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Download Is Recorded SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AS DETERMINANTS OF ECOSYSTEM HEALTH: A CASE STUDY OF SOCIAL ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS IN THE PATERSON VALLEY NSW AUSTRALIA BY ALAN CAMERON ARCHER BSc Agr (Hons), BEd Stud, MEd December 2007 This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle Declaration This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying subject to the provision of the Copyright Act 1968. (Signed): Alan Cameron Archer ii Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge the Aboriginal peoples who were the custodians of the Paterson Valley for thousands of years prior to the colonisation by Europeans. I also acknowledge those individuals and organisations that assisted me with this study. Associate Professor Glenn Albrecht, University of Newcastle for his supportive, thoughtful and constructive supervision. NSW Department of Primary Industries for approval to undertake this study as part of my duties. In particular Ms Ellen Howard and Ms Helen Scott-Orr who provided encouragement and support for me to begin the study and the subsequent support of Mr John Fisher and Ms Renata Brooks. Library and research support particularly from Lyn Barham, Librarian; Joan Gollan, Archivist; and Catherine New, Library Assistant all of Tocal College; staff of the State Library of NSW/Mitchell Library; NSW State Records; Royal Australian Historical Society Library; Hunter Valley Research Foundation Library, National Library of Australia, Newcastle Regional Public Library; Maitland Public Library; University of Newcastle Library and Mr Peter Walker, Art Dealer, Adelaide. A number of scientific and other specialists who assisted in providing technical and other aspects of this study including Emeritus Professor Beryl Nashar and Professor Brian Engel, both formerly of the University of Newcastle; Mr Noel Jupp, Gresford; Mr Bill Dowling, Bandon Grove; Mr Peter Gray, NSW DPI, Dubbo; Mr David Curtis, University of New England; Mr Robert Dyason, Coombell Farm Forestry Education Centre, Casino; Mr John Yarwood, Newcastle; Mr Laurie Bonney, University of Tasmania; Professor Ray Ison, University of Melbourne/Open University; Ms Sharon Vernon, Hunter Central Rivers CMA; Mr Kevin McDonald, Seaham; and Mr Cyril Catt, Newcastle. Mr Mike Aubrey, Technical and Field Surveys/EarthSat (Computing) for his considerable assistance and expertise regarding detailed mapping of the Valley. Members of the Mindaribba Local Aboriginal Land Council, in particular Mr Rick Griffiths for his continued support and interest in Indigenous studies and initiatives at Tocal. My colleagues at Tocal Agriculture Centre and Tocal College, in particular David Brouwer, Darren Bayley and Jennifer Laffan for their strong encouragement and editorial assistance; Brian Walsh for encouragement, research assistance and editorial assistance with particular reference to the convict era; Peter Gillespie for his ready assistance in the production of Tocal property maps and climate graphs; Thelma Bogan, Kim Hadley and Rebecca Lord for word processing assistance; and Wayne Courtney, Bill Kinsey, Bill Murton, Danny Norris, Robert and Jennifer Dunn, Lyn Walsh, Basil Gijsbers, Jo Hathway and Robert Dunn for their support. iii Members of the Paterson Historical Society, in particular Val Anderson, Peter Johnson, Jack Sullivan, Boris and Sue Sokoloff, Pauline Clements, Shirley Threlfo, Bill and Mabs Keppie and the late Harry Boyle for their continued encouragement, support and provision of significant research material, advice and information regarding the Valley. Local and former residents associated with the Webbers Creek Valley who gave particular assistance on the environmental history of the upper Webbers Creek area, Keith Jordan, John Priestley, Ed Kealy, Max Coyle, Jim Vile, Pat Barden and the property owners of the upper Webbers Creek Valley who readily provided access to their properties for research properties. To the many former or current residents and property owners across the valley who provided free access to their properties, information and records recording the study, in particular Colin and Margaret Dent, Helen Hall, Max Horn, Des and Margaret Gippel, John and Harry Godwin, Elaine Gray, Ursula Clements, George Joliffe, Jim Sparke, David Wells and the Gresford Landcare Group. To those families who hold diaries associated with former residents of the Paterson Valley and region; Mr John Mossman for the Burrowell Diaries and the Muddle family for the George Muddle Diary. Allen Dunlop for his considerable