Harnessing Socio-cultural Constraints on Journal of Expertise 2018. Vol. 1(1) Athlete Development to Create a Form of Life © 2018. The authors license this article under the terms of the 1 2 3 Creative Commons Martyn Rothwell , Keith Davids , and Joseph Stone Attribution 3.0 License. 1, 2 3 Center for Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University; Academy for Sport & ISSN 2573-2773 Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University

Correspondence: Martyn Rothwell, [email protected], ph: 0114 225 3989

Abstract The role of task constraints manipulation in pedagogical practice has received considerable attention in recent years, although there has been little focus on the role of socio-cultural constraints on an athlete's development to elite performance. Here, we aim to integrate ideas from a range of scientific sub-disciplines to consider why certain behaviors and cultures (socio-cultural constraints) may exist in sport performance and coaching. Using recent conceptualizations of affordances in ecological dynamics, we explore how socio-cultural constraints may influence an athlete's development and relationship with a performance context. We also highlight how workplace practices eminating from the industrialization of the nineteenth century in countries such as the UK may have influenced coaching practice and organizational behaviors from that time on. In particular, features such as strict work regimes and rigid role specification may have reduced personal autonomy, de-skilled performers, and induced a “body as machine” philosophy within sporting organizations. These traits could be considered counter to expert performance in sports where creativity and adaptive decision-making are important skills for athletes to possess. We propose that ecological dynamics is a theoretical framework that enhances the understanding of the influential nature of socio-cultural constraints on the development of athlete performance. Key ideas suggest that sport pedagogists and practitioners could develop methodologies which help design practice landscapes rich in information to encourage athlete autonomy to search for relevant affordances which invite functionally relevant actions for competitive performance with physical, psychological, emotional, and social dimensions. Future research is needed to explore a range of sports in order to identify and clarify the relationship between socio- cultural constraints and expertise acquisition.

Keywords ecological dynamics, affordance landscapes, socio-cultural constraints, learning design, expertise acquisition

these complex and dynamic interactions and Introduction emanating from person-environment Expertise in sport is multidimensional and relationships (Davids, Handford & Williams, emerges from the rich, continued interactions of 1994). A key principle of ecological dynamics, an athlete with a range of task and relevant for the challenge of athlete environmental constraints in performance, development, is the interacting influence of task simulated in practice (Davids, Button & and environmental constraints on an athlete's Bennett, 2008). Ecological dynamics is a ability to become attuned to the opportunities powerful theoretical framework for for action invited by objects, surfaces, features, understanding how sport practitioners can terrains, and other people in a performance support athlete development, predicated on setting. This key principle is known as

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Rothwell, Davids, & Stone (2018) Harnessing Socio-Cultural Constraints on Athlete Development affordances in ecological dynamics (Davids, explain why certain performance styles are Güllich, Shuttleworth & Araújo, 2017). An developed in certain regions and why they are increasingly functional relationship with a valued and exploited to establish dominance in performance environment is the basis of elite sport. Athletic sprinting in Jamaica, for expertise from an ecological dynamics rationale example, is ingrained in the sporting culture and (Araújo & Davids, 2011). These ideas suggest has a history and tradition of excellence that is that athletes who have been trained to select strongly influenced by the G. C. Foster College from a rich and diverse range of affordances for Physical Education and Sports, where the available in a competitive performance country's athletic coaches are educated in a environment will be better prepared to perceive Jamaican “way of sprinting” (Moore, 2015). In information, adapt their actions, make decisions, these sporting cultures a form of life can be and interact skillfully with ecological constraints highly influential in how sport practitioners of competition. construct and design the micro structure of James Gibson (1979, p.119) argued that "the practice, which may have positive or negative affordances of the environment are what it effects on athlete performance. However, the offers the animal.” For example, in rugby league notion of different countries or regions being a ball offers itself to players for kicking when associated with a particular style or way of traveling on the ground or for intercepting with practicing and performing in a sport is rather their hands when it is moving through the air; a simplistic, lacks theoretical substance, and slow player invites a quicker player to run past requires conceptual clarification in order to help him/her; a hard pitch offers itself to be us understand the basis for performance sidestepped upon. Recently, Gibson's initial development. For example, to enhance athlete conceptualization of affordances has been development, is it feasible for one country to revisited to emphasize the invitational simply imitate a way of practicing or performing characteristic of affordances to individuals with associated with another (highly successful) the relevant experiences, skills, and capacities nation in a sport (Harris, 2017)? Simply (Withagen, de Poel, Araújo & Pepping, 2012; imitating the traditional practices of another Rietveld & Kiverstein, 2014; Bruineberg & nation may present performance challenges Rietveld, 2014; Withagen, Araújo & de Poel, without first exploring, understanding, and 2017). Here, we elucidate what these embracing the form of life that influences the refinements imply for making sense of the factors that lead to another nation's success in variety of socio-cultural practices that are competitive sport. embedded in what the philosopher Ludwig Here we contend that differences in quality Wittgenstein termed forms of life (Wittgenstein, of performance and playing styles are 1953), which consist of behaviors, skills, substantively based on a specific “form of life,” capacities, attitudes, values, beliefs, practices, often developed under specific historical and and customs that shape the communities we live socio-cultural constraints in particular in. The features of a form of life subsequently geographical locations in the world. Forms of shape how we live (Rietveld & Kiverstein, life are predicated on highly specific customary, 2014; Bruineberg & Rietveld, 2014). habitual, highly developed, yet responsive Extrapolating these ideas, we contend that modes of performing, competing, training, and there are current examples of “forms of life” practicing which result in the preference to identifiable in sport (e.g., related to skiing in design specific types of affordance landscapes Northern Europe, soccer in Brazil, cricket in in athlete development programs. Exploitation South Asia, and rugby union in New Zealand). of the invitational nature of affordances when In specific sports, these forms of life designing affordance landscapes in practice task demonstrate the influence of specific socio- designs (Withagen et al., 2012; Withagen et al., cultural and historical constraints in the 2017) should aim to make the emergence of development of sporting excellence. They can effective skilled action more likely. In these

