MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

The Hair Musical and American Society: Mutual Inspiration

Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2011

Supervisor: Author: Dr. Rita Chalmers Collins Daniela Frimlová

Declaration

I hereby declare that I worked on my bachelor thesis on my own and that I used only the sources mentioned in the bibliography section.

Brno, 2011 ...... Daniela Frimlová

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Rita Chalmers Collins for her great patience, kind help and valuable advice that she provided me with, without it the thesis could not come into being.

Annotation

The bachelor thesis is focused on evolution of the musical “Hair”. It follows its place among other musicals on Broadway and explores general historical background of its origin. The thesis not only deals with basic historical facts, it tries to highlight the social aspects of American life and consequently examine its portrayal in the musical. It also tries to prove that the inspiration by social mood and events was the main reason for the musical‟s creation. Subsequently it shows whether the musical influenced American life in turn, since the link to American society was strong. This is demonstrated by reactions of public audience and professional critics and by further development on the musical field.

Keywords

Musical, the Hippies, American society, the sixties, Broadway, antiwar movement

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION ...... 2 1. MUSICAL ORIGIN ...... 3 1.1 DEFINITION OF MUSICAL ...... 3 1.1.2 Characteristic features ...... 3 1.2 BROADWAY MUSICAL THEATRE TRADITION ...... 4 1.2.1 Broadway ...... 4 1.2.2 Beginnings ...... 5 1.2.3 The twenties ...... 5 1.2.4 Film and radio ...... 6 1.2.5 Television ...... 6 1.2.6 The sixties ...... 7 SUMMARIZING MUSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DEVELOPMENT ...... 7 1.3 AMERICAN SOCIETY IN 1960‟S ...... 8 1.3.1 Response to the 1950’s ...... 8 1.3.2 The sixties’ society characteristics ...... 9 1.3.3 Historical facts of the sixties ...... 9 1.3.4 Social movements of the sixties ...... 11 1.4 AUTHORS„ INSPIRATIONS, REASONS AND INTENTIONS ...... 13 1.4.1 Authors‘ biography ...... 13 1.4.2 Composer, producer and director ...... 14 SUMMARIZING HISTORICAL EVENTS OF THE SIXTIES AND AUTHORS„ INTENTIONS ...... 16 2. MUSICAL CONTENT ...... 16 2.1 SYNOPSIS AND CHARACTERS ...... 16 2.1.1 Characters ...... 17 2.1.2 Synopsis ...... 18 2.2 SOCIAL THEMES IN HAIR ...... 19 2.2.1 Pacifism ...... 20 2.2.2 Racism ...... 20 2.2.3 Sexual revolution and generation gap ...... 21 2.2.4 Nudity and sexual freedom ...... 21 2.2.5 Drug use...... 22 2.2.6 Religion ...... 22 2.2.7 Tribe and anti-consumerism ...... 23 2.3 DRAMATIZATION ...... 24 SUMMARIZING MUSICAL CONTENT ...... 25 3. REACTION OF AMERICAN SOCIETY ...... 26 3.1 PRESENTATION OF MUSICAL ...... 26 3.2 CRITICAL RECEPTION ...... 27 3.2.1 Positive reviews ...... 27 3.2.2 Negative reviews ...... 27 3.3 RECEPTION OF PUBLI C AUDIENCE ...... 28 3.3.1 New York ...... 28 3.3.2 Touring companies ...... 29 3.3.3 Young audience ...... 29 3.3.4 Negative reception ...... 30 3.4 HAIR‟S INFLUENCE ...... 30 3.4.1 Musicals ...... 30 3.4.2 Social change ...... 31 3.4.3 Hair revivals ...... 32 CONCLUSION ...... 33 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 34

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Introduction

The musical Hair has always been one of my most favourites. The choreography, music and lyrics have always been breathtaking to me. As a European and coming from post-communist country I was also interested in the phenomenon of the 1960‟s, in American hippie movement, which I could only hear about. That is why I have chosen to handle this part of American history in my bachelor thesis. Its aim is to confirm or disprove the hypothesis which in its first half argues that Hair’s creation was influenced and even provoked by the social situation in U.S. of the sixties. Second half of the hypothesis claims that presentation of the musical had impact on the society in turn and led to some change in it. The first chapter of thesis starts with definition of musicals and their development to prove that there is a connection between the musical and the tradition of society describing it. It then investigates the social and historical events of the U.S. in the sixties to confirm that these were artistically inspiring. Following part handles authors‟ inspirations and intentions to see whether they were motivated to portray American society at all. The second chapter explores which themes were included in the musical and how and their presentation to audience. The last chapter looks at what the reaction of experts and public audience were and by their comparison identificates what influence Hair had or did not have on American society. Thesis will use systematic analysis of primary and secondary resources combined with descriptive method. Comparative method applied to primary resources is crucial as well.

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1. Musical origin

1.1 Definition of musical

In order to define Hair as a musical and to find its place among others of this genre, it is important to define musical as an art form first.

1.1.2 Characteristic features

There is no universally applicable definition of musical, mainly because the genre itself is evolving and changing too quickly to be grasped. But there are several characteristics that are common to all musicals. A first of them is that musical is a synthesis of music, drama and dance. If I borrow Prostějovský‟s attempt to describe it:

Musical is a relatively young form of popular musical theatre that developed in New York. Generally it consists of two parts that combine elements of drama, operetta, burlesque and variety show and opera. Often it arises from a literary master and uses means of pop music, jazz and dance, while the epic scenes, songs and ballet are integral part of the plot. The three parts musical could be divided into are story, libretto and music. (21)

A second characteristic is the topic of musical, which makes them special. There are serious topics (West Side Story), rock themes (Jesus Christ Superstar) and even slightly comedy pieces (Grease); their production differs according to the topic‟s mood. Money is the third characteristics of every musical – “even a small musical is more expensive to produce than a play” (Atkey 5) - and the commercial success is something the producers are aiming to achieve. It is producers who have the highest authority in musical industry and the important task of all authors is to find a very good one. Producers represent the fourth musicals‟ characteristics. The need of money is expressed in the effort to catch audience‟s interest at any cost and this effort is the fifth musical characteristic. This is done by moving

3 borders of what is possible at the stage to something impossible – “landing helicopter should be an ordinary thing” (Prostějovský 22). Musicals are typical for their emphasis to amusement rather than sending some unpleasant message to audience, “there are those who believe musicals should do nothing more than entertain” (Atkey 5). This is the sixth characteristics of musicals.

Definition of musical is therefore based on seven characteristics – it is a synthesis of drama, dance and music, secondly their topics are unique, thirdly musicals are characteristic for the need of money, fourthly they need a very good producer to survive, fifthly they catch interest at any cost and sixthly their main aim is to amuse. As this thesis shows in following chapters, Hair was a synthesis of dance, music and drama. It also had a very clear topic and it tried to catch audience‟s interest. The money issue was less important for Hair than for other musical and authors also connected amusement with very important message to share with audience. Although a bit unique, Hair still fits my definition of musicals.

1.2 Broadway musical theatre tradition

It is also important to find out whether Hair as a musical had any potential or tradition in being the society mirror, therefore I will investigate the history of musical theatre at Broadway as well.

