information campaigns. ciently varied work situations to give This background of tradition has un- the young trainee broad experience of doubtedly been a positive force for the conditions in which he will be ap- the dual training system in the Fed- 66 67

dtS1 COPY AVAILABLE eras Republic of Germany. In France, that it convinces only those who are however, the fact that almost two- already half won over, since em- thirds of trainees awarded employ- ployers seldom base their decision to ment-training contracts in the first participate in an altemance training quarter of 1979 went to firms em- programme on highly sophisticated ploying less than 50 workers' would costlbenefit analyses. It is more an seem to indicate a certain reticence act of faith, often strongly influenced on the part of larger firms vis-a-vis theby immediate socio-political conside- scheme. rations and traditional practice. in trying to 'sell' alternance training This latter argument is sometimes to firms, two types of argument are Invoked to support the claim that ai- habitually invoked.2 The first consists ternance training is used by firms as a in stressing the social character of means of acquiring an underpaid the effort demanded: youth unemploy-workforce engaged in repetitive and ment Is an acute problem which mustunskilled tasks. Carried to extremes be tackled on all fronts; firms have in by some authors, it takes on Marxist a sense a moral obligation which theyconnotations: in their view the social cannot sidestep. This argument is ali function of apprenticeship is tc keep the more likely to be heeded if the out- the bosses of small firms from going look for the firm is promising and it isunder by handing them a young and keen to put over a good image to the exploitable woter 'on a plate'. While public. recognizing that abuses do occur, The second argument, which is es- B. Girod de l'Ain contests this view:' sentially economic, consists in point- if employers so obviously benefit from ing out the potential benefits of alter having apprentices, how is it that they nance training for the employer: with are so reluctant to take them on? In training, the young people acquire France only one craft firm in six em- motivation, identify more closely with ployed apprentices in 1980 and the the company's goals and are more authorities would seem to be having ready to work as part of a team and the greatest difficulty increasing num- accept orders; in the last analysis it isbers. the company that stands to gain. As Should these arguments fail to one director of a craft firm so aptly prompt a sufficient number of compa- put it: 'It is at the end of the appren- nies to take part, the government ticeship that we pick up the chips'.' could always have recourse to finan- Though this argument can be most cial incentives to lessen the burden persuasive, experience has shown on employers. It is then the taxpayer who is forced to foot the bill. Without wishing to encroach on what is more properly dealt with in Chapter 7, we ' See Table A.6., p. 51, In 'Les pactes nationaux pour would merely point out here that, de- l'emplol des Jeunes' by F. Pate, G. Bez, P. Koepp and M. Tardleu, In Travail et Emplol, No 6, October 1980. pending on the size of firms, govern- Unified Vocational Preparation, op. at pp. 48-70. ment aid will have a very different im- ' Cited by111.Glrod de l'Aln In VapprentIssage en milieu artisanal. Trots metiers: boucherle, mocani- pact. In the case of small companies que-auto, menuiserie', report by the Centre de Re- cherche sur les Systemes Univeraltalres de l'Uni- versIte Paris IXDauphine for the Secretariat d'Etat a la Formation Profeeslonnelle, December 1980. See L'apprentlsaage en milieu artisanal... op. cit. 68 6 7 it may actually determine participation though this is of course hard 4o,proye. In the case of large ones, ;.government grants generally a fraction of labour costs tend to be viewed merely as tokens of goodwill and seldom tip the odds for or against participation.

The form in which government Is asked of firms goes beyond simple money is made available is as impor- financial participation. They are being tant as the amount. The less the red asked to contribute in a complex edu- tape, the more readily the aid will be cative process a contribution that accepted by the smaller firms which can take many forms as we shall see already feel that they are overburden- later in collaboration with the edu- ed with paperwork. This accounts for cation system. Applying pressure is the success of the measures under not necessarily the best way of going the French employment-training con- about it and the private sector could tract scheme giving small employers always turn round and insist that the direct relief from social securitycon- public sector show the way. Indeed, tributions. public enterprises, which aremore If companies cannot be persuaded sheltered from competition and bud- to participate in the training effort, getary constraints, often have vast governments can always bring in training potential and should playan legislation to force their hand. This is active role in alternance training. of course not the best way forgovern- In many alternance training pro- ments to achieve their ends for what grammes, companies are asked to 468 69 The company as a place of training 2a : of How can companies become places Many major concerns in the publioiog of training and Instruction when their and private,sectors have their ovevw;ip;:, prime purpose is to produce goods tralaing,-ceetreapiriese are genandboti.4' and services? Here lies the crux of theused do tivinithixnianpower they problem. There are a variety of wept- and &mance between in which they can participate In the lance and in-centre training is come,.. training effort and it Is Important thatmon practice. It would be inteirosUi this misty be fostered as a way of titto explore the possibility of usIng4 couraging participation: these facilities to extend Mornings, tgeneral instruction for trainees wrikiifil will not necessarily remain with the company on completion of their cow* .

cooperate by providing time of f for tively involved in the training pro- educational activities which would grammes even at the planning stage. otherwise be spent in production. ThisTheir participation in the form of intel- is particularly the case for the train- lectual input is essential if trainees ees, who must devote a part of their are to derive maximum benefit from time to off-the-job training, theirmen- their placement. After themany years tors, who must themselves be told when industry's training potentialwas what is expected of them, and the al- largely disregarded, it would bea mis- ternance training officers, especially take to lean over too far in the other when they are on the company pay- direction and assume that any in- roll. A good deal of time is involved. plant training, however poorlyprepar- Releasing a few individuals from theired, is of value. There is a wide gulf immediate duties poses fewer prob- here between expectation and reality. lems for the larger firms, where re- Urged to 'do something' for theyoung, placement is a relatively easy matter, governments could take the easy than for the smaller ones. option and simply hand the whole If the principle of alternance is to gainmatter over to industry without insist- wider acceptance, firms must beac- ing on adequate preparation. Follow- 70 199 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Other smilietbenPanko which diiriijillie'Hiair-feeNttle* . f not possess the means to act which, with a few minor and relativelytQ could, by pooling their resource', inexpensive changes In work-organi- establishioint training centres, zation and staff policy, could beused headed bi a qualified &Romance equally well for the purposes of edu- training officer. Such centres, orgowg cation as for production. Without nized on a sectoitl. . E useful fit un.dulit theproduction pro7,0 a ...ocer could as

ing the same line of thought, evalua- There are thus many ways in which tion of alternance training implies companies can participate in the ai- that companies accept the idea of ternance training effort, none of outside inspection and control. which are mutually exclusive. The form this participation may take and the quality of the contribution will depend on the company's training practice and traditions. In the best ofU cases the company will have a solid record in this area; in others, it may be necessary to instil a new sense of purpose or even start from scratch, and this cannot be done overnight.