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Harnessing Socio-Cultural Constraints on Athlete Development Rothwell, Davids, & Stone (2018) affordance landscapes, specific practice task not ask any initiative in a man. We designs guide developing athletes in their search do not care for this initiative. All we for functional relationships with performance want of them is to obey the orders environments founded on skill, expertise, and we give them, do what we say, and talent (Davids et al., 2017). Although recent do it quick. That scheme of giving clarifications of Gibson's conceptualization have minute instructions to every man, made valuable contributions to the literature on that is assigning him a task, having affordances, little is known in sport domains that task all planned for everyone about how a form of life can help sport [emphasis added]. practitioners harness local socio-cultural Of interest is how these idea's filtered into practices to influence affordance utilization and cultural practices in institutional programs in acquisition of sporting expertise. Understanding education and sport, affected the development of more about this issue can help sport pedagogists individuals. British rugby football league is one identify and exploit key socio-cultural sport with a relevant socio-cultural-historical constraints to enhance the quality of athlete backdrop to provide insights into how coaching development in specific sports (Uehara, Button, behaviors and practice design shape how players Falcous & Davids, 2016; Araújo et al., 2010). acquire performance skills. Historically, rugby First, we provide a brief historical case into why football league’s roots originated in the north of “forms of life” and associated behaviors and England, where playing regions had been built customs may exist and influence sport expertise. on the key industries of the Victorian era (1837 to 1901). The writings of sport historian Tony Historical Influences on Sport Collins (2006, p. 149) provide insights into how Performance and Coaching: The case of these strong social-cultural-historical roots may United Kingdom Rugby Football League have influenced the values of rugby league As with any social phenomenon, the extent to players, suggesting that “the attitudes of rugby which history influences socio-cultural practices league players were, therefore, shaped and cannot be ignored. In the case of sport coaching defined by the world of industrial labor, which in the United Kingdom (UK), for example, was intensely physical, often aggressively industrialization during the nineteenth century oppositional to management and, above all, influenced social structures and trends, which in almost absolutely masculine.” turn influenced workplace practice and It is understandable that the reductionist behaviors from that time forward, shaping nature of Taylor's methods and the attitudes and training methods in later years (Lyle, 2002). behaviors associated with industrial labor were Increasing industrialization during the 1800s manifested in other parts of society at that time, was successful, in part, due to the production including the sport domain (Kiely, 2012). This line ethos, which was later strongly influenced transference can be seen in coaches and trainers by the American mechanical engineer Fredrick application of “production line principles” to the Winslow Taylor's systematized approach to design of systematic training programs aimed to industrial efficiency. During a lecture on enhance athlete performance (Smith & Davids, industrial efficiency in 1907, Taylor (2008, p. 1992). A stronger focus on enhanced athlete 215) provided insights into the work place performance was perhaps due to the increasing practices that contributed to his systematic professionalization of sport performance management methods. His advice was through structuring practice and training straightforward: requirements during the early 1900s (Day & Managers should not allow Carpenter, 2015). The adoption of ideas from employees to think for themselves Taylorism and the industrial workplace by but make sure they simply carry out sporting forms of life resulted in the tasks as instructed, our scheme does commodification of athletes and the design of sports performance programs where strict work https://www.journalofexpertise.org 96 Journal of Expertise / June 2018 / vol. 1, no. 1

