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1Philip, Verwimp. “Death and Survival during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” Population Studies, Vol. 58, No. 2, (2004), 233–245.

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2 Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985): 54.

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4 There are 129 cases that the ICTR is engaged in, the extra 9 cases are the Accused and At Large as well as Perpetrators who have not yet been caught and tried. 5“ESRI” What is GIS? http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis 6 ArcGis is a powerful mapping and spatial analysis software that allows its users to, “visualize, question, analyse, interpret, and understand data to reveal relationships, patterns, and trends.” The tools used to create this visual representation are primarily ArcGis and ArcMap along with Google Earth. Unusual for historians, these tools are used primarily by geographers. ArcMap is a powerful tool and extremely useful for analysis and has a very steep learning curve, but it is the most appropriate for this study as it allows for spatial analysis and is capable of creating

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animations which shows patterns and trends otherwise not visible. Google Earth provided a view of the terrain and the surrounding area around the mapped sites of violence and also showed houses, farms, forests, and rivers. “ESRI” What is GIS? http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis 7 The 120 cases that data was derived from are used in this paper rather than just the completed cases of the ICTR. Simply, it is not the guilt of the perpetrator or whether or not justice was served but the event itself that this paper is concerned with. Erich Haberer makes the distinction between law and history, noting that “legal experts use evidence to prove specific claims in courts of law, historians use evidence to analyse and interpret specific historical events or more general social developments.” The judge looks for case-specific evidence and the historian looks to create as truthful as a narrative as possible in discovering how and why an event happened. Jens Meierhenrich, “Through a Glass Darkly: Genocide Memorials In Rwanda 1994- Present” http://genocidememorials.cga.harvard.edu

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8 Tim Cole, “Different places, different ghettos” in Traces of the Holocaust: Journeying in and out of the Ghettos (New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011), Kindle Edition. 9 Cole, “Bringing the ghetto to the Jew/ Keeping the ghetto from the non-Jew” in Traces of the Holocaust: Journeying in and out of the Ghettos (New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011), Kindle Edition.

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10 Cole, “Bringing the ghetto to the Jew/ Keeping the ghetto from the non-Jew” in Traces of the Holocaust: Journeying in and out of the Ghettos (New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011), Kindle Edition. 11 Tim Cole and Alberto Giordano, “Rethinking Segregation in the Ghetto: Invisible walls and social networks in the dispersed ghetto in Budapest, 1944” Lessons and Legacies XI, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, forthcoming, 2012) see also Tim Cole and Alberto Giordano, “On Place and Space: Calculating Social and Spatial Networks in the Budapest Ghetto” Transactions in GIS 15, issue supplement s1 (Jul. 2011). 12 Ibid. 13 Henri Lefebvre, “The Production of Space” (Chicago, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 1991) 37-41 in Richard White, “What is Spatial History?” Spatial History Lab, http://web.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi- bin/site/pub.php?id=29 2010.

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14 Knowels Placing History 5. 15 African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: African Rights, 1995), 238. 16 Knowels, Placing history, 466. 17 Bugei Nyaosi an undergraduate Research Assistant part of the Standford Visualization Project is part of a larger mapping project called the Republic of Letters. Nyaosi has mapped Voltaire’s correspondences and has compared them with Locke, showing an overlap in an intellectual community. 18 Knowels, Placing history, 4.

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19 Philip Ethington, “Placing the Past: ‘Groundwork’” Rethinking History 22 (2007):466. 20 Thomas Bender, “Theory, Experience, and the Motion of History” Rethinking History 22(2009):497. 21 Straus, Order of Genocide 7-8. 22“Coming together in common purpose to achieve an outcome.“ http://www.rwandapedia.rw/explore/umuganda.

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23 Straus, Order of Genocide 9. 24 Straus, Order of Genocide 8. 25 African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: Africa Rights, 1995), 865.

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26 Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: African Rights, 1995) 9. According to the Hamitic Hypothesis the Tutsi were pastoralists who originated from Ethiopia and had Caucasian characteristics which Hutu did not, placing them highest on the hierarchy of Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. These apparent characteristics were key in developing divides and further differences between Hutu and Tutsi. 27 Timothy Longman, “Render Unto Caesar and Musinga…” in Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) Kindle edition. 28 Longman, “It is the End of the World: Christian Churches and Genocide” in Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) Kindle Edition.

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29 Melvern, A People Betrayed, 12. 30 Scott Strauss, The Order Of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (London: Cornell University Press, 2008) 22. 31 Straus, 177-78. 32 Strauss, 184. Straus claims that the Hutu called Tutsi raiders “inyenzi” because they attacked at night, in 1994 this term would be used to insult the RPF and Tutsi in general.