7u 71

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 72 71 6 72 73 ATeachers and trainers

73 The key feature of alternanceis, as we have seen, that itcom- bines in-plant experience andin-school training in a mutually reinforcing manner. Plainly, instructiongiven in such disparate en- vironments as companies and trainingestablishments cannot be satisfactorily coordinated in the longterm without close collaboration between those responsibleon both sides. Some would even affirm that success or failure of alternancetraining hinges on the quality of the in-plant trainers and ofthe school teaching staff and on the .willingness ofall to work towards acommon pedagogical goal. Innovation, alas. remains sadlywanting. In most EEC countries, the vast majority of teachers andtrainers live in two worlds whose customs and traditions are so far apartthat communication, let alone cooperation, is well- nighimpossible. There are signs, however, that things are changing. One of the positiveeffects of the British Unified Vocational PreparationProgramme has precisely been that it has promoted lastingcooperation between teachers and trainers and has helped tobring the two camps closer together in a commonconcern to further youth training. Alternance training demands sucha 'rapprochement' but also serves to facilitate it; the possible confusion of endsand means is of little import, providing change is along the rightlines.

ITeachers and trainers: the situationtoday mask

No altemance training schemecan some differencos between teachers function without in-plant trainerson and company-based trainers inre- the one hand and conventional teach- spect to numbers, functions, recruit- ers on the other. Indeed, it is an impe-ment and pedagogical background.' rative that these two corps which have traditionally been poles apart, work together in pursuit ofa common goal. This is no mean task. The posi- See 'In -firm training In the Federal Republic of Ger- tion in the Federal Republic of Ger- many tasks, training, continuing training', Report of the Bundesinstitut fOr Berufsblidungsforschung, many where the dual system is far by H. Tlich (rapporteur), and 'Training of Vocational more developed than elsewhere in school teachers In Member States of the European Community', by A. Lipsinsier, In: Vocational Training, Europe may be used to illustrate No 41979, CA4dop, Berlin. 74 75

BEST COPY AVAILABLE In Germany, there are some 72 000 themselves hold a vocational training teachers employed in vocational diploma and have 'practical exper- establishments and around 500 000 ience'. In-plant trainers tend thus to company-based trainers for 1.4 millionbe a relatively mixed bunch and young people in training. The former anyone can enter the ranks providing are generally on the full-time payroll that he has a bent for it and has sever- of the Linder, whereas the latter are al years' experience in the company employed by the individual companiesas a skilled worker. (90% occupying other functions in ad- Naturally, the larger the company dition to training). The total number ofand the longer its history of vocatio- trainers is known only approximately nal training, the better in-company and the number of hours spent on training will be organized; there will training is open to conjecture. It is usually be a training officer, often a hence impossible to gauge the total senior engineer or executive, and full- company training effort. time trainers who coordinate and su- In contrast, teachers' functions are pervise on-the-job training. This type strictly determined. They must provideof structure, however, is rarely found theoretical instruction of practical outside firms employing a workforce relevance for a particular occupation. of around 500 and over. This instruction takes the form of a As regards teacher training, voca- certain number of hours of teaching intional school teachers today receive a a range of subjects, the overall pro- thorough university grounding in the gramme being established and super- educational and social sciences, vised by the Ministry of Culture of while their practical teaching skills each Land. The same situation does are developed through periods of not apply for company trainers whose teaching practice of up to two years. status and functions are not explicitlyIn the case of in-plant trainers, the mi- specified in the 1969 Act on vocatio- nimum training can be as little as 120 nal training. It is the companies them-hours though 200 hours are prefer- selves that decide which staff mem- red and content and methods are bers will be given training responsibi- determined on the basis of guidelines lity and the latter then have a relative-set by the Federal institute for voca- ly free hand in organizing in-plant tional training. On completion of the training. training, candidates may sit an exam Recruitment of vocational school set by the chambers of commerce and teaching staff is determined by pre- industry though many trainees (some cise criteria relating to length of train-40% according to the Institute) are ing, level of qualification and teaching deemed qualified on the strength of ability. In the early sixties, responsibi-their training alone. lity :or training these teachers was These differences between teach- shifted to university-type establish- ers and trainers are not peculiar to the ments and this resulted in a lowering Federal Republic of Germany. In the of minimum standards for practical United Kingdom, the status, functions skills. In-plant trainers tend to be re- and qualifications of inplant trainers, cruited much more haphazardly, the or 'tutors', differ markedly from those only criterion being a 'minimum quali-of the staff in colleges of further edu- fication threshold', i.e. that they cation who teach the theoretical 76 75 aspects of the training. In France, the This analysis of the situation, Centres de Formation d'Apprentis though not new, nevertheless consti- (CFA apprentice training centres) tutes a formidable obstacle to the de- comprise both full-time teachers who velopment of true alternance training. are similarly qualified to those teach- As A. Lipsmeier has rightly noted `the ing in lycees d'enseignement profes- allocation of training tasks which sionnel (LEP vocational lycees) and necessarily accompanies this hierar- lormateurs d'apprentis', who are skill-chization.... could well destroy the ed workers in their field and whoare unity of theory and practice' which employed by companies or the cham- should characterize alternance train- bers of commerce and industry. Exam-ing.' Moreover, the subordination of ples are legion. practice to theory could impede cross- The dichotomy between teachers fertilization between school and com- and trainers is generally accompaniedpany which alone can give full weight by a distinction in social standing, to the diversity of the real world while with the teachers, whose status and at the same time regarding it with a functions are better defined and critical eye. whose training is grounded in higher qualifications, at the top of the scale, and the trainers particularly those on-the-job on a lower rung. By and large, the system accords greaterre- cognition to the teachers' theoretical' skills than to the `practical' skills of the trainers. The situation is likely to be exacerbated in the medium-term inasmuch as teacher training involves relatively long studies I. e. at university level and this can only serve to downgrade the trainers' practical skills and could well in the long run lead to the disappearance of theprac- 'Training of vocational school teachers in Member States of the EC', by Antonius Lipsmeier, In: Vocatio- tical side of training. nal training, No 4/79, Cedefop, Berlin.

76 77 2Teachers and trainers: resolving the dichotomy If the principle of alternance is to be implemented, teachers and trainers must work together despite all that separates them. Three possible lines of approacn could be taken.

A Producing the ideal 'teacher-cum-trainer' im=, This would imply educating individ- assuming both functions. To deny uals to be both teachers and practitio-these differences could lead to situa- ners with sufficient academic knowl- tions where neither function is per- edge to teach the theoretical disci- formed satisfactorily. It should also plines and enough practical know- be remembered that one of the peda- how to be good on-the-job trainers. gogical features of alternance is that The unity of the alternance training the young person is exposed to differ- would be ensured by combining ent ways of apprehending the world of theory and practice in the person of work. Here the different approaches one polyvalent teacher-cum trainer. of the teacher and trainer can play a Though tempting at first sight, this so-i ositive role and this is aform of di- lution does not lend itself to universalversity which should be fostered application. Despite what has been rather than discouraged. said, the jobs of teacher and trainer involve such very different skills that it is ur ,Jsual to find people capable of