Rothwell, Davids, & Stone (2018) Harnessing Socio-Cultural Constraints on Athlete Development regimes and rigid role specification reduced athlete-environment relationship which is personal autonomy and induced a “body as embedded in forms of life. machine” philosophy (Smith & Davids, 1992). The theory of affordances embedded in Taylor's legacy is still evident in the sport forms of life provides a powerful rationale for domain today, where “reproductive style” the application of this key idea by sport coaching approaches that favor the practitioners to consider the (socio-cultural and decomposition of movement into anatomical historical constraints in) environments which units to “reproduce”' skilled actions are still shape expectations and beliefs on how athletes common (Davids et al., 2017). In rugby league, should behave, perform in competition, develop, for example, when learning the “6 o’clock and learn. For example, Taylorism and pass,” performers are required to (1) point the systematic workplace practices may have ball to 6 o’clock, and (2), pass over the front influenced the view of performing, developing, foot (Rugby Football League, 2014). These and training of an employee who then went on traits were valued in the socio-cultural contexts to coach and play team sports. This of the Victorian era in the UK but, in conceptualization is important for considering contemporary society, run counter to attributes how to maximize the design and resourcefulness considered conducive to team sport performance of practice environments and the socio-cultural where autonomy within collaborative efforts, practices in which athletes engage around the creativity, and adaptive decision-making are globe in different societies, and in communities viewed as important skills for athletes with distinct social, physical, and geographical (Memmert, Baker & Bertsch, 2010; Araújo & locations. This conceptualization can provide a Davids, 2015). As discussed next, socio-cultural lens through which practitioners may understand constraints shape the way that an athlete the potential for transfer of (successful) develops a relationship with available practices and methods from one cultural context affordances to invite functional actions and to another. behaviors during competition. Across sports, forms of life are recognizable within coaching values, practice, and behaviors, Sporting Forms of Life, Affordances, and which are constructed by the relationship Athlete Performance between wider social values and key individuals A key tenet of Gibson's (1979) theory of involved in specific sports (Day & Carpenter, affordances is the relational nature between 2015). An individual who transitions between affordances and an ecological niche. Within an social contexts (i.e., communities, workplaces, athlete performance context, this is especially and the coaching arena) is influenced by related to an individual's current available normalized social values which continuously experience, abilities, and capacities captured in influence the relational nature between their intrinsic dynamics (dispositional affordances and the ecological niche tendencies) in a constraints-based framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Consider a form of life (Schöner, 1994; Vallacher, van Geert & Nowak, in British rugby league, where “percentages, 2015). Gibson (1979) and, more recently, position and possession have been the prevailing Rietveld and Kiverstein (2014, p. 326) mind set of late” (Woods, 2017, p. 7), and the suggested that affordances are not simply action players are considered almost as mere opportunities offered by the environment, but machinery in the greater strategical planning of are dependent on the “abilities available in a the high performance sports organization. The particular ecological niche”; important to this consequences of this form of life are point is how an ecological niche can be “shaped exemplified by the perceptions of ex-Great and sculpted by the rich variety of social Britain Rugby League International Phil Clarke (2016, p. 11), warning against the normalization practices humans engage in.” Rietveld and Kiverstein's (2014) conceptualization of of “machine-like” behaviors in athletes: affordances connotes the mutuality of the I worry that we are stifling the talents of

