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The Symbol-System of Shingon Buddhism, Which Will Be Fully THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF T H E SHINGON BUDDHISM (I) S Y M by B O L S- Shozui Makoto Toganoo Y S T E M INTRODUCTION O F S H Shingon Buddhism, founded in the ninth century A. D. by Kukai I N G (774-835), posthumously known as Kobo Daishi, has been one of the most O N influential Buddhist denominations in Japan. Recent census figures show B U (1) D eleven million adherents and some twelve thousand temples. D H The theory and practice of shingon Buddhism are generally based SI M on tWO Buddhist scriptures that are commonly called the Mahwai-rocana- ( I (2) (3) ) sutra and the Vajrasekhara-sutra. These two Buddhist scriptures, not- (1) These census figures are based on the investigation by the Government of Japan. The exact numbers of temples, priests,a:nd adherents in comparison with other Buddhist denomations are: (temples) (priests) (adherents) Jodo line 30,925 44, 606 19, 053, 798 Nichiren line 6, 503 23,365 16, 356, 685 Shingon Sect 12,355 24,358 11,436,822 Zen line 2103 2%452 8,910,129 See, Asahi Nenlcan, or Asahi Year-book (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun Sha, 1969), P. 555. (2) The full title is the Mahd-vairocandbhisambodhi-vikacrvitddhisthdna-vaipulya- sfitrendra-raja-ndrna-dharma-parydya. This sutra was translated into Chinese by Subhakara-simha (637-735) in 724-725 A. D. It is assumed by Japanese scholars that this sutra was compiled in the early seventh century in the western part of India. It consists of seven volumes and thirty-six chapters, of which the first six volumes are the text and the seventh gives concrete instructions for worship. It is collected in the Taisho Jripitaka Vol. 18, No. 848. In India and Tibet, this sutra is classified into the group of Carya-tantra, in which both external ritualistic practices and internal yoga practices are regarded equally in importance. (3) The full title is the Sarva-tathagata-tattva-sa hgraham ndma Mahdydna-sutra -95- withstanding that they are called sutras in the Sanskrt version, are firmly classified as tantras (Tibetan. rqyud) by the Tibetans because these sutras (4) 密 have distinctively tantric feautres. The Buddhism based on these two tantric scriptures is generally 教 called Mantra-ydna, which, according to Shashibusan Dasgupta, "seems to 文 be the introductory stage of Tdntric Buddhism, from which all other 化 offshoots, like Vajra-ydna, Kdlacakra-ydna, Sahaja-ydna, etc., arose in (5) later times." This Mantra-yana was introduced to Japan by way of China, and through the genius of Kukai, it was systematically organized as the "secret" Buddhism in contrast to the other forms of Buddhism existing during the Nara Period (710-784 A. D.) of Japan, and was termed "Shingon Mikkyo (Shingon, the 'secret' doctrine)." Shingon Buddhism thus historically formulated has three distinctive (6) features, i. e., buddhistic, tantric, and "Sino-Nipponie." All Japanese (The Mahayana sutra called "Symposium of Truth of all the tathagatas). This sutra is usually called the Tattva-sarhgraha by European and Indian scholars; however, in Japan, it is commonly called the Kongo-cho-gyo (the Vajra-sekhara-sutra) (Chinese. Chin- kang-ting-thing) or the "First Meeting of Kongo-cho-gyo. In this paper, we shall call it the Va jrasekhara-sutra. This sutra was translated into Chinese by Amoghavajra (705-774 A. D.), and collected in the Taisho Tripitaka vol. 18, No. 865. It is assumed by Japanese scholars that this sutra was compiled in the latter half of the seventh century A. D., in South India. In India and Tibet, it is classified in the group of Yoga-tantra, in which the internal yoga practices are more essential than the external ritualistic practices. (4) Among the various definitions or interpretations of tantra and tantric made by European and Indian scholars, that of Snellgrove is thought adequate and will be a good guide to our coming inquiry. On tantra and sutra, see, D. L. Snelllgrove, Buddhist Himndlaya (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1957), p. 55. On tantric, see ibid., p. 51. n. a. (5) Shashibusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali Literature (Calcutta: Calcutta University press, 1946), p. 17. (6) The term is the adjectival form of "Sino-Nippon" meaning "Chinese-Japan: By the usage of the term "Sino-Nipponic" we emphasize some modification made in China and Japan. -94- Buddhist denominations have buddhistic and "Sill o-INTipponic" features, but the tanti-ic feature is peculiar to Shingon Buddhism. T H E The idiosyncrasy of Shingon Buddhism as a form of Japanese S Y Buddhism is mainly due to this distinctive tantric feature, and on this M B O account, Shingon Buddhism, being regarded as heretical or as having a L