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Scanning Probe Lithography Microsystems SCANNING PROBE LITHOGRAPHY MICROSYSTEMS Series Editor Stephen D. Senturia Massachusetts Institute of Technology Editorial Board Roger T. Howe, University o/California, Berkeley D. Jed Harrison, University ofAlberta Hiroyuki Fujita, University of Tokyo Jan-Ake Schweitz, Uppsala University OTHER BOOKS IN THE SERIES: • Methodology for the Modeling and Simulation of Microsystems Bartlomiej F. Romanowicz Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8306-0, October 1998 • Microcantilevers for Atomic Force Microscope Data Storage Benjamin W. Chui Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8358-3, October 1998 • Bringing Scanning Probe Microscopy Up to Speed Stephen C. Mione, Scott R. Manalis, Calvin F. Quate Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8466-0, February 1999 • Micromachined Ultrasound-Based Proximity Sensors Mark R. Hornung, Oliver Brand Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8508-X, April 1999 • Microfabrication in Tissue Engineering and Bioartificial Organs Sangeeta Bhatia Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8566-7, August 1999 • Microscale Heat Conduction in Integrated Circuits and Their Constituent Films Y. Sungtaek Ju, Kenneth E. Goodson Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-8591-8, August 1999 SCANNING PROBE LITHOGRAPHY by Hyongsok T. Soh Kathryn Wilder Guarini Calvin F. Quate Stanford University, Stanford, California SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Soh, Hyongsok T. Scanning Probe Lithography 1 by Hyongsok T. Soh, Kathryn Wilder Guarini, Calvin F. Quate p. cm. (Microsystems series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4419-4894-6 ISBN 978-1-4757-3331-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-3331-0 1. Integrated circuits-Design and Construction. 2. Microlithography. 3. Scanning probe microscopy TK7874 .S648 2001 621.3815/3121 01-029782 Copyright © 2001 by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2001 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Printed on acid-free paper. Table of Contents Table of Contents List of Figures ..................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ...................................................................................................... xv Glossary ............................................................................................................ xvii Foreword ............................................................................................................ xix Preface ............................................................................................................... xxi Acknowledgments .......................................................................................... xxiii Chapter 1: Introduction to Scanning Probe Lithography 1 1.1 The Scanning Probe Microscope .............................. 1 1.1.1 The Scanning Tunneling Microscope ........................ 2 1.1.2 The Atomic Force Microscope ............................. 3 1.1.3 Innovations Through Integration ........................... .4 1.2 High-Resolution Patterning Using Scanning Probes ............... 6 1.2.2 Mechanical & Thermomechanical Patterning .................. 7 1.2.3 Local Oxidation ......................................... 8 1.2.4 Electron Exposure of Resist ............................... 9 1.3 Semiconductor Lithography .................................. 9 1.4 Book Overview ........................................... 15 1.5 References ............................................... 16 Chapter 2: SPL by Electric-Field-Enhanced Oxidation 23 2.1 Field-Enhanced Oxidation of Silicon .......................... 23 2.2 Amorphous Silicon as a Resist Material. ....................... 24 2.3 Fabrication ofa 100 nm nMOSFET ........................... 26 2.4 Results and Discussion ..................................... 32 2.5 References ............................................... 34 Chapter 3: Resist Exposure Using Field-Emitted Electrons 37 3.1 Field-Emitted Electron Exposure ............................. 37 3.2 Current-Controlled Exposures in Contact Mode ................ .48 3.3 Current-Controlled Exposures in Noncontact Mode .............. 60 3.3.2 Patterning in the Noncontact Mode ......................... 62 3.3.3 Line Width Control ............................ ; ........ 65 3.3.4 Comparison of Contact and Noncontact Mode Results ......... 66 3.3.5 Summary of Noncontact Mode SPL ........................ 67 v Scanning Probe Lithography 3.4 Simulations of Electron Field Emission and Electron Trajectories ... 67 3.4.1 Initial Beam Size in the Contact Configuration ............... 