THE CONTOURS of VIOLENCE: the Interaction Between Perpetrators
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
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ெVVZDPSVKLOOVIRUHVWVULYHUVDQG URDGVXVHGWRIXUWKHUWKHNLOOLQJRIWKH7XWVL8VLQJ*,6DQGSORWWLQJWKHPDVVDFUHVLWHV QHZSDWWHUQVHPHUJHGWKDWVKRZWKHPDVVDFUHVLWHVZHUHQRWUDQGRPEXWLQIDFWLQ VXFKSODFHVWKDWZRXOGIXQQHODQGGLUHFWYLFWLPPRYHPHQWWRZDUGVDUHDVRI5ZDQGD WKDWIDYRXUWKHNLOOHUV7KLVSRZHURYHUWHUULWRU\ZDVH[HUFLVHGRQWKHSDUWRIWKH SHUSHWUDWRUVWRPRUHHIILFLHQWO\LGHQWLI\FRQFHQWUDWHDQGH[WHUPLQDWHWKH7XWVL iv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v Table of Contents ,1752'8&7,21 0(7+2'2/2*< +,6725,2*5$3+< *,6 +RORFDXVW +,6725,2*5$3+< 5ZDQGD*HQRFLGH $1$/<6,6 &21&/86,21 )LJXUHV %,%/,2*5$3+< List of Figures )LJXUH1WDPDUD&KXUFK )LJXUH'D\2QHRIWKH*HQRFLGH )LJXUH'D\RIWKH*HQRFLGH )LJXUH&XPXODWLYH6LWHV )LJXUH3HUSHWUDWRU0RYHPHQW )LJXUH3KDVH7ZR«««««««««««««««««««««««««««« )LJXUH3KDVH)RXU««««««««««««««««««««««««««« vi 1 INTRODUCTION ,Q-XO\,ZDVIRUWXQDWHHQRXJKWRDWWHQGWKHFRQIHUHQFH³*HQRFLGHDQG 'HQLDO7KH$UPHQLDQ-HZLVKDQG7XWVL*HQRFLGH´KHOGDW.LJDOL*HQRFLGH0HPRULDO &HQWUHRQJHQRFLGHSHUSHWUDWLRQDQGGHQLDO2QHRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV'U:HQG\/RZHU SUHVHQWHGKHUZRUNRQNLOOLQJILHOGVLQ(DVWHUQ(XURSHHQWLWOHG³7KH/DQGVFDSHVRI 'HVWUXFWLRQDQG5HIXJH7RSRJUDSK\RI*HQRFLGHLQ.LOOLQJ)LHOGVLQ(DVWHUQ(XURSH´ 'U/RZHUெ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ெVLQ5ZDQGDLVFRQVLGHUHGRQHRIWKHPRVWEUXWDO DQGLQWLPDWHJHQRFLGHVRIWKHWKFHQWXU\1HLJKERXUVNLOOHGQHLJKERXUVIDPLOLHVZHUH VHSDUDWHGDQGPDQ\YLFWLPVVRXJKWVDQFWXDU\LQORFDOFKXUFKHVRQO\WREHPXUGHUHG EHWZHHQWKHSHZV2WKHUVKLGLQWKHIRUHVWVDQGKLOOVRQO\WREHVXUURXQGHGE\WKH PLOLWLDVDQGNLOOHG,QRUGHUWREHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGWKHJHQRFLGHDQGKRZ5ZDQGDெV ODQGVFDSHLPSDFWHGWKHSURFHVV,WUDYHOOHGWKHUHIRUDPRQWKLQ-XO\'XULQJWKH WULSRXUJURXSWUDYHOOHGWRVHYHUDOPDVVDFUHVLWHVLQ5ZDQGDLQFOXGLQJ0XUDPEL 7HFKQLFDO6FKRROLQ%XWDUH1WDUDPDDQG1\DPDWD&KXUFKHVMXVWRXWVLGHRI.LJDOL (FROH7HFKQLTXH2IILFLHOOH (72 LQ.LJDOL±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ÄPDFKHWHVHDVRQெ 1Philip, Verwimp. “Death and Survival during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” Population Studies, Vol. 58, No. 2, (2004), 233–245. 4 7KHSXUSRVHRIWKLVSDSHULVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHLPSDFWWKDW5ZDQGDெVWHUUDLQDQG JHRJUDSK\KDGRQWKHWDFWLFVRIPXOWLSOHPDVVDFUHVWKURXJKRXWWKHJHQRFLGHDQG FRQVLGHUWKHZD\VLQZKLFK5ZDQGDெ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ெVVWDJHVRIWKHGHVWUXFWLRQSURFHVVRIWKH(XURSHDQ-HZV+LOEHUJெVZRUN LGHQWLILHGIRXUVWDJHVWRWKHVWUXFWXUHRIGHVWUXFWLRQEHLQJGHILQLWLRQH[SURSULDWLRQ FRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGDQQLKLODWLRQ0\RZQZRUNXVHVIRXUVWDJHVEDVHGRQ+LOEHUJெV LGHQWLILFDWLRQVHJUHJDWLRQFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGH[WHUPLQDWLRQ+LOEHUJDUJXHVWKDWWKH 2 Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, (New York: Holmes & Meier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ilberg, 53. 6 GD\VRIWKHJHQRFLGHDQGWKHLUUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJWHUUDLQLWEHFRPHV SRVVLEOHWRVHHZK\WKHVHVLWHVZHUHXVHGDVZHOODVWKHGLIIHUHQWZD\VLQZKLFKYLFWLPV ZHUHHQFRXUDJHGIXQQHOOHGRUWDNHQWRDVLWH 0(7+2'2/2*<