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33 Robert Melson, “Modern genocide in Rwanda: Ideology, Revolution, War, and Mass Murder in an African State,” in The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, eds. Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 331. 34 UNAMIR was established October 5 1993, according to United Nations Resolution 872. 35 African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: Africa Rights, 1995), 236-8. 36 African Rights, 177.

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37 Des Forges, 9. 38 Des Forges, 9. 39 Des Forges, 10. 40 Des Forges, 10.

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41 Strauss, 8.

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ANALYSIS

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42 The sites are represented on the maps by black triangles. 43 Strauss, 51. Alison Des Forges in her book Leave None to the Story calculates at least 500,000 and Strauss believes the number 800,000 to be too high.

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44 Cia World Factbook. Rwanda, (2014), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/rw.html 45 David C. King, Rwanda (New York: Marshall Cavendish , 2007) 7. 46 The “Great Rift Valley formed when two tectonic plates separated and large pieces of the earth’s crust slid down between the plates. This resulted in the formation of escarpments and ravines, often with dramatically sheer sides.” David C. King, Rwanda (New York: Marshall Cavendish , 2007), 9.

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52 CIA World Factbook, Rwanda. (2014). 53“1991 Rwanda Census”, table 4.2, 124. http://www.rwasta.net/fileadmin/user_upload/dossiers/2008-Critique- Rapport-Mucyo-documents-annexes/19910815-%20Recensement%20g%E9n%E9ral%20Population.PDF. 54 “1991 Rwanda Census,” 124.

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55Jens Meierhenrich, “Through A Glass Darkly: Genocide Memorials in Rwanda 1994-Present”, Gisenyi http://genocidememorials.cga.harvard.edu/gisenyi.html (2010).

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56 The remains of many of the victims of the genocide have been left unburied and preserved in lime. They are laid in the different rooms of the college, the experience of seeing the amount of death that was caused is overwhelming. 57 Jens Meierhenrich, Through A Glass Darkly: Genocide Memorials in Rwanda 1994-Present, Murambi, http://genocidememorials.cga.harvard.edu/murambi.html (2010).

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58 In this indictment the prosecutor noted the surrounding area of the massacre sites, bringing geography into focus. For example, the Gatwaro Stadium in Kibuye is described as, “… the Stadium, is located near the main traffic circle in Kibuye town, Gitesi Commune. The town’s main road runs past the Stadium. Immediately behind the Stadium is a high hill.” Of the completed cases by the UNICTR this indictment is one of the only ones to mention

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geography. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Prosecutor V Clement Kayishema, Ignace Bagilishema, Charles Sikubwabo, Aloys Ndimbati, Vincent Rutaganira, Mika Muhimana Ryandikayo, Obed Ruzindana. ICTR-95-1- I, Indictment. 59 “Terrain in Military History: An Introduction” in Fields of Battle: Terrain in Military History, eds. Peter Doyle and Matthew Bennett. (London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), 1. 60 “Terrain in Military History: An Introduction” in Fields of Battle: Terrain in Military History, eds. Peter Doyle and Matthew Bennett. (London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), 2.

27

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61 Dave Fullerton, John Steward, Sally Morgan, “Rwandan Stories” Marshes http://rwandanstories.org/genocide/marshes.html (2014). 62 “Terrain in Military History: An Introduction” in Fields of Battle: Terrain in Military History, eds. Peter Doyle and Matthew Bennett. (London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), 1. 63 Lieutenant Colonel Tharcisse Muvunyi was the most travelled of all the perpetrators, travelling to five separate massacre sites in three different prefectures, Butare, Kibuye and Kibungo. He spent most of April in Butare then travelled east to Kibungo then across the country to Kibuye. He was first at the Ngoma Parish in Butare, then to the University Hospital in Butare on the 15 April as well as the Nyarubuye church in Kibungo from the 15 to 17 April. The 21 of April he was at the massacre at the Matyazo Dispensary, then to the Groupe Scolaire on 24 of April both in ButareProsecutor V. Tharcisse Muvunyi, ICTR-2000-55A-I, Indictment, 23-12-2003., 2.

28

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64“Forests and Jungles: The Wilderness and the Ia Drang Valley,” in Battling the Elements, ed. Harlod Winters, Gerald Galloway Jr., William J. Reynolds, David Rhyne, (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1998) 99. 65 “Terrain in Military History: An Introduction” in Fields of Battle: Terrain in Military History, eds. Peter Doyle and Matthew Bennett. (London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), 4. 66 Figure 5 this figure shows which massacre sites specific perpetrators were present at.