68 3.4.2 Comparison of Contact and Noncontact Configurations ........ 71 3.4.3 Beam Spreading ....................................... 75 3.4.4 Summary of Simulation Results ........................... 75 3.5 References ............................................... 77 Chapter 4: SPL Linewidth Control 81 4.1 Exposure Tools and Samples ................................ 81 4.2 Sensitivity and Exposure Latitude ............................ 84 4.3 Energy Density Distribution in the Resist ...................... 85 4.4 Patterning Linearity Using a Pixel Writing Scheme ............... 88 4.5 Proximity Effects ......................................... 91 4.6 Exposure Mechanisms of High- and Low-Energy Electrons ........ 97 4.7 Summary ................................................ 99 4.8 References ............................................... 99 Chapter 5: Critical Dimension Patterning Using SPL 103 5.1 100 nm pMOSFET Device Fabrication ....................... 103 5.2 Gate Level Lithography Using SPL .......................... 105 5.2.1 Overlay Registration ................................... 106 5.2.2 Patterning Over Topography ............................. 106 5.3 PMOSFET Device Characteristics ........................... 110 5.4 Summary of "Mix and Match" Lithography .................... 112 5.5 References .............................................. 112 Chapter 6: High Speed Resist Exposure With a Single Tip 115 6.1 High Speed Patterning of Siloxane SOG ...................... 115 6.1.1 Mechanism of Exposure ................................ 115 6.1.2 Experimental Procedure ................................ 117 6.1.3 Results of SOG Patterning .............................. 118 6.1.4 Discussion ........................................... 119 6.2 Current-Controlled SPL at High Speeds ....................... 119 6.2.1 Control of the Tip-Sample Force or Spacing at High Speeds .... 120 6.2.2 Control of the Emission Current at High Speeds ............. 121 6.2.3 High Speed Lithography ................................ 125 6.2.4 Summary of High Speed SPL Using a Single Tip ............ 126 6.3 References .............................................. 129 vi Table of Contents Chapter 7: On-Chip Lithography Control 131 7.1 Background and Motivation ................................ 131 7.2 MOSFET Design Considerations ............................ 132 7.2.1 Saturation Current. .................................... 134 7.2.2 Threshold Voltage ..................................... 134 7.2.3 Junction Breakdown ................................... 135 7.2.4 Off Current .......................................... 136 7.2.5 Switching Speed ...................................... 137 7.3 Cantilever and Tip Design Parameters ........................ 138 7.4 Fabrication Process ....................................... 140 7.4.1 Tip Formation and Cantilever Definition ................... 142 7.4.2 Front-End Transistor Fabrication ......................... 143 7.4.3 Back-End Transistor Fabrication ......................... 144 7.4.4 Cantilever Release ..................................... 144 7.5 Device Characteristics .................................... 146 7.6 Lithography with Integrated Transistor for Exposure Dose Control .148 7.7 Summary ............................................... 150 7.8 References .............................................. 151 Chapter 8: Scanning Probe Tips for SPL 153 8.1 Silicon and Metal-Coated Tips .............................. 153 8.2 Post-Processed Silicon Tips ................................ 155 8.3 Carbon Nanotubes as Scanning Probe Tips .................... 156 8.3.1 Direct Synthesis on Silicon Pyramidal Tips ................. 157 8.4 References .............................................. 160 Chapter 9: Scanning Probe Arrays for Lithography 163 9.1 Current-Controlled Lithography With Two Tips ................ 163 9 .1.1 High-Voltage Current Preamplifier. ....................... 164 9.1.2 Independent Parallel Lithography ......................... 166 9.1.3 Summary of Progress on Parallel Lithography ............... 167 9.2 Massively Parallel Arrays for Lithography .................... 167 9.2.1 Exposure Time for Different Size Arrays ................... 168 9.2.2 SPL Throughput Using Cantilever Arrays .................. 170 9.3 Integrated Current Control for Arrays ........................ 172 9.4 Two Dimensional Arrays: Process Development ................ 173 9.4.1 Enabling Technologies ................................. 173 9.4.2 Anisotropic Through Wafer Etching ....................... 174 9.4.3 Through-Wafer Via Process ............................. 175 9.5 Two Dimensional Arrays: Integration .......................
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