1.2.1 Broadway

“Broadway is the street in New York that has come to symbolize live theater entertainment and musicals throughout the world” (Jensen n. pag.). Up to today there are 36 of theatres creating the so-called “Great White Way” (Greiner n. pag.). And musical became favorite type of theatre performances on Broadway. Prostějovský very interestingly points out that “United States after declaring their independence fought pretty hard to distance from Europe even in terms of art” (24). Thanks to the censorship that influenced the old continent – in Great Britain for example “Lord Chamberlain licensed every performance until 1968” (Nathan n.

4 pag.) - musical as we know it in fact is the first kind of art that originated purely in the United States. It is not the intention of this thesis to map the whole history of muscials, but rather to portray the development until Hair. Its influences on the future will shortly be dealt in the final part of thesis.

1.2.2 Beginnings

Theatrical troupes in America “were mostly transatlantic extensions of theatrical circuit of Great Britain” (Everett, Laird 5) and The Threepenny Opera performed by the English theatre company (although originally German) in New York in 1750, is usually regarded as the first step on the way to modern musicals. The development of theatre performances was seen in the nineteenth century, mainly thanks to New York immigrants who became better off and were in the need of being entertained. Prostějovský claims that “without operetta, burlesque, vaudeville and revue musical would surely never occur” (25). These forms were imported from Europe and frequently “extensively modified for American audiences” (Everett, Laird 7). Later at the beginning of the twentieth century operettas and revues would not survive without including jazz melodies and rhythms of ragtime. Prostějovský claims that “by integrating jazz into musical comedies, these finally got a kind of national flavor” (26). At the beginning of the twentieth century Broadway became a cultural centre of New York City attracting audiences of middle class people. The plays and shows were cheerful and did not really deal with social issues and interest of audience inevitably led to the birth of first Broadway stars. Once the United States became involved in the First World War in 1917, “Broadway plays even represented kind of escape from reality, the more patriotic the better” (Hannah n. pag.).

1.2.3 The twenties

The twenties are known as the “Roaring Twenties”, reckless, irresponsible and materialistic era (Hannah n. pag.). Librettists started to work hard to connect the plot 5 of the show to the musical numbers and the text began to be the part that really mattered, because it for the first time attempted to mirror social events. First show that connected movements, music, songs and plot together into a clear shape was Show Boat in 1927. Realism also occurred here for the first time as both the white and black actors were included and the plot handled serious social issues. The audience was nevertheless rather shocked and “left the theater without applause” (Prostějovský 27) but all in all Broadway was full of fresh ideas, new styles and hope.

1.2.4 Film and radio

The problems of musicals started in 1929 with the Great Depression which nevertheless offered plenty of new and interesting topics to be dramatized. The plays were concerned with the state of things more than ever before. Apart from the economic crisis the second wound to Broadway was caused by the development of film and radio. These were cheaper, new and offered the same genres as Broadway. Broadway stars were leaving for a career in Hollywood. Broadway knew it had to take a different direction and situated itself into the role of society and politics critic. There were not many successful plays consequently; the most significant was the opera Porgy and Bess in 1935.

1.2.5 Television

The next step in musical development was Oklahoma! in 1943, first real musical using “dance as an integral part of plot rather as decoration” (Salzman 103) that made a huge success even abroad. Also the musical dramas that discussed more and more serious social problems were a step forward. But in the end of the forties Broadway had to survive another shot - development of television. Musicals became more opulent and narrative to catch audience‟s interest. With the withdrawal of many artists to television industry, “Broadway had become less of an industry and more of a loose array of individuals, which by 1950 was not afraid to express unorthodox opinions and preserved a freedom of speech”

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(Hannah n. pag.); although in comparison to later decade they did not take the full advantage of it. Two very key musicals were released in fifties – My Fair Lady in 1956 and West Side Story in 1957. The two determined next development because - although formally following musical rules - they were completely different from one another. A great amount of money brought Sound of Music in 1959. In 1964 the premiere of Hello, Dolly! resulted in quite the same success. From this point on “ideals of the mature form of musical genre became Brigadoon, Kiss Me, Kate, Guys and Dolls, My Fair Lady, West Side Story and Fiddler on the Roof” (Hoggard 12).

1.2.6 The sixties

Finally, the sixties were both the golden age and the age of crisis of the musical. New genres of pop music were utterly unknown to Broadway authors. The Beatles arrival at the music scene meant revolution in show-business - mass open-air festivals and “records produced by the millions confirmed crisis of American musical theatre” (Wilmeth, Bigsby 14). “The New York theatre community did include many devoted to revitalising the form and making it more relevant to modern life” (Everett, Laird 237). The psyche of the nation was shaken by contemporary events and many artists tried to “catch the mood and address the audience using popular music” (Wilmeth, Bigsby 14). New rock musicals– including the first one, Hair - were irrational responses to social situation, destroying some traditional theatre rules; it showed that for achieving popularity authors have to react on current events with as realistic presentation as possible. Nevertheless, rock musicals were not the only responses to social mood of the sixties. Stephen Sondheim came up with something new as well, his “concept musical” (Hoggard, 14), starting with Company, was utterly different, were not as alternative and were using more of Broadway traditional style.

Summarizing musical characteristics and development

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The musical is a genre of pure American origin and as such it is important part of American culture, “the themes of prominent Broadway musicals reflected the controversial, revolutionary, and nostalgic issues of an evolving American culture.” (Maslon n. pag.). There is clear evidence of deep tradition in handling social issues on Broadway, which graduated until Hair. Muscials even situated themselves into the role of society critics in order to catch decreasing audience, using poplar music to get closer to them. These two facts – that musical is important part of purely American culture and that often their purpose was to respond to social situations - show that there is a very strong possibility of Hair belonging to those very musicals that portrayed social issues and moods. The following parts of Chapter 1 will explore how the social situation was inspirational and whether authors actually responded to it. Chapter 2 will explore practical form of such response.

1.3 American Society in 1960’s

To illustrate the social background of Hair properly, I have to focus deeper on the socio-historical realities of 1960‟s than the previous part could offer.

1.3.1 Response to the 1950’s

Young people of the sixties responded to what happened to American society during the fifties - it “seemed increasingly materialistic, bureaucratic and conformist” (Lazerow 93), isolated in suburbs with psychology of positive thinking, perfect housewives pleasing their husbands, shopping culture and baby-boom. Here the individual was virtually eclipsed. Although the fifties were time of development on the field of civil rights with Martin Luther King Jr. as its leader, society refused to admit deeper social and political problems. Some doubts were seen only in art - Beatniks were the first to express their resignation and alienation from the middle class fairytale.

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1.3.2 The sixties’ society characteristics

The sixties was a period of youth and public life twists and turns when problems not resolved timely seemed much more difficult. As Tindall writes, anti- consumerism and anti-conformity moods led to establishment of various movements calling for change in lifestyle, values, laws or art (711). Their leading representatives were born during the population explosion in the fifties. USA‟s engagement in the War in Vietnam – most unsuccesful war of their history – inspired and offered a practice target for negative feelings expression. “People withdrew the automatic trust and confidence that mark the legitimacy of pulic authority after violence of the Vietnam War expanded” (Young 2). And importantly, Montaigne recalls, “through the sixties it seemed that art, and mostly popular music, was at the eye of every storm, musicians reacted to what they saw and for every headline there was a song” (n. pag.). Also issue-driven musicals got their chance to succeed.