29

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67 The Prosecutor V. Omar Serushago, ICTR-98-39I, Indictment 14-10-1998, 12. 68 Serushago also manned the deadly roadblock called “La Corniche” and arrested people trying to pass through towards Goma and had them sent to the Commune Rouge to be executed. The Prosecutor V. Omar Serushago, ICTR-98-39I, Indictment 14-10-1998, 17.

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69 Dave Fullerton, John Steward, Sally Morgan, “Rwandan Stories” Little Things http://www.rwandanstories.org/genocide/little_things.html (2014). 70 Dave Fullerton, John Steward, Sally Morgan, “Rwandan Stories” Marshes http://rwandanstories.org/genocide/marshes.html.

32

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71“Forests and Jungles: The Wilderness and the Ia Drang Valley,” in Battling the Elements, ed. Harlod Winters, Gerald Galloway Jr., William J. Reynolds, David Rhyne, (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1998) 99. 72Dave Fullerton, John Steward, Sally Morgan, “Rwandan Stories” Marshes http://rwandanstories.org/genocide/marshes.html.

33

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73 Des Forges, 336. 74 Des Forges 336.

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75 African Rights, 51. 76 See the UNICTR Judicial Database, ICTR- 98-44-T Evidence for Karemera Et Al – “Map of Kigali Town Showing Where Road Blocks were Placed”.

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77 Préfet of Kigali-ville and Chairman of the Civil Defense Committee for Kigalie, and Colonel in the Rwandan Armed Forces, Tharcisse Renzaho, was instrumental in constructing and manning the roadblocks in Kigali-ville. Roadblocks were used to, “intercept, identify and kill Tutsi, while allowing movement of commercial good and the majority of Hutu population.” Prosecutor V. Tharcisse Renzaho ICTR-97-31-I, Indictment, 16-02-2006. 5. 78 Alison des Forges, “Leave none to tell the story” (Human Rights Watch, 1999) 347. 79 Des Forges, 247. 80 Des Forges, 347.

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81 Tim Cole and Alberto Giordano, “Rethinking Segregation in the Ghetto: Invisible walls and social networks in the dispersed ghetto in Budapest, 1944” Lessons and Legacies XI, (Evanston: Northwestern University Press,forthcoming, 2012) see also Tim Cole and Alberto Giordano, “On Place and Space: Calculating Social and Spatial Networks in the Budapest Ghetto” Transactions in GIS 15, issue supplement s1 (Jul. 2011). 82 “Kangura No. 6”e.d. Jake Freyer. Rwanda File. http://www.rwandafile.com/Kangura/k06a.html

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83 African Rights, 263. Figure 6. 84 Jens Meierhenrich, “Through A Glass Darkly: Genocide Memorials in Rwanda 1994-Present” Gisenyi, http://genocidememorials.cga.harvard.edu/gisenyi.html (2010).

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85 According to the Kigali Memorial Center after the grenades were thrown, the stadium was gassed which caused anyone who was lying down to stand up, making them easier targets. ”Kigali Memorial Centre.” Kigali. http:///www.kigalimemorialcentre.org . 86 Verwimp studied the probability of death by a modern firearm and grenade, against a traditional weapon such as the machete. The probability of being killed with a traditional or modern weapon depended on the gender, occupation, and place of residence of the victim before the killing began. The choice of weapon also depended on where the killing took place and how long after 6 April killing began. As a result, by the second phase of the genocide, traditional weapons were preferred in accordance with the shift into the forests and away from designated, controlled and secure sites. See Verwimp, “Machetes and Firearms”, 15.

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87 The Prosecutor V. Aloys Simba, ICTR-01-76-I, Indictment 10-05-2004, 9. 88The Prosecutor V. Aloys Simba, ICTR-01-76-I, Indictment 10-05-2004, 9. 89Aloys Simba, a retired Lt. Colonel of the Forces Armées du Rwanda, was responsible for helping organize the attack on Murambi as well as supplying weapons to the attackers throughout the massacre at Murambi. The Prosecutor V. Aloys Simba, ICTR-01-76-I, Indictment 10-05-2004, 9.

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90 Philip Verwimp, “Death and Survival During the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda” Population Studies: A Journal of Demography 58, (2004): 236. Table 2. 91 Verwimp, “Death and Survival during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda” 237. 92 Ghosts of Rwanda Frontline , produced by Greg Barker, PBS, 2004.

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93 Verwimp,”Machetes and Firearms: The Organization of Massacres in Rwanda” Journal of Peace Research 43 (Jan. 2006) 29/04/201,2 16. 94 African Rights, 429. 95 African Rights, 429. Caritas, a survivor from the Gatwaro stadium tells the story of his escape and the start of the massacre from which he was one of the only survivors. Caritas claims there was approximately 12 thousand victims in the stadium but the actual number is not known, although the Kigali Memorial Center and the ICTR do claim thousands.

44

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