B Developing a common language for teachers andtrainers

In essence this means on the one vide more than a superficial insight. hand that teachers must be sensitizedRequiring teachers to hold a vocatio- to the practical realities of a particu- nal training diploma in addition to lar occupation and on the other that their general university training is in-plant trainers must be given ade- another way of sensitizing them to the quate teacher training. Much work practical demands of a trade. has been accomplished along these Conversely, teacher training for in- lines in all the EC countries and the plant instructors is beginning to be in- effort is being pursued. Work exper- troduced in the more advanced sys- ience e. g. in the form of company tems such as the dual system operat- placements is beginning to be ing in the Federal Republic of required of teachers, though it is Germany.This grounding, however, seldom of sufficient duration to pro- where it exists, tends to be somewhat 78 77 patchy. In France, for instance, training contracts or the British Unified Vo- ers employed in firms or in apprenticecational Preparation Programme training centres receive only a ske- (UVPP) can claim teacher training for tchy introduction to pedagogical tech-in-company trainers as one of their niques. None of the alternance train- strong points, though the importance ing schemes launched in recent yearsof their functions is stressed in ti such as the French employment-train- UVPP which specifies that:

Timin Industrial tutors should be:

'a caring adult or in-company mentor;

a primary link or "bridge" between on-and-off-the-job elements of UVP;

a resource for advice and information, particularly with regard to in-firm project work;

a person responsible for overseeing job or task rotation and job-training....; and

someone on whom young people could model themselvesas they learn to cope with responsibilities and relationshipsat work'.' ,Unified Vocational Preparation, op. cit. p. 110

As regards the skills needed to make should also be aware of the difficul- a good in-plant trainer, UVPP exper- ties and learning needs of their char- ience in the United Kingdom high- ges, as well as being capable of com- lights the importance of personal municating with them and instilling motivation. Trainers should not only motivation. However valuable these be experienced and have thorough skills are, they cannot replace proper knowledge of their company, but teacher training nor can they suffice 78 79 to develop what is so sorely needed be stressed. Dialogue and coopera- a common language forteachers tion are inherently time-consuming and trainers. The UVPP evaluators are and trainers who must divide their the first to admit that there is little working life between their normal contact between the two camps: this duties and their training functions is partly because of the hazy nature ofhave precious little time to spare the function of industrial tutor, whosewhile employers are reluctant for importance is still not fully appreciat- them to spend yet more time away ed within the company hierarchy, par- from their productive tasks. This, ticularly by those immediately senior though, is a small price to pay if co- to the trainee, and partly because of operation between trainers and teach- lack of time. This latter point should ers is to be more than a pioushope.

C Towards a tripartite responsibility for the training process

UVPP experience has shown that the zing the training programmes which difficulty of direct dialogue between were described in Chapter 4, Section teachers and trainers can in large 2.A. measure be overcome by the presence What sort of person does this job of a third party the training directordemand? Experience would go to or officer to whom it in practice de-show that he could equally well have volves to instigate and initiate this a teaching or industrial background dialogue. This task is a logical corol- depending on where the initiative for lary to his responsibilities in organi- the programme lies. He could also 80 79 come from adult education, the Cham- bers of Commerce and Industry, a local authority or a non-profit making organization. In the United Kingdom, for example, where there is a lively and well-organized tradition of voluntary service, the non-profit making organizations have played and continue to play a valuable role in implementing altemance training schemes, inasmuch as they provide an informal institutional framework for recruiting trainers and training officers. Thanks to their knowledge of local conditions, their contacts with youth and their operational flexibility, they have become valuable mediators in deal- ings with government bodies, in particular the Manpower Services Commis- sion, and have made an it contribution to formulating a national altemance strategy.' As things stand, the fact that training officers come from such very different backgrounds is probablyan ad- vantage since it prevents alternance from becoming the apanage of industry or a prisoner of the school system. Vetting committees, on which all parties would be represented, could be set up to ensure the suitability ofap- pointees. Once alternance training be- comes more widespread, the functions of training officers will gain In clarity and it will then be time to lay down certain rules and standards in this area, though the merits of selection based on locally recognized worth must never be sacrificed to the dictates of a central authority.

Work and the Community. A report on the Manpower Services Commission's Programmes for the Unem- ployed by Richard Grover and associates, National Council for Voluntary Organizations, Bedford Square Press, NVCO, 1980. 30 81 CM CO Costs and financing Costs and financing of alternance training

83 By and large, the economic situation in the EEC countries can hardly be said to be auspicious for the large-scale development of alternance training. Cutbacks in public expenditure and the need for firms to keep down costs in order to remain competitive do not incline to optimism. The development of alternance training :s thus likely to be severely hampered by budgetary constraints af- fecting participation of both the public and private sectors. This is liable to weigh heavy in the decision-making process. Notwith- standing, the widely expressed political will to `do something' for the young should not be underestimated and may be sufficiently strong to weather the prevailing conditions which are scarcely conducive to radical reforms.

Expenditure cn aitemance training: general trends

There has been no systematic collec- training tasks are primarily engaged tion of statistical data on aitemance in production and their training activi- training expenditure in the EEC coun- ties cannot be disassociated from tries. Efforts in this area by th3 their production function. In theory, Edding Commission in the Federal Re-the cost of training is equal to the public of Germany and more recently output lost through the training, but in by the Secretariat d'Etat it la Forma- practice few firms bother to make this tion Professionnelle in France have kind of calculation. been confined to determining total expenditure on vocational training' and provide no indication of expenditure on aitemance training as such.2 Of the alternance training programmes launched in the last three or four years, few have been able to furnish a detailed breakdown of the financial In 1978, total expend`ture on vocational training In expenditure incurred. France was 15.5 thousand million trance, of which The reasons for this state of affairs 56% was borne by the private sector .nd 44% by the State. The corresponding figure for Germany was 40 are well known. In the case of in-plant thousand million French francs, of which 46% was training, the trainees use facilities borne by the Federal Government and the Under, and the remainder by private industry. intended essentially for production 2 The Federal Republic of Germany Is an exception and in practice it is difficult to distin- here since the bulk of vocational training is in fact &Romance training; in this country 90% of young guish between the two functions. Sim- echool4eevers with nine or ten years' schooling ilarly, company staff entrusted with embark on some form of vocational training. 84 85