1.3.3 Historical facts of the sixties

Not only young people but American society as a whole concretely responded to events that happened under three different Presidents – Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon.

J. F. Kennedy

Presidential elections of 1960 introduced two candidates – Richard M. Nixon and John F. Kennedy - of whom the latter won crucial public sympathy and became the youngest American President. The most important changes achieved under Kennedy, according to Tindall, concerned human rights (690), influenced by impressive nonviolent efforts of Martin Luther King Jr.. The Civil Rights movement made great changes in society, leading sit-ins – sit down strikes ispired by Ghandi – and peaceful protests. Malcolm X preached about Black Nationalism and after his assassination, the “Black Panthers were formed to continue his mission” (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.).

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Kennedy‟s foreign policy was significantly affected by Cold War. Diplomatic relations with Cuba were broke off after the unsuccesful Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and Missile Crisis in 1962. As Goodwin and Bradley remember, the Space Race with Soviets started in 1963 and John Glenn was the first American to orbit the earth. Kennedy had no chance to complete his plans about delicate situation in the ongoing Vietnam War because he tragically died of a gunshot attack on 22nd of November 1963. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson “was sworn in as President later that day” (Young 2).

L. B. Johnson and Vietnam War

Johnson made domestic policy his priority and after winning the following presidential elections in 1964 he started his plans for Great Society. A great number of laws and ideas was enforced “as a memorial to Kennedy‟s civil rights legislation” (Jones 237). What is also very important, Johnson signed a law banning racial segregation in public facilities and in schools in 1964. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was also amended to include gender. Although such a big change occured, in 1965 the Watts riots broke out in Los Angeles, Hispanic Americans “became recognized as an oppressed minority in the sixties” (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.) and American Indians began to assert themselves in violent protests. Johnson inherited problems of the Vietnam War from Kennedy. He nevertheless promised that American soldiers would not be killed in Vietnam. But after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution the only possible step was to “send American troops to Vietnam and tha draft was accelerated” (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.). The conflict escalated with both sides ending up waiting for the latter to run out of resources. American citizens lost patience first. “The destruction of a small Southeast Asian country by the most powerful military machine in the world, unfolded daily in the press and on TV screens, never felt ordinary” (Young 3). Johnson‟s consultants came in 1968 to conclusion that the war could not be won and President himself tried to start ceasefire negotiations.

R. M. Nixon

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In 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr. was shot and Nixon won presidential elections, he entered the office on 20th January 1969 with his vision of stability and order that most Americans desperately needed. He was connected to stability of the fifties and the nation believed he “would bring an honorable peace” (Young 3). Nixon nevertheless did not manage to end the War in Vietnam during his time in office. In 1973 ceasefire was agreed but the war ended in 1975 when “North Vietnamese took Saigon and forced the U.S. to pull out completely” (Miller n. pag.).

1.3.4 Social movements of the sixties

The sit-down strike of African American students in Greensboro in 1960 launched anti-segregation wave and started the decade of human rights, ended indifference of the fifties and inspired every group that longed for justice. “From the New Left to hippies, from Women‟s Rights advocates to Vietnam protesters, the nation was challenged by interest groups trying to change government, public institutions and social reality” (Jones 237). Nevertheless historians in order to be objective highlight that no movement of the sixties was also generally accepted by those that were not involved (Young, Lazerow).

New Left

New Left - in contrast to earlier leftists that focused on social justice and labour unionization – stressed the lack of individual freedom in American society under authoritarian structures of “Establishment” (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.). Students associated with New Left were believed to bring participatory democracy back when they formed Free Speech Movement at Berkeley – “what inspired campus demonstrations nationwide” (Jones 236) - and Students for a Democratic Society. Their focus was modified according to developments of the Vietnam War, though. “Young people collectively burned their conscription documents, fled to Canada and organized so called sit-ins” (Hoggard, 13). Movement later became more violent, what led to strike at Columbia University in April 1968 for example (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.). The polarization of society peaked in Chicago in August 1968 where oponnents of Vietnam War gathered in the

11 streets on the same day that Democrats took Congress. Demonstrators were brutally beaten by police, and the rest of nation could watch it broadcasted on television.

Counterculture

Some joined the second most significant movement – the counterculture. Signs of counterculture were “long hair, blue jeans, batik shirts, hallucinogenic drugs like LSD, rock music, Oriental mysticism, traveling around the country and living in communes” (Tindall 714). Hippies, as Hoggard mentions with ten thousands of followers (13), were direct descendants of the beatnik movement, they were wealthy, educated and white young people disgusted by war in Vietnam, racism, “parents‟ requirements, society‟s limited mentality and even by ineffective political protest” (Miller n. pag.). Their reaction was to lose themselves in drugs and forget about problems. Jones adds that hippies were introduced to the American public during the “world‟s first Human Be-In” on January 14, 1967 (235). As Smith and Litton describe, catchword of this rock culture was “love”. Open air rock festivals (performing for example Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison and The Who) celebrating love and spreading new shared values were very popular among hippies, most of them “held in the cradle of psychedelic culture, San Francisco” (Smith, Litton 297), but the biggest one in Woodstock in 1969.

Minorities’ interests

Human rights movement of the sixties supported feminist ideas and women rights in general, with Betty Friedan as the main representative (Jones 236). Friedan founded the National Organization for Women in 1966 and tried to abolish women discrimination in employment, to legalize abortion and to get support for nursery school from the state. Imbornoni names for example availability of the birth control pill or legalization of abortion in Colorado as successes of NOW (n. pag.). There were also many smaller groups that were longing for justice and the atmosphere of the sixties helped them to come up with their demands. These were “ethnic minorities of Latinos, Asians, Native Americans, poor people, older people, environmentalists, consumers and homosexuals” (Lazerow 91). Native Americans founded American Indian Movement in 1968 and there was no doubt their situation needed immediate improvement, fortunately they were often “successful in getting

12 financial compensations when they asked for restitutions according to old contracts” (Goodwin, Bradley n. pag.).

1.4 Authors‘ Inspirations, Reasons and Intentions

James Rado and Gerome Ragni were “tired of ordinary plays they acted in, of one-dimensional characters they did not want to play, they wanted to breathe for their character and create musical connected to day and space” (Bártová 33). In hippie movement they finally found the theme they were waiting for. Such psychedelic chaos undoubtly had its potential to create unforgettable show. They also knew they had to choose a special form of presentation. And as Bártová points out correctly, such a topic could not be treated in any traditional approach (30).

1.4.1 Authors‘ biography

Authors„ intention of writing extraordinary musical had a long history and therefore it is best to shortly describe their biographies and common career.

