Broadway Starts to Rock: Musical Theater Orchestrations and Character, 1968-1975 By
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Broadway Starts to Rock: Musical Theater Orchestrations and Character, 1968-1975 By Elizabeth Sallinger M.M., Duquesne University, 2010 B.A., Pennsylvania State University, 2008 Submitted to the graduate degree program in Musicology and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Chair: Paul R. Laird Roberta Freund Schwartz Bryan Kip Haaheim Colin Roust Leslie Bennett Date Defended: 5 December 2016 ii The dissertation committee for Elizabeth Sallinger certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Broadway Starts to Rock: Musical Theater Orchestrations and Character, 1968-1975 Chair: Paul R. Laird Date Approved: 5 December 2016 iii Abstract In 1968, the sound of the Broadway pit was forever changed with the rock ensemble that accompanied Hair. The musical backdrop for the show was appropriate for the countercultural subject matter, taking into account the popular genres of the time that were connected with such figures, and marrying them to other musical styles to help support the individual characters. Though popular styles had long been part of Broadway scores, it took more than a decade for rock to become a major influence in the commercial theater. The associations an audience had with rock music outside of a theater affected perception of the plot and characters in new ways and allowed for shows to be marketed toward younger demographics, expanding the audience base. Other shows contemporary to Hair began to include rock music and approaches as well; composers and orchestrators incorporated instruments such as electric guitar, bass, and synthesizer, amplification in the pit, and backup singers as components of their scores. Some shows were first released as concept albums, allowing the audience to learn the music before the show was staged; others supplied hit songs for the charts, recorded by known popular artists. In the decades since Hair premiered, nearly all new musicals have had rock instruments and styles included in their scores in some capacity, and rock often plays a major role in the storytelling. Because orchestration is a seldom-researched topic in musical studies, and one without a specific path of inquiry, this turning point in the soundscape of the theater and its effects requires attention. How an arranger approaches orchestrating for a musical is ripe with possibilities for a discussion of the impact their decisions have on audiences, particularly in relation to how characters in a given show are perceived. This dissertation surveys a selection of shows from 1968- 1975 whose orchestrators employed rock instrumentation, either as the entirety of the pit or alongside more traditionally orchestral instruments, and how their approaches affect characterization. These shows, which include Hair, Promises, Promises (1968), Company (1970), Jesus Christ Superstar (1971), Grease (1972), Pippin (1972), A Chorus Line (1975) and The Wiz (1975), demonstrate the work of an array of composers and orchestrators and were derived from different subject matter and source material. Taking into account the backgrounds of the creative teams with particular attention to the orchestrators, the plots of the shows, and the figures presented in each musical, the chapters that follow each provide a discussion of musical numbers. Special attention to how the orchestration serves to support reception of the characters will be paid, as well the legacies of the orchestrators’ work and techniques found in these shows. These studies reveal the inclusion of rock on Broadway to be a moment of fundamental change in many aspects of the genre and in how composer and orchestrators described characters and dramatic situations, new ideas that continue to influence the musical theater to the present day. iv Acknowledgements There are many people to thank for their help in completing my dissertation. First, my advisor, Paul Laird, for his guidance and support for my work over the last several years. I would also like to thank the members of my committee: Roberta Schwartz, Kip Haaheim, Colin Roust, and Leslie Bennett, as well as Alicia Levin and Thomas Heilke, for their time, encouragement, and contributions to my project. I am grateful to Morgen Stevens-Garmon at the Museum of the City of New York for her assistance with the files regarding my case studies in the museum archives, and for the time and effort of the librarians and staff at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, particularly in the Theatre on Film and Tape Archive, with accessing and working with a variety of materials. My appreciation to Clay Zambo for graciously taking the time to communicate with me about his work for the stage, which gave me integral insight into the process of orchestrating musicals. I would like thank my parents, David and Mary Beth, for their love, help, and confidence throughout the completion of this project. Lastly, my gratitude to my grandfather, family, friends, teachers and colleagues at KU, and co-workers for their continued support, feedback, and positivity. v Table of Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Hair ............................................................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Promises, Promises ....................................................................................................61 Chapter 3: Company ...................................................................................................................86 Chapter 4: Jesus Christ Superstar .............................................................................................111 Chapter 5: Grease ......................................................................................................................140 Chapter 6: Pippin .......................................................................................................................163 Chapter 7: A Chorus Line..........................................................................................................188 Chapter 8: The Wiz ....................................................................................................................214 Chapter 9: Rock’s Continuing Presence on Broadway ..........................................................246 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................262 Appendix A: Information for Hair ...........................................................................................262 Appendix B: Information for Promises, Promises ...................................................................264 Appendix C: Information for Company ...................................................................................266 Appendix D: Information for Jesus Christ Superstar ..............................................................268 Appendix E: Information for Grease .......................................................................................271 Appendix F: Information for Pippin ........................................................................................273 Appendix G: Information for A Chorus Line ...........................................................................275 Appendix H: Information for The Wiz .....................................................................................277 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................279 1 Introduction “Orchestration is a way of enhancing a song — using the deviled egg metaphor — by taking it, mashing it up, adding some ingredients, mixing it, and putting it back together again.” – Jonathan Tunick1 The theatrical industry in New York in the mid-twentieth century was experiencing a period of transition. Not only were writers of Broadway musicals gradually incorporating more controversial subject matter into scripts and lyrics, including such hot-button topics as race relations and overt sexuality, but slowly the genre’s sound was progressing as well by infusing the scores with rock music. Though musicals had included popular sounds and styles for some time, in such productions as those composed by songwriters like Gershwin (including Of Thee I Sing in 1931), Bye Bye Birdie (1960), which evokes the sound of early rock ‘n’ roll, and Cabaret (1966), which heavily features jazz in its score, the later inclusion of rock and electronic instruments into the pit orchestra during the 1960s had a lasting impact on the sound and construction of then- contemporary and modern shows.2 This sudden venture into a soundscape that was associated with extra-musical ideas of rebellion and sexuality did not always appeal to audiences. In fact, some viewers were outwardly resistant to a perceived affront to the traditional, predictable music of the theater.3 Yet others adapted to this change as a method of keeping the art form alive, because the theater had become associated with an older demographic and ticket sales were waning. As a result, some audience 1 Craig Zadan, Sondheim & Co. (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1989), 154. 2 Cabaret’s score includes jazz due to both its physical setting in a nightclub and its temporal setting of Nazi- occupied Germany of the 1940s.