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Moreover, the cost of the lost to identify is trainees' wages. In output varies according to how the France,' the United Kingdom2 and company's productive capacity is Germany,' these represent 40-50% used. It is the greatest when capacity of total expenditure on vocational is fully utilized since in this case train-training. There is no reason to believe ing effectively results in a loss in out-that these percentages are materially put; but the cost may be virtually zerodifferent for alternance training. Ad- where there is spare capacity in termsmittedly, to the extent that the latter of both men and machines, since turn-primarily concerns young people, it ing them over to training has no could be argued that this is an item impact on output. From this angle, thewhere radical cuts could be effected. present situation, which is charac- If, on the other hand, the aim is to terized by under-utilization of installedsteer young people into alternance capacity because of a slackening in training, a good image must be put demand, lends itself ideally to a great-over to the public. Any drop in trainer effort by industry to train young- ees' wage levels is liable to tarnish sters on the job. this image. Moreover, as earnings are A similar problem arises in asses- generally tied to the minimum wage, sing the cost of off-the-job training they have to be adjusted for inflation when the training is provided in a or even increased in real terms if there centre or institution primarily given is a policy of narrowing the wage gap. over to other activities. This is fre- The proportion of training expenditure quently the case since alternance allocated to trainees' wages is thus training programmes often draw on unlikely to shrink in the years to the equipment and staff of full-time come. training establishments. The British As regards expenditure on training UVP programme is a case in point and administrative staff, alternance with off-the-job training provided in a training schemes are liable to cost very comprehensive network of tech- more than conventional vocational nical colleges. In France, alternance training in view of the more complex training schemes make considerable institutional organization entailed. use of the qualified staff and premi- Some savings might perhaps be made ses of full-time teaching establish- inasmuch as the participation of the ments. Over 4 300 secondary schools and colleges are grouped into a network of 400 GRETAs (Groupes d'eta- France: 40% in 1978, according to 'Les resultats de blissements pour la formation con- la participation des empioyeurs au financement de tinue groups of lifelong training la formation professionnelle continue' in Actual Ibis de la Formation Pamenente, Centre INFFO No 42, establishments) with a view to pooling SeptemberOctober 1979. their resources for training. It is no United Kingdom: Trainees' wages represent at least 40% of total training expenditure according to easy matter to separate out the outlay M. Woodhall In 'Resources for Vocational Education incurred by alternance in the institu- and Training and its Financing' SMFJET(78.15, OECD June 1978. tions' general budgets and how this is 2 Federal Republic of Germany: The Edding Commis- done is necessarily somewhat arbi- sion has calculated that trainees' wages accounted trary. for some 48% of total training expenditure In 1971-72. See 'Vocational Education and Training: For alternance as for conventional National Report of Germany', SMEJET127.34101 p. 18, vocational training, the, easiest item OECD, 1977. 86 85 Industrial tutors and teachers in alternance training is not their prime activity and the corresponding costcan hence be borne by the company or training centre. On the other hand it will be necessary to recruit additional staff whose full-time presence Iscru- cial in ensuring the programme'ssuc- cess and cohesion,' namely alternance training organizers and directors, inspectors and regional coordinators. These considerations underlie the arbitrary nature of much of the statistical data on aitemance trainingex- penditure. Apart from trainees' wages, which are easily identifiable, and the salaries of the full-time administrative staff, the other elements must ultimately depend on the accountingpro- cedures adopted. While the visible costs of altemance training may on occasion seem low, this can in many cases be ascribed to the hidden contribution in the form of staff and equipment which does not appear on the books. Some experts have pointed out that the net costs of altemance training are considerably less than the gross costs, the difference being accounted for by the savings accruing to the authorities in the form ofunem- ployment benefits and increased tax revenues. Calculations made in the United Kingdom have shown that the net cost of the YOP programme, once it has been expanded to 450 000 trainees in 1981-82, will be around two- thirds of its gross cost (UKL 315 million as against UKL 470 million).

In the British YOP programme the traInee/tralner ratio Is 71. 86 87 2Cost-sharing The cost of alternance training is borne by governments, employers and trainees in varying proportions depending on a number of factors: type of training, target-group characteristics, economic climate etc. It is thus not possible to lay down rules applicable ,*:.t31 tit to all alternance training schemes. :er bilk; aio. Some general guidelines can, how- -.4t; stittekotl ertottireblenty3 zsek, ever, be formulated: e.;shi alit Yo rtourt to outran T10114., 90::$311161t8 110 Snitrik, tp *04 piklivelsisioVelzedibdIwp Wei* dustshormserallaisMisatioto Nagr ettt no bnaciab ytatich- sictiaiv sill &kW .oargobis VP** off-thejob training in a basic training, no ism griirriettlonsmetta to a year, dse/ or block release should ber /nun qt nlo Ai% roafti!-rtikli paid for out,of taxation by public -Monobtgetafti. aulbsdfle .bnatiala to whit) ri -so :iii 4010W 1.1A0 10,wiew *MP'

b+.3 Oat Ytt 1- ,v: rl Etigh ..% A- to; tyla li` , krr 3(:^Ataib*fa". trainer renwnerationAlusc training shOttidfiNkifidtilif ipb player at-Slk40.410111,111111 aft for thikassigro el -iffrok

'A note on financial and organizational aspects' by i(eith Drake in Youth unemployment and alternance training in the EEC, conference report, Cedefop, Berlin, 1981 Si 88

BEST COPY AVAILABLE In the present economic context, Inspire governments to step up their there are likely to be a large number contributions. of exceptions to these guidelines and As regards industry's participation we shall be examining some of the In the financing of alternance training, main ones here. As regards the role ofthe scanty data available tend to government in financing alternance show that companies are often pre- training, governments will almost cer- pared to be more generous than the tainly be contributing on a greater law demands. In France, for instance, scale than hitherto, and this for a total expenditure on training by indus- number of reasons: Firstly, the ad- try represented 1.33% of the total verse economic climate is causing wage bill in 1978; it should be noted companies to cut down on the train- that this proportion is closely corre- ing facilities they normally provide; lated with the size of companies and government intervention is imperative has moved steadily upwards. (It was if this trend is to be reversed. Second-only 1.35% in 1972.) Companies with a ly, and most important, EEC member workforce of over 2 000 devote nearly governments, in developing alter- 3% of their wage bill to training.' nance training, are pursuing social ob-These pi?'entages refer to all in-plant jectives which go far 'oeyond meeting training a.,d not to alternance training industry's need for skilled manpower alone; they are none the Inssen- namely tackling unemployment couraging in that they reflecta grow- generally and providing all young per-ing awareness on the part of industry sons, particularly in the least-favouredof its responsibilities In the matter. groups, with an opportunity for train- This should create a fertile terrain for ing. Such considerations may be im- the growth of alternance training. portant to governments but are not necessarily of priority concern to industry. Governments must therefore encourage the latter to assume a greater share of the responsibility, e.g. by shouldering all or part of the training costs. This is clearly the aim of the incentives introduced in Bel- gium, France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in the form of social security exemptions or grants to encourage companies to take on young workers. But the success of alternance training ultimately depends on its public elements. Several ingre- dients go to make up this image: thorough and well-supervised in-company training, effective coordination with off-the-job training, teachers spe- cially trained to instruct underpriv- 'Les resultats de Ia participation des employeura au ileged adults, reccgnition of diplo-. financement de Ia formation professlonnelle continue' In Actualltds de la formation permarmte, mans. All this costs money and should Centre INFFO No 42, SeptemberOctober 1979. 88 89 The financing system in the UK

450

100 ma_

100

3%.

so 1 a

1200

SymbolS A = Government B = Department of Education and Science C = Department of Employment 0 = Rates (local taxes) E = Training Centres F = Manpower Services Commission (MSC) Source Be- G = Industrial Training Boards (ITBs) sChreibung der a = Grants Berufsbildungs- b = Levies systems in den H = Employer Mitglledstaaten c It Fees der Europill achen Gemein I = Local Education Authorities (LEAs) J = Schools, further education, higher education schaft Verglei. and training chende Studie. Cedef op 1982. 90 89