Gerome Bernard Ragni, Jerry, was born 11th September 1942 in Pittsburgh into a poor and large Italian family. He studied at Catholic University in Georgetown and at the same time dramatic art at Philip Burton. He married in 1963 and debuted in New York in a play War. His friends “knew him as actor, painter and poet and he belonged to the experimental theater group The Open Theatre” (Bártová 31). James Rado, Jim, whose real name was James Radomski, was born in 1939 in Los Angeles, grew up in Washington and was “inevitably attracted by New York and its theatres” (Bártová 32). Rado studied acting with Uta Hagen and Lee Strasberg and at college he majored in Speech and Drama and was ambitious songwriter as well – “he wrote pop songs and recorded his own band” (Rado n. pag.). His first role on Broadway was in The Lion in Winter. “In his early teens he knew what he wanted to do, his dream, to write a Broadway musical” (Rado n. pag.), and as Rado continues, he also co-authored four of them before Hair. Ragni and Rado met each other as young actors at the beginning of their careers, first in a short off-Broadway production of Hang Down Your Head and Die and then they both joined The Knack on its tour in Chicago. Rado writes that he saw some of 13

Ragni‟s poetic writings and asked him to collaborate on a new show, apart from becoming a great friend with him (rumors have also been that their relationship was more intimate) (Rado n. pag.). It was after they had returned from this tour that they started to write Hair. They became enchanted by hippie atmosphere back in New York. As Bártová notes, they quickly identified themselves with this freedom movement, as with massive protests against the Vietnam War and even with the drug culture, typical for this psychedelic era (28). According to “Hair History” they needed to share the excitement they felt in the streets, the “excitement of the long-haired, peace-loving, freewheeling hippies” (n. pag.). They hung out with hippies, went to their be-ins and let their hair grow. Ragni and Rado have been working on the libretto for three years, from 1965 to 1967, they “created the characters, dialogues, skits, songs and gave this whole project full of experimental sketches a derisive title Hair” (Bártová 31).

1.4.2 Composer, producer and director

But Ragni and Rado were not the only authors who influenced the nature and form of Hair. To influence young society of the sixties, choosing of proper composer was very important. Bártová writes that this process took a long time and was done very carefuly (33). Because “theater composers had experienced more bad luck than good in adapting rock music for the stage the first fully realized rock musical to make it on Broadway was composed by an outsider” (Wollman, MacDermot, Trask 45). Canadian born Galt MacDermot was the right one. Rado and Ragni heard his African Waltz and knew this was what they exactly needed. Knapp‟s opinion is much more sarcastic – “while they aimed in part for a documentary-like truth, recruiting cast members from the street, they also aimed quite clearly for commercial success, and so hired a Grammy-award-winning jazz composer with Broadway ambitions to write the music” (155). Galt MacDermot was born in 1928 in Montreal and his father, a skilled pianist, brought him both to classical and popular music, but Galt„s love for Duke Ellington made him crazy for jazz. He spent part of his childhood in South Africa and this inspired him even more, he particularly loved Africa style of drumming and singing. 14

After some time in London and back in Canada, MacDermot moved to London, where he was awarded Grammy for African Waltz. Next step in his career was the ambition to write a musical. That is when he was “introduced to Ragni and Rado and in three weeks wrote music for the whole musical” (Bártová 34). Rado writes that “meeting Galt MacDermot was a case of love at first sound and more than a fulfillment of our dream” (Rado n. pag.). In order to compose the score for the show properly “MacDermot familiarized himself with the hippie culture and music very deeply” (Miller n. pag.).

The next component of a creative team was a producer. But none could get persuaded to be a part of such risky project easily. Finally authors convinced Joseph Papp, lecturer at Yale and a founder of the New York Shakespear Festival, who was planning to open a new theatre complex to produce avantgarde plays and he thought Hair‘s premise was the best for his experimental project (Miller n. pag.). After six weeks the hosting at Papp‟s ended. But Rado and Ragni did not have to worry, since another producer, Michael Butler, loved the show so much that he decided to place it into disco club Cheetah until he ran out of money. As Rado writes:

He was attracted to it by the Public Theater poster with the picture of five American Indians on it. He thought HAIR would be about Native Americans, a subject he was interested in. He didn't know the show was about hippiehood, but he took it in and liked it so much that, although he had never been a producer of theatricals before, expressed the desire to move the Public Theater production to the Cheetah Discotheque in midtown Manhattan (n.pag.).

With this approach – Everett and Laird call him “a wealthy liberal with anti-war sentiment who wanted the show to be seen by a wider audience and thus took over as producer” (237). Butler entered the creative team for more than month in Cheetah (geographically closer to the Great White Way). He believed in Hair as much as authors did, what differed him from Papp.

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At this point it also became Tom O‟Horgan, who influenced the show and its message. Being called the “first director to bring full nudity onto Broadway” (Bártová 47), O‟Horgan made it possible that the musical and its themes were made really close to audience, all thanks to brilliant dramatization, which I investigate later. Were not for Tom O‟Horgan, Hair would not be as exceptional and innovative and therefore strong in its influence on American society.

Summarizing historical events of the sixties and authors‘ intentions

The sixties were undoubtly very rich for social themes, as much as these were powerful. They found expression in various kinds of art and musical was not the only media for them. But it was particularly musical to which the sixties brought enormous development – as investigated in chapter 1.2. What is more, all authors were to some point inspired by these events, MacDermot studied hippies carefuly, Butler thought the theme was as nearly important as his interest in American Indians, O‟Horgan tried to portray them as honestly and impressively as possible. Rado and Ragni not only found a perfect topic in hippiedom, but in the end they felt they were obliged to portray the energy and message surrounding hippies. I think at this point I can confirm the veracity of the first part of hypothesis – American society did inspire the origin of Hair, almost substantially. How is this reflected practically in the musical is investigated in following chapters.

2. Musical Content

2.1 Synopsis and characters

Hair had no real plot, it was simply a revue, showing practically every aspect of the counterculture in a variety of musical styles, dance and stage effects. It would therefore be possibly better to introduce the main characters first, to fully understand the synopsis, if not the whole story. According to Kanpp Hair was not a show, rather happening and that is why it had no cast in conventional sense, but rather

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“interactive Tribe, refering to primitive group dynamic of American Indian” (155). The Tribe consists of “young hippie people that gather in a park in Greenwich Village in 1968 and characters‟ types are similar to the real movement” (Knapp 157).

2.1.1 Characters

Claude is maybe the main character of musical. Women love him, men follow and younger boys emulate. “Claude is bored with his identity and affects an English accent, pretending to be newly arrived from Manchester” (Sova 106). According to Knapp Claude remains somehow at the periphery of movement, because he does not burn his draft card (156). The fight between what he believes is right and what the authorities order him should be right is the most dramatical conflict in the musical. Berger, Claude‟s best friend, is a contrast to Claude, “free-spirited group‟s leader” (Knapp 157). He is a social activist that wildly follows his beliefs no matter the costs and consequences. Miller describes their relationship as that Berger and Claude are two halves of one whole with Claude as “the intellectual half, the voice of reason and morality, who tries to understand everything around him, and Berger is the animal half, focused on instinct, pleasure and primal urges” (n. pag,). Sheila‟s character is archetypal as well, she is an upper class politically active college student, spreading the change of society through “the peaceful groovy revolution” (Sova 106). She is the most intelligent of Tribe members, lives with Berger and Claude in an appartement in East Village and deeply loves Berger. The three form “ménage a trois” (Sova 107). Both Claude and Berger love Sheila, but “Berger wants Sheila only for physical pleasure, while Claude wants her for spiritual pleasure of pure love” (Miller n. pag.). Sheila herself loves Berger, but he does not want any commitments and tries to make her hate him. Jeannie is a beautiful young girl who stands in the story for a most zealous follower; interested in spirituality she is also suggested to have some magical powers. She is pregnant, does not know with whom, but deeply loves and fully understands Claude. With her creativity and tenderness she takes care of other Tribe members. Jeannie provides a “symbolic bridge between spirituality and sexuality” (Miller n. pag.) - she may be pregnant and promiscuous, but it is aslo her who invites the audience to be-in. 17