S- superstitious nature, has been treated like a stepchild by Buddhist scholars Y S T E other than those of Singon Buddhism. In other words, Shingon Buddhism M O has been interpreted or validated by the "norm" of what Buddha's teaching F S ought to be or ought not be. H I N The study of Shinggon Mikkyo in Japan has a long history of over one G O N thousand years; however a large percentage of the studies were restricted B U to the exegetics of the writings of Kukai; and they were, more or less, D D H self-defense against the criticism of other Buddhist scholars. I S M Within the last thirty years, the philological studies based on Sanskrt ( H ) and Tibetan sources have rendered great service to the understanding of Shingon ilfikkyo. But now, unfortunately, there is a tendency toward specialization. It may safely be said that the main concern of contemporary Shingon scholars is pure philological. research, and that it is doubtful whether or not they have oriented themselves to the understanding of Shingon Mikkyo. We, the students of religion, being as objective and fair-minded as possible, should orient ourselves to the genuine understanding of Shingon Buddhism as a religion, because the purely philological study of religion without pursuing a genuine under standing of it is nothing but a pure art or an empty fantasy, and because Shingon Buddhism is unquestionably a religion which is more than one of the forms of Japanese Buddhism; it is also a "Sino-Nipponic" and buddho-tantric religion. To understand this religion adequately, we shall pursue its several particular symbols or symbol-systems, because, as Dr. Hutchison says, ... religious experience demands and receives symbolic -93- expression for itself. In any specific situation these symbols are not symbols in general, but certain altogether concrete, 密 particular symbols, around whichh gathers a community of (7) people who express theirr ultimate concern through them. 教 Shingon Buddhism has several particular symbols or symbol-systems. 文 The symbols in which Shingon Buddhism finds expression are not symbols-in-general, not just any symbols. Rather, they are altogether 化 specific or particular symbols. Truly the particularity of the symbol- system of Shingon Buddhism is an excellent way of pointing to the particularity of Shingon Buddhism. In the first place, we shall take "Shingon" of Shingon Mikyo, and inquire into the formation of the particular symbol Shingon in the history of India and in East Asia. In the second place, we shall choose several other particular symbols, such as "Mudrd," "Samaya," "Sam-mitsu," "Roku-dai," and "Mandala," and examine the structure of these symbol-systems, then elucidate the symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism as a whole. We are convinced that the study of the symbol-systems of Shingon Buddhism will lead the way to understanding Shingon Buddhism as a whole. PART I HISTORICAL FORMATION OF THE PARTICULAR SYMBOL "SHINGON" CHAPTER I. IN INDIA (1) 1. General Remarks on "Shingon and sjzingons" (7) John A. Hutchison, Paths of Faith, (New York: McGraw-Hill. Book Co., 1969), P. 16. (1) There is no apparent differencation of the term Shingon when we say "Sliingon of Amitabha" and "Shing on Jlilclcgo.'' However, the former signifies a -92- Shingon which literally means "true word" is, as its use as name of the Shingon Sect reflects, one of the most important symbols in the T H Sect. It is generally agreed that the term "Shingon Sect" is an abbreviation E S Y of "mantra-dharani sect" and Shingon (and shingons) corresponds to Mantra M (2) B O (and mantras). The term mantra is translated in Chinese Buddhist scriptures L S- as then-yen (in Japanese shingon); however, it would be too hasty to Y S T conclude from this that Shingon and shingons can be identified with E M Mantra and mantras. O F S In the history of Buddhism, shingon has been called different H I N names such as vidya, paritra (Pali. paritta) and dharani, and also "Shomyo- G O N nembutsu" (invocation of the name of Amida) in the Jodo Sects, and B U "Odai -moku" (utterance of the sacred title of the Hoke-kyo) in the D D H Nichiren Sect are related to shingon in its broad sense. Furthermore, I S M it is an essential symbol called Mandala in Sanskrt by Kukai, the ( I ) founder of Shingon Buddhism. In other words, shingon contains the mantras (holy or mgic spell) of Brahmanism and Hinduism as well as the Buddhistic magico-religious formulas adapted in China and Japan. In contrast with the development from mantra to Mantra which had been done in India concurrent with the syncretic process from Vedic mantra to Tantric mantra, the development from mantra to Shingon has been formulated in the acculturation process of Buddhism from India to Japan by way of China.
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