BEST COPYAVAILABLE A cost-sharing mechanism within to participate, while in the latter case the industrial sector is required to de-their contribution is nil. In deciding termine the allocation of training what trainees' contribution should be costs between those companies that and how it should be modulated in the provide training facilities and those light of socio-economic considera- that do not (though the latter may tions, all three variables minimum derive benefit by teklng on workers wage, unemployment benefit and trained elsewhere). This was one of training allowance should be taken the aims of the Industrial Training into account. Trainees' decisions, it Boards set up in the United Kingdom must be remembered, are coloured by in 1964. These boards receive finan- their immediate interests. Alternance cial contributions from companies training will hold no attraction for and redistribute the funds to finance young people J the wagos offered are training activities. In the Federal Re- substantially below the unemploy- public of Germany an act was passed ment benefit or minimum wage and instituting a system of selective taxa- likely to remain so. tion hitting companies that did not No discussion of the financing of participate in the training effort; the alternance training would be com- measure was suspended, however, in plete without reference to administra- view of the considerable effort by in- tive responsibility which is discussed dustry to increase the number of ap- in Chapter 4. Here a decentralized de- prenticeships. The act has now bean cision-making system is called for en- annulled by the Constitutional Coun- dowed with powers to act in the light cil.' of local needs and able to mobilize co Trainees' contribution to training the resources of the existing institu- costs is in principle a function of the tions. MIMIC differential between the wages they command on the labour market o often the minimum wage and the allowance they receive during their C period of linked work and training. co This differential represents the sacri- fice involved in participating in a train- c ing programme. In the present situa- = tion of mass youth unemployment, the contribution of the trainees can be gauged by the difference between the D unemployment benefit they would C otherwise be receiving and their wages during training. This may be co positive or negative. In the former case, only tho prospects held out by U) the training will lead the young people U)

1 In both countries, the whole question of how VOCR Ilona! training Is financed Is currently being re- O thought. v 0 90 91 Participation in training activities .1011MINNENEWIIME 16-17 17-18 6 30 io% This comparison shows the effect of the measures for promoting vo- cationsl training In the Member States of the European Communities. The training quota the proportion of young people in training schemes) for 16-17-year- olds in all countries Is Clearly higher than that of the 17-18-year olds. These figures for 1978 can be applied to the present day 18-19-year olds, whereas the pic- ture may now have Im- proved for the 18-17 - year olds.

General educa- General educa- Neither general Source: information Bulle- tional school or tional part-time educational nor tin of the European Centre vocational training school or part-time vocational training for the Development of vocational training Vocational Training 411980. Estimate of the Centre (1979) from Euro- stat Statistics and select- 1111111- ed material statistics. 92 91 BEST COPYAVAILABLE The main raison d'être of alternance training for young people is to ease the transition from school to work. We will not dwell here on the problems this presents which are compounded by the present economic situation. The important thing Is that most Euro- pean countries are endeavouring to resolve them by introducing an adap tation period of variable length between full-time schooling and full-time work, a period which is designedon the principle of alternance between school and work. In concluding this monograph, we should like to remind the reader of the main guidelines for action which stem from this central idea of providing optimum training situations for young people. This said, the idea of alternance like all new ideas pertaining to social organization may seem good in theory but has many drawbacks In practice and one must be fully aware of all the possible pitfalls. In other words, the concept, despite its merits, can be considerably distorted In practice if thene- cessary precautions are not taken. We should examine the various forms these distortions may take, though it should be emphasized that currentex- perience incites to optimism rather than the reverse. u ) Alternance is first and foremost a pedagogical principle based on the c mutually reinforcing roles of in-school and in-company training. Application o of this principle demands specific training goals in terms of capabilities,a skills and a new pedagogy giving = proper weight to the ;alue of work In terms of training and experience. True13 alternance tra;iiing thus in manyres- pects represents a major departure c from traditional training. It should at O all costs be avoided that it acquirea 'second-class' status and that the 0 92 93 term be applied indiscriminately to cerned. There is no point in trying to any training involving any kind of in- economize on the institutional organi- plant placement. The possibility of zation and administration of alter- such distortions cannot be disregard- nance training schemes. The fact that ed. the schemes are decentralized and in- Alternance is also an institutional volve such disparate institutions as principle which, by its very existence, schools and companies does not enables a variety of training forms, mean that they can do without direc- different both in level and length, to tors and inspectors. On the contrary, be organized into a coherent training these are even more essential. system for all young school-leavers. The pitfall hare is to wish to move too Company participation in develop- fast and expand the system too rapid-ing alternance training Is primordial. ly for evident political reasons, with- Whatever form this contribution takes out paying due attention to the quali- premises, equipment, time away tative aspects. It is easy to under- from their productive duties for indus- stand that governments and local trial tutors and trainees, direct financ- authorities, urged to do something to ing it must be organized and inte- alleviate the problem of youth unem- grated with the contribution of the ployment, want to push ahead with al-training institutions. Here the pitfalls ternance training. But, as the fore- are to neglect to provide industrial going pages have shown, true alter- trainers and teachers with the appro- nance must come to grips with a widepriate training and to omit to monitor variety of pedagogical, institutional on-the-job training in the companies. and organizational problems. The goalThese are the two weak points to is ultimately to extend alternance emerge from an examination of most training to all 16-20-year-old school- European experience in this area. The leavers, elit the process through absence of a clear cut policy in regard which this is achieved should be the to training personnel and companies' subject of continuous assessments, participation in training Is liable to whose findings should be reflected in create a (.1redibility gap between the further development of the sys- theory and practice. tem. The little information available on Organization of alternance training the costs of alternance training sche- depends on cooperation between the mes would seem to indicate that social groups involved and on decen- these arA no cheaper than convention- tralization of initiative. The first step al vocational training. In the present is to negotiate an agreement in prin- situation it could be tempting to do ciple at central government level things on the cheap and alternance laying down the general lines of the would then risk acquiring a second- system. Once this is done, decentrali-class status In the eyes of the public. zation is Introduced in rutting the It is clearly essential that alternance system into practice. Alternance train-training in no way serves to 'margina- ing schemes should be characterized lize' young people already deprived on by unity of responsibility, flexibility ofother front' by steering them into in- Internal organization and adaptation secure, poJrly paid and relatively un- to the needs of the target groups con-skilled jobs. The training should be 94 93 given status by ensuring, (I) that it leads to diplomas recognized on the labour market, (ii) that it affords reci- pients the possibility of returning to full-time training, and (iii) that it facilitates access to stable employment in the same way as other types of training. Lastly, while initially alternance training schemes should focus on the least favoured groups, a policy of positive discrimination must subsequently be pursued to ensure that the young people concerned are not con- signed to the fringes of the labour market.

cco 0 .(05= c0 0 94 0 95 3. I 80 Official Journal of the European Communities NoC 1/1

(Information)

COUNCIL

COUNCIL RESOLUTION of 18 1) :ember 1979 on linked work and training for young person:

THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN Whereas the linking of work and training is especially COMMUNITIES, appropriate in three kinds of situation: young persons undergoing apprenticeships or post- educational training courses, Havingregardtothe Treatyestablishingthe European Economic Community, young job seekerseligiblefor specialtraining measures to facilitate the integration of young people into the labour market, Having regard to the draft resolution submitted by the Commission, youngworkerswithoutadequatevocational training;

Whereas in general the prospects of employment for Takesnoteofthecommunication fromthe young peopleinthe Member Statesarepoor; Commission on linking work and training for young whereas, furthermore, a significant proportion of the persons in the Community; totalunemployed are young personswithout adequate vocational training; Considers that the linking of work and training should be developed, in a manner appropriate to the Whereas more flexible forms oftransitionfrom particular situation of each Member State and with school to working life should be encouraged while at Communitysupport,in accordancewith the the same time the development of vocational training following guidelines: offering young persons better opportunities for access to the labour market should be promoted; I.Guidelines for the Member :states