Hud is African-American, what factor could not have been missed when portraying the hippie movement. He also is a strong personality who speaks his mind and holds a great deal of the musical‟s spirituality and energy. While belonging to the core of the Tribe he represents its heterogeneity while still keeping homogenous message. Woof represents the younger part of the Tribe, he is very energetic. His part in the story requires him to be mysterious about his sexual orientation and to show the fight of admitting being gay to himself. Knapp also adds Claude‟s parents representing the establishment to the core cast (157), they serve for better comparison between the Tribe and others.

2.1.2 Synopsis

“Instead of a logical narrative, Hair was more of a rambling diatribe against all authority figures and glorification of drugs, free love, racial tolerance, respect for individual and environmentalism” (Everett, Liard 237). The stage scene is filled with flower children who “wander through scenes wearing flowers” (Sova 107). “The show unfolds as a series of associations to a central theme” (Knapp 155), what also reflects the characteristics of milieu that Hair sought to reproduce and its tendency for free association in real life, influenced by the use of drugs (156). Wollman, Dermot and Trask describe Hair as a musical with theme, not a story (47). The story consists of largely interrelated vignettes during which the musical‟s characters examine various counterculture concerns. Claude Hooper Bukowski flees his parents‟ house in Queens for the “hippie enclave of Greenwich Village” (Wollman, MacDermot, Trask 47). In the first songs of the Act 1, Miller explains, the characters introduce themselves, Berger himself introduces the tribe, their philosophy and their way of life in light of their parents‟ objections which the Tribe believes to be untrue, wrong and even harmful (n. pag.). Then it is revealed that Berger was expelled from high school and that Claude has to go to face the draft board. Claude fights about whether to obey this order or not. Sova adds that Claude pretends to have burned his draft card, but later the Tribe finds out that it was just his library card. He passes the army‟s physical and changes his mind definitely during the pseudo-orgy (107). 18

A couple of tourists joins the Tribe and when the young people sing about how hair is important to them, the two are so impressed that the woman reveals she is a man and a transvestite in fact. Audience sees that nothing is clear and everything we encounter should be regarded critically. The police intervention signals intermission. “The most passionate moment came in the penultimate scene of Act 2, a stylised set piece that railed against the futility of war” (Everett, Laird 237). Claude is inducted into the army. “The stage fills with images of George Washington at war with a group of Native Americans, joined by Abraham Lincoln, Scarlett O‟Hara, Buddhist monks and Catholic nuns” (Sova 108). The scene segues into singing about the ugliness of the war. Berger leads the tribe and the audience through the craziness of Act 1, but in Act II he “fades into the background as Clause‟s story takes center stage” (Miller n. pag.). While gathering to sleep under the moon in a mass of Flower Power, Claude disappears for a time. Then he returns wearing Army uniform and the Tribe cannot see him. The story ends with “Claude accepting his call into the military, followed by his death” (Everett, Liard 237). In the final scene Claude lies alone on the stage and Berger lays a cross made of sticks on his chest.

Even from characters and plot summary it is clear that authors tried to portray hippie movement and social moods of the sixties as realistically as possible – every character represents specific part of milieu and plot handles destiny of young people with all their problems. Following chapter lists specifically what themes authors included and how.

2.2 Social themes in Hair

“Ragni‟s and Rado‟s desire was to create a musical that would reflect the hippie life-style” (Knapp, 154), Jones writes “Hair was a fully fleshed-out theatrical depiction of the hippie counterculture and the New Left during the late 1960s” (249). And as such, it reflects the issues hippie culture was trying to warn against. This thesis will organize and discuss them one by one.

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2.2.1 Pacifism

If there is some central theme in the musical, it definitely is pacifism, which is followed by the storyline. Claude obtained his draft card and has to decide what he would do about it – whether he would burn it or whether he would obey and think about what his parents and country need from him. While investigating his inner dilemma, Hair offers hippie view on war as complete nonsense and the worst crime. Songs such as “Three-Five-Zero-Zero”, “Don‟t put it down”, “Hare Krishna”, and the final “Let the Sun Shine In” reflect the hippie calling for peace. Miller adds that “the first version of Hair was exclusively about war in Vietnam and other themes were added when the show was about to be moved to Broadway in 1968” (n. pag.). In the second version Claude‟s dilemma about the war is the only dramatic through-line at least, highlighted both comically and dramatically by symbols of war in the drug trip in Act II.

2.2.2 Racism

Hair continued to speak out loud about racial segregation, building on tradition started by opera Porgy and Bess for example. What is more, the cast consisted from one third of African Americans whose characters were portrayed equal to white members of tribe. Hair ignored any demand on politically correct speech or politeness of society. It worked with racist labels very openly to show how ridiculous they are and wanted audience to face them. Some Hair songs address racism or racial issues directly. “I‟m Black” covers racism theme as a whole, “Colored Spade” consists in fact only of bad names, of racial slurs, “Dead End” in turn speaks of various examples of inequality of rights and racial discrimination expressed by street signs. “Black Boys / White Boys” wittily portrays relationship and mutual attractivity of people of various races. “Hair shocked the audience by showing how absurd, offensive, nonsensical and dangerous are the the language and behaviour society considered – and still consideres – normal” (Miller, n. pag.).

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2.2.3 Sexual revolution and generation gap

In “Abie Baby” President Lincoln is performed by a black actress, what is one of moments where Hair touches the theme of sexual revolution, of women‟s fight for equal rights. The hippies‟ flag, their long hair, also should, according to Miller, symbolize rejection of discrimination and restrictive gender roles, celebrated again in the song “My conviction” (n. pag.). “Black Boys / White Boys” is unorthodox for the sixties from the sexual revolution point of view. Women express their feelings about men in a way that was considered normal only the other way around. Hair clearly admits that women have same rights as men and not only in the field of expressing their feelings. Sexual revolution is directly connected to a large generation gap that became apparent in the sixties and that is what the hippie movement was about. Mutual misunderstandings are illustrated in the song “Hair”. “My Conviction” which follows, sang by middle-aged woman, “defends the gaudy plumage of hippie youth” (Jones 249).

2.2.4 Nudity and sexual freedom

Nudity had a very important place in hippie culture. It expressed the overall idea of sexuality being healthy thing and its exposure nothing evil or harmful. Quite contrary, hippies blamed the suppression of nature for the evil thoughts of all previous generations. Being naked meant freedom, honesty and openness. Hair reflects it in the controversial naked scene at the end of the Act I, containing “male and female full-frontal nudity” (Wollman 7). Whereas until Hair stage nudity was relatively taboo, Wollman adds that after Hair’s success it became increasingly fashionable, especially on off-Broadway (7). Sexual freedom theme is very close to that of nudity. Both celebrated the acceptance of who we are and what can we do with it - without being angry at ourselves. Both also worked with the element of pure love, spread through sex. Hair was not afraid to highlight the homosexual issue, by texts of songs and even by actions of characters.