support, encouragement and transport around the Valley on many occasions. To those former residents who are now deceased but gave freely of their time and information regarding the history of the district – Stan Fry, Albert Kahler, Len Graham, Cec Collison, Keith Lawrence, Reg Wade, Leo and Enid Dunning, Claude and Ken Crouch, Rene Lewis, Jim Dooley, Sid Reynolds, Gavin Scott, Heather Folpp and Jim Somerville. Dean Morris, Designer for his significant support and skill in preparing a range of graphics for the study. Jill Albrecht for proof reading the final manuscript. Maggie Moffat for her extremely competent and tireless word processing and computing support in the preparation of the thesis. My wife Jean, son Jack and daughter Elizabeth for their continued support and encouragement for the research, writing and completion of the thesis. While I have had much assistance and support for this study, any errors or omissions remain my responsibility. iv Contents Page Figures x-xi Abstract xii-xiii Abbreviations xiv Note regarding References xv Conventions xv INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: Order in the Valley 13 Chapter 1: Theoretical Foundations 15 Introduction 15 1.1 Eras of Settlement 16 1.2 Concept of Landscape 16 1.3 Ecosystem Health 17 1.4 Social Ecological Systems 19 1.5 Panarchy 19 1.5.1 The Adaptive Cycle 20 1.6 Complexity Theory and the Concept of Attractors 23 1.7 The Tyranny of Small Decisions 26 1.8 Resilience 26 1.9 Institutions 27 1.10 Land as an Organism 28 1.11 Conclusion 28 Chapter 2: The Basis for Resilience – the Biophysical 31 Environment Introduction 31 2.1 Geological Formations 31 v Page 2.2 Formation of the Current Paterson Valley Landscape 37 2.3 Climate of the Paterson Valley 43 2.4 Paterson Valley Soils and Soil Landscapes 55 2.5 Vegetation 68 2.6 Conclusion 70 Chapter 3: The Indigenous Era 73 Introduction 73 3.1 The Arrival of Aboriginal People 73 3.2 Climate Change and Aboriginal Adaptation 74 3.3 The Dreaming 74 3.4 The Indigenous Calendar 76 3.5 Nomadism or Permanence 78 3.6 Aboriginal Boundaries 84 3.7 Aboriginal Influence on Ecosystem Health 86 3.7.1 Totems, Trade and Travel 86 3.7.2 Impact on Landscapes 90 3.7.3 Fish Trapping 92 3.7.4 Cultural Land Use 93 3.8 Mature Aboriginal Environment 98 3.8.1 Soils 99 3.8.2 Vegetation 101 3.9 Tocal Vegetation 116 3.10 Conclusion 118 PART TWO: DEVELOPMENT AND CRISIS IN THE 119 VALLEY Chapter 4: Development of European Infrastructure and 121 Institutions Introduction 121 4.1 Law and Order 121 vi Page 4.2 European Immigration 123 4.3 Governance 125 4.4 Private Property 133 4.5 The Yeoman Farmer Ideal 135 4.6 Government Services and Transport 138 4.7 Churches, Religion and their Social Impact 142 4.8 Schools 147 4.9 Tocal College 150 4.10 Public Access to the River 151 4.11 Collective Public Action 153 4.12 Class Divisions 157 4.13 Water Services 158 4.14 Conclusion 162 Chapter 5: The Exploitation of the Alluvial Landscape 165 Introduction 165 5.1 The Settlement of the Paterson Valley 167 5.2 The Rainforest: Clearing and Early Agriculture 169 5.3 Wetlands: Drainage and Siltation 173 5.4 Enterprises on Alluvial Land 182 5.4.1 Wheat Growing 182 5.4.2 Lucerne Growing 187 5.4.3 Grape Growing and Wine Production 190 5.4.4 Tobacco Growing 192 5.4.5 Orange Production 196 5.5 The Riparian Zone 199 5.6 Flood Mitigation 204 5.7 Conclusion 206 vii Page Chapter 6: The Transformation of the Open Forest and 211 Indigenous Grasslands Introduction 211 6.1 Sheep Grazing 212 6.2 Cattle Grazing 224 6.3 Fencing 228 6.4 The Dynamics of Eucalypts 231 6.5 Impact of Rabbits 238 6.6 Scientific and Technical Interventions 240 6.6.1 Tocal: A Case Study in the Application of Technology 250 6.7 Transformation of the Open Forest and Grasslands 251 6.8 Conclusion 253 PART 3: REVIEW AND THE FUTURE 257 Chapter 7: Taking Stock of the Evolutionary Dance of the Paterson Valley 259 Introduction 259 7.1 Climate Change as an Attractor 259 7.2 Management of Natural Resources 264 7.2.1 Water Resources 264 7.2.2 Land Subdivision and Patterns of Ownership 266 7.2.3 Land Conservation Works 267 7.3 The National Era: Reduction in Agriculture 268 7.4 Comparisons Over Time: Reduction in Complexity 270 7.5 Assessing for Social Ecological Systems: Sustainability and Resilience 271 7.5.1 The Biophysical Era 274 7.5.2 Indigenous Era 275 7.5.3 Colonial Era 277 7.5.4 State Era 279 viii Page 7.5.5 National and Global Eras 281 7.6 Global Era Issues 284 7.6.1 Alluvial Landscape 284 7.6.2 Non-alluvial Landscape 290 7.7 Trends and Opportunities 299 7.7.1 Carbon Sequestration 299 7.7.2 Water Use 299 7.7.3 Land
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