Whereas the European Council on 12 and 13 March IContent and concept of linked work and trainin: 1979 made a statement including a section on linked work and training and the Council on 15 May 1979 Member States should encourage the development reached conclusions on the matter; of effective links between training and experience on the job. These links should involve establishing coordinated programmes and structures making Whereas it is therefore necessary to adapt vocational forcooperationbetweenthevariousbodies training systems; whereas such adaptation can be responsible. especially encouraged by developing linked work and training, that is to 52y the inclusion, during the period Such programmes should be established having of transition to working life, of periods combining regard to the need to offer a training base broad training and practical work experience; enough to meet the demands of technological

95 NoC 1/2 Official Journal of the European Communities 3 180

developments and of foreseeable changes in occu- trainingenjoysuitablesocialprotectionand pations. protection as regards working conditions within the framework of existing legislation. They shouldbe plannedinrelationtothe particular characteristics of the categories of young The Member Statesshouldconsider whether persons aimed at. training leave may constitute a useful means of A special effort should be made to broaden the encouraging in particular young workers without range of occupations offering different forms of training to participate in linked work and training programmes linked work and training including apprenticeships. A suitable minimum penod should as a rule be II.Guidelines for the Community given over to training off the job. In order tofacilitatethe implementation of this 2. Supervision and recognition of training resolution the Council requests the Commission to. If appropriate, training programmes offered should examine the conditions under which the European be approved and evaluated by the authorities Social Fund might be associated with action by responsible for vocational training. The levels of Member States by means of small-scale competence achieved or the content of the courses experimental projects within the spirit of Article 7 completedshouldfacilitateaccesstofurther of Council Regulation (EEC) No 2396/71 of vocational or general training. 8 November 1971implementingthe Council Decision of 1 February 1971 on the reform of the The authorities responsible should also endeavour European Social Fund ('), as amended by Regu- to ensure that linked work and training is in line lation (EEC) Nu 2893/77 (1, to develop linked withfull-timetraining,possibly by the same work and training during the period of entry into diplomas being awarded for both, in order to faci- working life, litatetransfersbetweendifferentbranchesof training. monitor the application of this resolution in the MemberStateswitha viewtopromoting development which:,harmonized asfar as 3. Remuneration and financial support possible,

The Member States consider that where remun- affordMemberStatesall possibletei.hrucal eration or allowances are granted for the different support to this end, forms of linked work and training, they should be establishedat appropriate levels, paruculark in promote the exchange of experience gained in this order to facilitate participation by young people field, therein. report to the Council in 1982 on how far this resolution is being applied 4. Working conditions and lanai protection

Member States should ensure that persons parti- (') OJ No L 249, 10 II1971 p S4

cipating in the different forms of linked work and (') OJ No L 337, 27 12 1977, p 1

3EST COPY AVAILABLE 96 List of organizations represented at the Cedefop Board

BAssociation des grandes D Bundesministerium far Bildung entreprises de distribution and Wissenschaft de Belgique Stresemannstr. 2 3 rue de la Science 0-5300 Bonn-Bad Godesberg B-1040 Bruxelles Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund Commission des Communautes Bundesvorstand europeennes Hans-Backler-Str. 39 200 rue de la Loi D-4000 DOsseldorf B-1049 Bruxelles Kuratorium der deutschen Confederation des syndicats Wirtschaft far Berufsbildung chretiens de Belgique Buschstr. 83 121 rue de la Loi D-5300 Bonn 1 B-1049 Bruxelles F Confederation Frangaise Confederation europeenne et Democratique du Travail des syndicats (observer) 5 rue Cadet 37 rue Montagne aux F-75009 Paris Herbes Potageres B-1000 Bruxelles Conseil National du Patronat Francais Ministere de i'Emploi et du Travail 31 rue Pierre 1°' de Serbie 53 rue Bernard F-75784 Paris Cedex 16 B-1041 Bruxelles Secretariat General Union des Industries de Ia de Ia Formation Professionnelle Communaute europeenne Services du Premier Ministre (observer) 55 rue Saint Dominique 6 rue de Loxum F-75007 Paris B-1000 Bruxeles IRL AnCO The industrial DK Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening Training Authority Vester Voldgade 113 Baggot Court DK-1552 Kobenhavn V 27-33 Upper Baggot Street EIDublin 4 Landsorganisationen I Danmark Rosenorns Al le 12 Irish Sugar Co. Ltd DK-1970 Kobenhavn V St Stephen's Green House EIDublin 2 Undervisningsministeriet Direktoratet for Irish Transport and Erhvervsuddannelserne General Workers' Union Hojbro Plads 4 Liberty Hall DK-1200 Kobenhavn K EIDublin 1 98 97 I Ente Nazionale per National Union of Teachers l'Energia Elettrica Hamilton House Via Dalmazia, 12 Mabledon Place 1-00100 Roma GBLondon WC1H 9BD

Confederazione Generale Wm Thorpe & Son Ltd Itallana del Lavoro Old Trafford Corso d'Italia, 25 GBManchester M16 9FB 1-00100 Roma

Ministero del Lavoro Via Flavia, 9 1-00100 Roma

LChambre des Métiers 41 rue Glesener LLuxembourg

Chambre du Travail 18 rue Auguste Lumiere LLuxembourg

Ministere de ('Education Nationale 6 Boulevard Royal LLuxembourg NL Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging Postbus 8456 Plein '40-'45 nr. 1 NL-1005 AL Amsterdam

Koninklijk Nederlands Landbouw-Comite Prins Mauritsplein 23 NLDen Haag

Ministerie van Onderwijs en Wetenschappen Nieuwe Uitleg 1 NL-2500 EN Den Haag UK Manpower Services Commission Training Services Division 162-168 Regent Street GBLondon WIR 6DE 98 99 , -