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2.2.5 Drug use

Psychedelic era, how the sixties are sometimes called, is a direct reference to almost glorified use of drugs and hallucinogens among hippies. It is a symbol of their giving up, their solution to every pain. They just used the drug and tried to enjoy emotions and expanded mind that it brought, without suffering the feeling of helplessness for everything that was wrong. Characters in Hair act in the same way. But what is more, the whole show tried to function as a kind of drug - psychedelic scenes, hallucinogenic dance and acting performances made it possible. The audience could hear it in songs such as “Walking in Space” (with explicitly saying that two reason for taking drugs are total self-awarness and meeting God), “Donna” and “Hashish”. “Aquarius” lyrics are according to Knapp also inspired by the drug-based catalyst for achieving “golden living dreams of visions”, “mystic crystal revelations” and others (157).

2.2.6 Religion

Both Christianity and a wave of interest in eastern astrology are reflected in Hair. Rado‟s Analysis states that “the hippies have checked the traditional ideas and ways of life and have freed themselves from the ordered narrowness of life; their uppermost ideal was the happiness and health of mankind (meditation, various types of body work, etc.)” (n. pag.). Mystical astrology atmosphere is set from the very beginning by the opening song “Aquarius”, and later “Good Morning, Starshine” is all about astrology as well. The touch of mysticism was aimed to be felt from the show and the cast was carefuly chosen to meet the Zodiac sign of their character. “Claude‟s birth sign is Aquarius and he is damned to genius and madness” (Analysis n. pag.). Ritual was also very important to Hair, because of its spiritual roots. Miller writes, that “Aquarius” is a kind of “ritual summoning the tribe, formal calling together of its members” (n. pag.). Ritual is also used for the mock mass in “Sodomy”. There are some references as well to Jesus Christ, who should be represented by Claude (seen as Hamlet, too, as discussed later). Apart from explicit lines about being God‟s son or wanting to hang on a cross, Claude is blessing the audience

22 while walking among them. Sometimes also his death is interpreted as a sacrifice for the other members of tribe. Miller claims, that “Where Do I Go” contains as much confusion as Christ had in the Garden of Gethsemane and he even makes connections between John the Baptist and Berger and Mary Magdalene and Jeanie (n. pag.). “Theme of sacrifice and redemtpion, or premature death, is frequent to rock music in general” (Hoggard 19), as can be seen in one of the following rock musical, Jesus Christ Superstar, as well. Hair also touches the theme of hypocrisy in organized religion – in Catholic Church - of USA of the sixties. Same as with the calling for return to non- consumerism and nature it highlights return to the original pureness of religion, which can be found rather in eastern religious examples. The song “Donna” is, according to Miller, about looking for Virgin Mary, Madonna, for the true spirituality represented by her (n. pag.), even if it would be through mind-expanding drugs. “Sodomy” continues with this theme, satirizing the Catholic obsession with forbidding and controling everything connected to sex. The theme of such an objection is omnipresent in the script and apart from religion also expressed in rejection “of such institutions as marriage, honourable citizens or American flag” (Bártová 46).

2.2.7 Tribe and anti-consumerism

There are many references to tribe, tribal relationship and tribal life throughout the musical. This again reflects the approach of hippie counterculture and even develop the idea of tribalism from the musical‟s own point of view. Both hippies and musical authors wanted to portray a disdain for consumerism and malign influence of civilization. Authors wanted the emotions of tribal belonging to be expressed properly, every cast had to choose its tribal name and practically lived together very closely. “The Flash Failures” describes the wrong side of consumerism, that we do not stop to connect to others and are just obsessed by ourselves and our possession. But “somewhere inside, buried beneath all this, hidden deep down, there is greatness in the human race, that we have such potential, but that we have failed” (Miller n. pag.).

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„Let the Sun Shine In” is then a call for action, call for a change of all this mistakes we have made because of our succumbing to consumerism and distancing from one another. Sun should brighten the darkness in us all to save us. Hippies were also very interested in environment protection. The song “Air” addresses pollution, “extending the subject to include pollution of the body” (Knapp 161). Materials that hippies made their clothes of were nature-friendly, in concert of their return to innocence. “Air” speaks about what kinds of noxious gas can be found all around us and can irreversibly destroy tha nature and us as well.

If I can borrow words of Raymond Knapp, with themes that aroused indignation Hair’s mission was “on one side to serve as a kind of “teaching” and to gain greater understanding and support, on the other hand it in some cases provided an “in-your- face” exposure of verbal taboos (160). Hair as a whole could serve as encyclopaedia of the sixties.

2.3 Dramatization

Investigating the form authors gave to their story is also very important in order to show how they were zealous about influencing the audience.

Off-off Broadway theatres began to experiment in the fifties and one of the most innovative group was Ellen Stewart‟s La Mama Experimental Theatre Club. Ragni and Rado had used its techniques “to transform their observations of youth culture in Greenwich Village into the script” (Everett, Laird 237). As Rado adds, Tom O‟Horgan used various “sensitivity exercises” developed by Viola Spolin (Rado n. pag) so that the musical could offer the feeling of actors “living” their roles. Rado and Ragni knew from the beginning that the show will run on Broadway and the audience will be typical Broadway theatregoers - “their target audience was mainstream middle class” (Jones 249), that is why castings were less interested in professionalism than in finding actors who could interpret the material realistically. O„Horgan contributed heavily to the show by removing “the traditional invisible fourth wall” (Wollman 7) that prevents to interact directly with the audience. The

24 very beginning of the show is a practical example of no fourth wall, the Tribe gathers slowly on the stage after mingling with audience. The same applies for “Let the Sunshine In”, when “the cast encourages the audience to come up on the stage to dance and sing” (Johnson,27). The stage was designed to evoke the street of New York; Miller writes that much of the scene was built by things actors actually brought from street (n. pag.). Costumes were inspired by the hippie fashion, only a bit theatrically exaggerated. The nude scene for the song “Where Do I Go” was something that provoked many vigorous reactions, although it lasted only for twenty seconds and nobody could see the whole stage clearly. But it still was viewed by critiques as dishonesty and sometimes it elicited violent reaction. The original aim nevertheless was nothing of a sexual context. Wollman even comments that the nudity was intended “merely as a beautiful comment about the young generation” (8). Music of the play was marked by the avant-garde rules. Galt MacDremot was inspired by rock music and “not only did many of the lyrics not rhyme, but many of the songs did not really have endings so the audience did not know when to applaud” (Miller n. pag.). Experimental theatre movement tried to use lyrics as abstract sounds that contribute to the rhythm, what Miller sees in “Ain‟t Got no Grass” and “Three-Five-Zero-Zero”, where words are sung so quickly that no one could understand their meaning and they have no meaning after all (n. pag.). Authors wanted even the choreography to be experimental, the movement should have been “less choreographed and more spontaneus” (Miller n. pag.). Smith and Litton add that “everything about Hair was designed to feel spontanious, the antithesis of the laquered smiles, drill-team formations of other latter-day musicals” (294).

Summarizing musical content

Nothing is so sure than that authors of Hair fully expressed their inspirations of the sixties in their musical. From characters, plot, themes that songs express to form the performance took everything is aimed to portray hippie movement. The first part of my hypothesis – that American society of the sixties inspired Hair – is fully confirmed.

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The second part – whether Hair inspired American society in turn – is to be investigated in following chapter.

3. Reaction of American society

3.1 Presentation of musical

To not confuse reader while commenting on reactions of reviewers and audience it is better to shortly mention the way of musical from Off-Broadway to Broadway, since Hair was the first show to got from off-Broadway to Broadway.

After being rejected again and again from uptown producers, Joseph Papp offered authors that Hair could become the “inaugural production at the under- construction New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theatre for a limited run” (Johnson 231). After a 6-week run, Hair had to move and Michael Butler “managed to move the show to the Cheetah Discotheque in midtown Manhattan” (Wollman, MacDermot, Trask 45). Because the place was still a working disco, the opening time had to be “7:30 pm – in those days B‟way was 8:30 - and there was no time for intermission, so that dancing could start at 10 pm” (Rado n.pag.). 23rd January 1968 The New York Times “reported that the show opened for the last time” (Bártová 43). After the experience gained in the Public Theatre and Cheetah engagement, authors decided that the form had to change. MacDermot, Rado and Ragni “had rewritten the text and added 13 new songs, expanding the score from 20 to 33 numbers” (Rado n. pag.). Authors also wanted “casting to be done all over again, they had chosen new director, Tom O‟Horgan, they wanted new designers (with lightning designer Jules Fisher, set designer Robin Wagner and costume designer Nancy Potts), they hired new choreographer Julie Arenal and new Tribe of actors” (Rado n. pag.). Finally Butler was able to strike a deal with the owner of the Biltmore Theaer, on 47th Street . The show opened on April 29, 1968 and closed on July 1972.

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In the Biltmore Theatre the show ran for 4 years, 5 years it was played in the London‟s West End (from 27th September 1968), at the Shaftesbury Theatre, but only after “censorship law, which found some Hair scenes inappropriate” (Bártová 48), was canceled. Half a year after Broadway opening a new company was formed in Los Angeles, with Michael Butler as a producer and both Rado and Ragni as actors. Michael Butler also produced another 9 other engagements in 9 US cities and Hair was played there simultaneously, later there also were some national tours.

3.2 Critical reception

3.2.1 Positive reviews

Nash writes that critics were nearly unanimous in praising Hair, reviewer Clive Barnes from the New York Times called it “new, fresh and unassuming” (60). John J. O‟Connor of The Wall Street Journal commented that “the show was exuberantly defiant and the production explodes into every nook and cranny of the Biltmore Theater” (n. pag.). Richard Watts Jr. of the New York Post thought that “it has a surprising if perhaps unintentional charm, its young zestfulness makes it difficult to resist” (n. pag.). Television critic Allan Jeffreys of ABC said the actors were “most talented hippies directed in a wild fashion by Tom O‟Horgan” (n. pag.) and Leonard Probst of NBC replied by “Hair is the only new concept musical on the Broadway in years and it‟s more fun than any other this season” (n. pag.). Len Harris of CBS said “I‟ve finally found the best musical of the Broadway season” (n. pag.).

3.2.2 Negative reviews

Bártová nevertheless also names the second group that hated Hair. James Davis criticised mainly “cumbersome music, terrible dancing and cast that seemed mentally retarded” (Bártová 40). A reviewer from Variety called the show “without story, form, music, dancing, beauty or artistry” and could not tell “whether the cast has talent, but maybe talent is irrelevant in this kind of showbusiness” (n. pag.). Reviewer from Time wrote that although the show “thrums with vitality, it is crippled by being a bookless musical and – like a boneless fish – it drifts when it

27 should swim” (n. pag.). Goldman never understood why someone so mature and old as Rado could play a role of young kid shamefully being drafted (n. pag.), he also very strongly opposed the nude scene, which he found “unnecessary, not shocking but tasteless and in no way expressing freedom, just a commercial idea” (n. pag.). He liked the off-Broadway version much more. According to Sova newspaper theater critics “condemned the play for its “irreverence” and “vulgarity” as well for nudity” (107) but that their disapproval was reserved mainly for what they viewed as amateurish and repetitive scenes and unintelligible lyrics (Sova 108). Michael Smith also joined the opposition camp. He was very disappointed by how authors portrayed East Village in which he lived for very long time. He called Hair “undisguised opportunism exploiting any conflict issues to become stunning or actual” (Bártová 51). Some reviewers reacted to Hair as to new invention on the musical field. For example Clive Barnes applauded authors for not being afraid of creating musical without story and ruin therefore Broadway rules (Bártová 53). But lots of other reviewers were afraid of possibility of such direction in musical showbusiness. Nevertheless, by the end of the season drama critics voted to name Galt MacDermot best composer of the season and Ragni and Rado as best lyricists and with 1750 performances on Broadway Hair was placed among the top 30 longest- running plays (Sova 108).

3.3 Reception of publi c audience

3.3.1 New York

Sova summarizes the public reaction as that “the play ran at the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theater and at the Cheetah all without complaints about the language and nudity of the play and it opened on Broadway again without official interference” (107). The Biltmore production “quickly became a hit with standing room sold out completely at all performances” (Nash 60) and never was the target of full-scale protest. It was nevertheless frequently criticized as “subversive propaganda by supporters of the war in Vietnam” (Wollman, MacDermot, Trask 55) and the “Don‟t

28 put it down” number was couple times interrupted by “infuriated patrons who interpreted the number as disrespectful to the American flag” (Jones 251). Wollman, MacDermot and Trask also cite some original cast members about strong reactions of public audience when “at each performance at least two people went “Hmph!” and walked out” (56).

3.3.2 Touring companies

Touring companies were less lucky, running into “roadblocks of community standards” (Jones 252) in numerous other U.S. cities. Sova specifically describes how Hair was banned from military theaters for being unfit for military theaters “beacuse it could cause trouble” (108). Language of the play was modified for productions in Indianapolis, South Bend and Evansville and nudity was eliminated. Censhorsip occured also in St. Paul, Minnesota and San Antonio, the production in Los Angeles was stopped by police and officers were allowed to arrest cast members. The reactions to musical resulted into “legendary banned-in-Boston proportions” (Jones 252), with the Boston company facing criminal charges for obscenity in 1970, and Wollman, MacDermot and Trask also speak about efforts to ban musical in Chatanooga 1971, with both examples resulting in cases before U.S. Supreme Court (55).