Norp,Youth Youth Unemployment and Unemployment and EIyJug*ndarbeitsiosigkeit IEEE e und BerufsbIldung Vocational Training VYouthocational Wising Material and Social Stand- Emergency Measures for SozIaler und materleller Status von Jugend lichen ing of Young Rape the Employment and during Transition from Training of Young People beim Obergang von der Schule zum Beruf In der School to Work In the M the European Commu- United Kingdom. nity Bundesrepublik Deutsch- land 1980, 75 pp. Adocumentation Language: EN 1978, 216 pp. 1980, 184 pp. Languages: DE, EN Language: DE ISBN 92-825-1975-9 Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, US$ 6.20 Out of print: FR, IT ISBN 92825-1741-1 Price: UKL 3.90, IRL 4.35, US$ 9.20 DEYouth Unemployment and Vocational Training CI, 'maga des jounes et The Matrrlal and Social t9 Youth Unemployment and formation professionnolis Standing of Young People Vocational TM Statut materiel et social during Transition from Occupational and des leunes fors du pas- School to Working Ufa Motivation of Young sage de l'ecole a la vie Synthesis report People, their Vocational active en 1981, 164 PP. Training and Employment Francs Languages: DE, EN, FR Prospect 1980, 119 pp. EN1SEN 92-8252041 -2 Survey on Member States Language: FR Pricc: UKL 4.80, IRL 6, USS 9 20 of the European Commu- ISBN 92.825-1743-8 nities Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, Youth Unemployment and 1978, 770 pp. US$ 6.20 Vocational Training Languages: DE, EN Material and Social Stand- Out of print: FR 1EYouth Unemployment and ing of Young People Vocational Training during Transition from Material and Social Stand- School to Work ing of Young People Conference report during Transition from 1981,20 pp. Youth Unemployment and School to Work In Ireland Languages: DA, DE, EN, Vocational Training 1980, 125 pp. FR, IT, NL Occupational Choice and Language: EN Motivation of Young ISBN 92-825-1976-7 Youth Unemployment and Al- People, their Vocational Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, terminus Training In the EEC Training and Employment US$ 6.20 Conference report 1981, 224 pp. Synthesis on the ILEDisoccupazion glovanile Languages: DE, EN, FR Situation In the European formazions professio- ENISBN 92-825-2265-2 Communities nals Price: UKL 2.90, IRL 3.70, 1980, 250 pp. Condlzioni material! s so- US$ 825 Languages: DA, DE, EN, ciall del giovani durante to FR, IT, NL transistor,' dalla scuola al 8 Youth Unemployment and EN-ISBN 92-825-1515-X lavoro In Italia Vocational Training Price: UKL 5.30, IRL 5.90, 1980, 172 pp. Publications in the EC US$ 12 Language: IT Member States ISBN 92.825-2060-9 Selected Bibliography Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, 1980, 285 pp. US$ 6.20 Languages: DE, EN, FR EN -ISBN 92-825-1772-1 Ch &nag* des Ilium's at formation prolessionnelle Statut matelriel et social Jsugdworklooshald en be- rospsopleiding Planning Vocational des leunes tors du pas- Preparation initiatives for sage de l'ecole a la vie Da socials en mated/lie Unemployed Young active en status van iongsren bIJ de Belgique. overgang van school naar People 1980, 109 pp. work In Nederland 1982, 143 pp. Language: FR 1980, 87 pp. Language: EN ISBN 92-825-2402-7 ISBN 92-8'_'3-2084-8 Language: NL Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, ISBN 92-8251921-X Price: UKL 1.30, IRL 1.70, US$ 2.90 US$ 8.20 Price: UKL 2.60, IRL 3, USS 6.20 100 99 Women

@ Equal Opportunities and Equal Opportunities and Leaflet Vocallonal Training Vocational Training "It can be done ..." Training and Labour Catalogue of Training information on the Pro- Market innovations in the EC ject "Migrant Workers: Policy Measures for the Member States Second generation" Vocational Promotion of Languages: DA, DE, EN, 1980, 10 pp. Women in the FR, IT Languages: DA, DE, EN, Federal Republic of ENISBN 92-825-2489-2 FR, GR, IT, NI. Germany 1981, 320 pp. Languages: DE, EN, FR EN-ISBN 92-825-2419-1 Equal OpportunitiesM. Continuing Educa- Vocational Training tion and Training A Survey on Vocational Training initiatives for ® Cnbi Zeheft in dr Women In the EC ® Continuing Education and Languages: Training Betriebliche INeiterbil- DA, DE, EN, FR File of Innovations in the EC Member States dung and beruflicher Auf- EN-ISBN 92-825-2764-6 atleg von Frauen in der 1979, 2nd edition 1980 Bundesrepublik Deutsch- Languages: EN, FR land 1982, 500 pp. Migrant Workers ® Role of Training in Setting Language: DE up New Economic and ISBN 92-825-2670-8 Migrant Workers and Vo- Social Activities cational Training France Italy United Vocational Training to im- Kingdom prove Opportunities for 1980, 330 pp. fa Equal Opportunities and Migrant Workers Languages: FR, EN, IT Vocational Training European Conference ISBN 92-825-2059-5 Training and Labour 1980, 184 PP. Market Languages: DE, EN, FR Policy Measures for the EN-ISBN 92-825-1775-6 Vocational Training Vocational Promotion of Women in France Systems 19f,,, 226 pp. mipt= Languages: DE, EN, FR px.) Migrants it flux de retour Berufsblidungssystemo ENISBN 92-825-M21-7 En analysant Ies elements Beschreibung der Berufsbil- de phenomenologie Iles dungssysteme In den MR- au retour des travallleurs gliedstaaten der EuropAl- emigres, on a mis en relief schen Gemelnschaft Equal Opportunities and la difference des condi- 1982, 478 pp. Vocational Training tions de reinsertion des Language: DE Training and Labc.Jr dad ultes professionnall- ISBN 92.825-2263-6 Market ses) par rapport aux jeu- Price: ECU 12, BFR 490, Policy Measures fry the nes, a l'anciennete de tra- DM 29,50 Vocational Promotion of vail plus faible Women in the United Rapport de recherche Kingdom 1980, 73 pp. Descriptions of the Voce- 1962 Language: FR tional Training Systems Languages: DE, FR (Monographs) Out of print: EN FRISBN 92-825-2418-3 ® Belgium Migrants et processes de 1981,60 pp. mobillti Languages: DA, DE, EN, Prealables aux precessus FR, IT, NL ri3 Women and Vocational de mobliit6 profession - Denmark Training nelie et sociale et disponi- Publications in the EC bilite det travailleurs dans 1981, 91 pp. Member States le cadre europeen Languages: DA, EN, FR, Selected Bibliography Rapport de recherche IT, NL 1980, 204 pp. 1980, 196 pp. el France Languages: DE, EN, FR Language: FR 1981, 118 pp. ENISBN 92-825-2016-1 ISBN 92-825-1778-0 Languages: EN, FR, IT, NL