3.3.3 Young audience

Wilmeth and Bigsby mention that Hair brought a new audience into the mainstream music theatre” (443), Wollman, MacDermot and Trask write that “Hair attracted a significant number of young people and a greater proportion of African Americans than attended most Broadway shows” and justify it by musical‟s youthful orientation, topical themes, eclectic score and young, interracial cast (54). Authors also add some statistics – 46% of audience were under thirty and 7% were black under thirty while the average Broadway audience was “merely 3,7 % African American and predominantly middle-aged” (Wollman, MacDermot, Trask 55). Nash points out that this generation gap – reflected in the musical as well – influenced differents in opinions of audience, with younger audience liking it and seeing the message of it and older being insulted and seeing no message at all (61). 29

Nash assumes the reason of audience to come was “curiosity about nudity and hippies and what was going on that day, genuine interest in the show, or visit of average theatre-goers just because Hair has been pronounced a hit and was considered the thing to see” (60). The success depended according to him on critics‟ reviews and advertising. But he also admits that a box office success cannot be reached without audience liking the piece. According to Nash‟s survey, 70% liked Hair very much (61). As Everett and Laird write, many of the songs from Hair resonated with popular music audiences and “Hair remains one of the few Broadway musicals to achieve chart status in the years since the rise of rock‟n‟roll” (239). Many of the songs still remain pop standards, although the musical itself has aged.

3.3.4 Negative reception

Nevertheless, one part of audience did not find Hair as going far enough and this were the representants of New Left movement. Wollman, MacDermot and Trask write that “the intellectual side of the counterculture did not respond well to Hair, they thought it was too simple and did not express the Left‟s sentiment in the right way” and also were scared of the degree of commercialism in portraying the hippie culture (56). This has to be taken into account, but Hair undoubtly mediated the issues to middle-class audience by “presenting token representatives of various contributing strands in the Tribe that was already dominated by their “own kind” and governed by their own values in a purer form” (Knapp 156) and that should not be forgotten.

3.4 Hair’s influence

3.4.1 Musicals

According to Miller, critic John J. O‟Connor wrote that “no matter the reaction to the content I suspect the form will be important to the history of the American musical” (n. pag.). And Hair’s greatest influence was undoubtly in artistic circles, as Everett and Laird put it “Hair – and its commercial success as well - generated a

30 spate of imitations, billed as rock musicals” (239) from which the first were Your own thing and Salvation and the latest Rent. The only major rock-music success of the period was nevertheless “British in origin, Jesus Christ Superstar, 1971” (Wilmeth, Bigsby 445). Wilmeth and Bigsby also write that “legacy of Hair essentially lies in three areas: rock musicals, nude musicals and minority musicals” (444). It also paved the way for the non-linear concept musicals, as mentioned in the first chapter – bookless shows dealing with a way of life or a social-political issues (Wilmeth, Bigsby 445) in 1970‟s – “Company, A Chorus Line and others” (Miller n. pag.). As far as musical‟s relationship to American society is concerned, Smith and Litton write that in the sixties the popular art was commandeered by young people and to them live musical theatre looked and sounded archaic (297). “Musical theatre didn‟t have too much to say about a very unfanciful, unromantic, unsentimental world” (Smith, Litton 298). Hair was exceptional and according to statistics brought young people to musical again. The tunes of Hair could “pass for rock for the legions of suburbia and that is why a kid could go to see a Broadway show without violating the musical dictates of his peers” (Smith, Litton 293). Significance of Hair to black actors was another societal related feature. There were those who suggested that the musical has nothing to do with black people. The black intelligentsia asked the relevance of the muscial to the civil rights issue. King admits that the “message of musical was not about being black, but black actors nevertheless had a chance to express their opinions on stage” (124). Hair’s influence also translated into other areas - Wollman, MacDermot and Trask write that “hippie turned into another marketable product (Wig City produced an instant male-hippie kit for 29.95)” (57).

3.4.2 Social change

Otherwise scholars doubt that Hair could have provoked any kind of strong social change. Wollman, MacDermot and Trask develop the thought that Hair was laudable but harmless. Antiwar activists acknowledged that “Hair was not written for them, Hair was written about them and allowed old playgoers to participate in the protest movement of the sixties for a while” (57), Hair and hippies was not “particularly shocking to the average spectator of 1968, even despite the nudity, and 31 the political and social agenda was no different than that espoused by the actual New Left” (61). Jones agrees that “Hair only painted – mostly authentic – portrait of hippie life” (251) and similar thought is represented by Wilmeth and Bigsby – “it sought to represent hippie life style, albeit a sanitized version in which no one died of exposure or drug overdoes” (443). Hair became – according to Smith and Litton – a vision of the under thirties‟ life-style as fantasized by the over thirties (293). A lot of damage to show‟s impact was beyond anyone‟s control. Goldman remembered that “when Hair opened on Broadway, Johnson was no longer a subject for satirical venom and retired, hippies were still in existence, but the movement wasn‟t what it had been, there were dozens of shows dealing with the same subject in New York and peace talks were started about Vietnam war” (n. pag.).

3.4.3 Hair revivals

Nevertheless not only Hoekstra thinks that Hair is such a relevant piece of theatre that its relevance can be seen by time distance – its message does not have to be updated or rewritten to make the connection to contemporary issues to audience, wars and the fight for equal rights is something American society struggles with even today (n. pag.). People may just respond more strongly to different topics than in the sixties. To him the most relevant message is the one about love and peace and the strongest and most important influence can be seen in that Hair made audience think about it. Strength of Hair influence in any form can be practically seen in its revivals. Maybe because of the love and peace theme, maybe because of beautiful songs, maybe because of commercial success, Hair is being revived from the sixties on. Hair was successful all over the world, the script was translated into many languages and it also still catches interest and popularity among new and young audience, again and again. According to Rado, Hair has never played in China, India, Vietnam and most African countries (n. pag.). The last Broadway revival took place in 2009 and was a huge success winning Tony award, with Cavin Greel as Claude; the last West End revival took place in 2010. As Coveney puts it, “Hair is one of the greatest musicals of all time and a phenomenon that, I‟m relieved to discover, stands up as a period piece” (n. pag.).

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Conclusion

First half of my hypothesis can be regarded as confirmed. No other fact is clearer than that authors of Hair were inspired by the American society of 1960‟s and that their intention was to portray it. Whether they wanted to shock the audience to get famous or achieve commercial success is not excluded. But the second half – whether American society was inspired by Hair, influenced or changed in turn – was not confirmed. Hair handled topics that already were among society for quite a long time. Hair shocked in the sense of musical theatre, in new way of dramatization, in being the first rock muscial and in being the first musical to make its way through off-Broadway to Broadway. In this point of view it really managed to provoke change in further musical development. But not in society. It was even authors‟ explicit intention – to teach middle calss theatregoers about hippies – nothing about change mentioned. Strong negative critics talking about dishonoring New Left thoughts forgot that Hair was just a musical aimed to be watched by middle class. People and experts liked it, saw it even more times, songs became hits, hippie costumes became commercially succesful, but nothing changed. Nevertheless the love and peace thought is immortal, especially today, when hippies are not an everyday topic, Hair revivals have a monopoly to inform about their values and inspire their audience. And maybe the strongest influence Hair had on society, on audience, was that it forced to think about it deeply. To be honest, what other musical is so moving than Hair in its final “Let the sunshine in” when the cast really seems to transmit some beams to audience and you can feel the emotions floating in the air. I would like to end my conclusion with a thought borrowed from Wilmeth and Bigsby who mention that “art changes individuals and individuals change society” (19). Maybe that is where we should look for Hair‟s influence.

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Bibliography

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