101 1'In Other Publications Periodicals

® Ireland Information and Documen- Vocational Training Bulletin talon as a Task and a Need published In 1981, 116 Pp. DA, DE, EN, FR, IT, NL Languages: EN, NL of CEDEFOP Seminar report ISSN 0378-5068 1978, 160 pp. Price: An nual-s ubscrIption: 1981, 110 pp. Languages: EN, FR UKL 2.50, IRL 2.75, US$ 5. Languages: EN, IT, NL Out of print: DE Single copy. UKL 0.90, EN-ISBN 92-825-0038-1 IRL 1, US$ 1.60 ® Luxembourg 1981, 82 pp. ® Annual Report 1978 Languages: FR, IT 1979, 48 pp. Bulletin Main Articles Languages: DA, DE, EN, FR, al Netherlands IT, NL 1961, 79 pp. EN-ISBN 92-825-1154-5 1978 Languages: EN, FR, NL EI No 4 Annual Report 1979 Continuing Education and United Kingdom 1980, 72 pp. Training 1982, 72 pp. Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR, Language: EN IT, NL 1980 EN-ISBN 92-825-1764-0 No 1 Agriculture Comparative Study of the feli Annual Report 1980 Financial, Legislativs and 1981,68 pp. IR] No 4 I Special Edition Regulatory &ruder, of Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR, Linking Work and Training Vocational Training rt NL for Young Persons in the co Systems EN-ISBN 92-825-2317-9 EEC Fsderal Republic of Gar- many ® Annual Report 1981 1981 France 1982, 48 pp. Ita Languages: DA, DE, EN, FR, No 6 United Kingdom Guidance, information GR, IT, NL Vocational training 1981, 224 pp. ENISBN 92-825-3008-6 Languages: DE, EN, FR, IT EN-ISBN 92-825-1782-9 la No 7 egit European Centre for the medium -sized Development of Vocational Small and enterprises The Classification of Skill- Training CEDEFOP Infor- ed Workers In the Member mation Brochure 1982 States of the EEC 1978,8 pp. to 1981, 154 pp. E No 8 Languages: VA, DE, EN, FR, Training and employment Languages: DE, EN, FR IT, NL EN-ISBN 92-825-2330-6 Price: ECU 6, IRL 420, No 9 Where is adult education UKL 3.30 going? 0. C31 Relationships batman Education and Employ- CEDEFOP news mont and their Impact on Cl. Education and Labour Brief news items on Voca- Market Patios tional Training In the Euro- A Franco-German Study pean Community 1979, 50 pp. ISSN 0252-855-X Languages: DA, DE, EN, Languages: DA, DE, EN, FR, 0 FR, IT, NL IT, NL free of charge US02Demarcation of occupa- W Waal groups/occupational 1982 Mikis with regards to voce- Vona' training at skilled No 2: Febr. 1982 level in tho European Com- No 3: Sept 1982 Cill munity 1982, 146 pp. DJ Languages: DE, EN, FR Price: UKL 2.30, IRL 2.80, USD 4 (11) EN-ISBN 92-825-3015-9 101 102 102 103 104 106 107 108 109 110 111

112 113 114 115 116 117 202 203 204

297209, 208 206 301 302 303 304 401 402 0 508 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 512 513 509

514 515 601 602 603 604 605 606

903 D07 910 912 913 914 915 953 954 O

Please detach, mark publication No +0 and send to CEDEFOP

102 C Please send me a copy of the CEDEFOP publications markedgi+ (8) in language(s)

Q. I am Interested in the work ofCEDEFOP and request regular Information on all CEDEFOP publications in language(s)

oI am interested in the following subjects-

It Name, First Name

Street, Number 0Postal Code, Town Occupation, Function, Organization Please detach, mark publication No 0 +0 and send to CEDEFOP

CEDEFOPEuropean Centre for the Development ofVocational Training

Aitemance training for young people: Guidelines for action

Jean-Pierre Jallade

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities

1982-103 pp.-16.0x 20.0 cm DA, DE, EN, FR, IT, NL ISBN 92-825-2370-7 Catalogue number: HX-32-81-714-EN-C Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg ECU 4 BFR 165 IRL 2.75 UKL 2.25 USD 4.25 10 3 BES1 COPYAVAILABLE Saigs- og abonnementskontorer VertriebabOros rporpciu norAtioccoc Sales Offices Bureaux de vente Uffici di vendita Verkoopkantoren

Belgique, Seigle Franco Espana MOnaeu, page &Kase, Steers!) tad Semce 0t vente en France des pusacakons rats Mundt Prensa &Svcs S A Rue ts louvatn 40-42 Leuve.dosttaai 40-42 Cornnnunautes estropeennes Castello 37 1000 &wanes 1000 Brussul Tel 512 CO 26 Marino i Journal ¬e Tel tgit 275 46 55 Telex 49370 Gdu ScletkOts Agentschappen 26 rue °sum ttea., europeenna 75732 Pans Ceder I5 Europese Boekhandel Tel III 578 61 39 Rue de la Lot 244 West mat 244 Portugal 1040 Btux.71USS 1040 Blussei L,W8,41 Bearand sart CREDOC Ireland Rua Joao de Deus Venda Nova Rutbe to Montagne Eke 11 Government P,Iyacesons Askadora Bergstraat 34 Bus Tel 97 45 71 1000 Bruxelles 1000 Brunet Sales Office Telex 12 709 titran p G P 0 Arcade Ouban SchweizSuisseSvizzera Danmark or by Cost Odra", Payot Sclrca Forlag Stehonery Othce Don 4 6 rue Gtenus Montrgade 21 1211 Geneve 1116 Kobenhavn K Tel 78 96 44 Tel 31 89 50 III ION 12 11 95

Urderagentur Italia Sverige Euro04 Boger Ltbrena rata° Stet° Gemmel Ton 6 POS100, 137 Ltbratne C E FrAres 1004 Kobenhavn K Pana G Vera, 10 Regenngsgatan 12 Pt (Of) is 62 73 00198 Roma Tel 16) 8508 Box 16356 Telex 611008 .pysro 103 27 Stockholm Tel 08-23 89 00 BR Deutschland Nederland United States of America Vena9 P.Inclesanzeger Strutavukkorl en udgeversheone Etrele atrane Postfach 10 80 06 Ghostetat Plantrsttaat European COmmundy Informakon Sertnce 5000 can 1 Postbus 20014 2100 M Street N W Tel 10221) 20 29-0 2500E6 s Gravenhage Sole 707 IFernsenreoer Anzeger Bonn 8 882 595) Tel (070) 78 9, I Washington D C 20 037 Tel (202) 862 95 00

Greece United Kingdom Canada G C Etettnerourlaths S A H M Statronery (Ace Panora Publahog Co Ltd Intemanonal bookstOre P 0 Box 569 4 Nflos street London SE1 9104 2184 SI Cathenne Street Well Athens I1261 Tel 101) 928 69 77 ext 365 Montreal Ouebec 143(1 1M7 Tees 219410 Mel ca Tel (514) 937 3519 Sub agent &Ks-agent for Walter's Greece Alan Armstrong 8 Asscoates Japan Moth° s Bookstore 10 Ismski Street London Business School Sussex Place Knokunlya Company Ltd Thessalona) Regents Park Tel 275 271 17.7 Shquku ku 3 Gnome London NWi 4S4 Telex 412885 kmo Tokyo 160 91 Tel (011258 374010i) 723 3902 Tel 103) 354 0131

GrandDuehe de Luxembourg

Andre lands Anders Linder AAAce th-vpee Other countries Autres paysAltri paosiAndere landen

Kontoret 10, De europosae Fadlessaaters ottc.elle PuOkkaboner Amt for amcneVeroffenuchungen der Europalcnen Gememschatten Ynnpemo Entonuutv Eto5Cotutv run Eutsconolswv Kotvotntutv Once :or 011441 Publcatons ol the European COtrirnurNI.01 Once des puNcatons ofloelles des Communautes eurOpeennes O.* dells put:Oat:on. uncial) dens Comunaa europee Bureau VCOf 0114ale Out:4.1,11*3 der E.VeSe Gerneenschaven

L 2985 Luxembourg 5 rue du Commutelik1 49 00 81 104 European Centre for the Developmentof Vocational Training, Bundesallee 22, D1000 Berlin15, Tel. (030) 881061

Price (excluding VAT) In Luxembourg ECU 4 BFR 165 IRL 2.75 UKL 2.25 USD 4.25

ISBN 92.825-2870-7 OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES L-2985 Luxembourg Catalogue number: HX-32.81-714-ENC 105