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more players by getting them to play like athletes should be “programmed” to respond to robots [emphasis added]. The obsession certain affordances, but should “unreflectively” with completion rates discourages interact with the affordances available in a players from taking a risk. We need to performance environment that invite their radically alter that thinking and actions (Rietveld, 2008). Importantly, encourage players not to worry about advocating that athletes have agency and can, being wrong and losing the ball, therefore, act autonomously in their mistakes will happen. performance environment, prioritizes the This account is consistent with the person-environment relationship as the occupational ideals of Taylorism, prevailing important scale of analysis in regards to assumptions of managerialism, and the socio- developing human movement behaviors cultural-historical insights into rugby league (Withagen et al., 2017). This idea implies that sport pedagogists, and the socio-cultural provided earlier. This process-oriented approach that adopts a dualist stance (i.e., separating mind practices they influence, must support the and body) can be embedded in the socio-cultural autonomy needed by athletes during competitive practices that are manifested through a sports or performance. They can develop the autonomy of teams coaching practices and behaviors athletes by facilitating their active exploration of (Lombardo, 1999), where coaches design a landscape of available affordances during practice tasks based on the decomposition of practice, which helps them to perceive and pick complex individual or team skills (Chow, up action opportunities which exist in a Davids, Button & Renshaw, 2016). Although performance environment (Araújo, Davids & structure and organization may have benefits Hristovski, 2006). This re-conceptualization during athlete learning, over exposure to proposes a significant role for coaches as practice landscapes that reduce opportunities for “designers” of affordance landscapes, as part of action and promote systematic and predictable a comprehensive “form of life” in high behaviors can affect an athlete's responsiveness performance and elite development programs, to relevant affordances. This perspective is which simulate critical aspects of competitive exemplified by ex-Great Britain international performance environments. Although this Phil Clarke (2016, p. 7/10) who describes a approach to expertise acquisition is theoretically common structured playing style: coherent, within professional rugby league, experiential knowledge of experts has pointed to The “structured” play of who stands the existence of a form of life that is more where, runs into which hole in their consistent with mechanistic and reductionist opponents’ defensive line, passes behind approaches in line with traditional working which team-mate, it's a bit like watching practices. a driverless car …. There is a bigger A challenge for sport pedagogists is to danger that the shift away from develop evidence-based methodologies which autonomous thinking in attack will help them move away from mechanistic and become boring if it hasn't already. Worse reductionist approaches that force athletes to still, we are in danger of damaging seek putative “common optimal movement young players by encouraging them to templates” in training (Brisson & Alain, 1996). copy this style of play [emphasis added]. Rather, sport pedagogists and practitioners Withagen et al. (2017) have argued against could work collaboratively guided by a this mechanistic conception of human behavior, universal, principled theoretical framework with instead favouring the role of agency (i.e., other practitioners (e.g., strength and individuals can make their own way in the conditioning specialists, psychologists, trainers, world) to better understand how affordances can coaches, performance analysts, skill acquisition be designed to invite or solicit functional specialists) in a “Department of Methodology.” behaviors. The notion of agency does not mean The aim of a Department of Methodology could https://www.journalofexpertise.org 98 Journal of Expertise / June 2018 / vol. 1, no. 1

Rothwell, Davids, & Stone (2018) Harnessing Socio-Cultural Constraints on Athlete Development be for group members to collaboratively design optimal grip on the relevant affordances in a practice landscapes rich in information (i.e., landscape to develop a functional relationship visual, acoustic, and haptic) based on a powerful with the performance environment (Araújo & and comprehensive theory of human behavior to Davids, 2011). guide implementation of methods, encouraging The phenomenological notions of skilled the exploration of affordances utilized to shape intentionality, optimal grip, and field of and guide performance behaviors with physical, affordances applied to athletes, signify the psychological, emotional and social dimensions following: (1) They have developed high levels (Davids, Araújo, Hristovski, Passos & Chow, of functionality to adapt to varied challenges in 2012). Collaborative work in a Department of performance settings, enhancing their decision Methodology, based on an ecological dynamics making capacities and the autonomy needed to rationale, could lead to an agreed understanding interact with teammates and opponents; (2) they of when, how, why, and by whom particular have adapted to the relevant physical fields of a landscape can be searched during conditioning to function at high levels practice. If sporting forms of life provide throughout competition; and (3) they have athletes with opportunities to explore practice developed the resilience and emotional landscapes varying in informational constraints, regulation strategies needed to flourish in providing what Bernstein (1967, p. 204) called competitive performance. Consequently, an “repetition without repetition” (i.e., athletes athlete's concerns and abilities are constantly exploring and discovering multiple performance evolving, signifying that their functionality solutions to achieve the same goal directed towards an optimal grip on a field of task), they are more likely to develop the affordances is adaptable to varied situations functionality required to continuously co-adapt (Rietveld & Kiverstein, 2014; Bruineberg & their behaviors to a range of evolving Rietveld, 2014), through their ability to develop environmental and task constraints (Seifert, a functional relationship with dynamic Button & Davids, 2013; Pinder, Davids, performance environments (Araújo & Davids, Renshaw & Araújo, 2011). Individuals who 2011). This point is demonstrated by the improve their situation in a performance setting experiential knowledge of Castleford Tigers by unreflectively responding to relevant Head Coach, Daryl Powell (2017, p. 4). At the affordances (solicitations of the environment) time of writing, Castleford Tigers were top of are considered to have an optimal grip on the the British Super League table, having scored situation (e.g., simultaneous attunement to 149 more points than their closest rivals (BBC, multiple relevant affordances) (Rietveld & 2017). Kiverstein, 2014; Bruineberg & Rietveld, 2014), For me, you should have your own which is the basis of autonomous behaviors in philosophy and culture as a coach – and at sport performance contexts. The notion of Castleford we believe that we’re different. I skilled intentionality (an individual's tendency like the way we play and I’m excited by it – towards an optimal grip) can provide sport I’m coaching them, so I should be. If practitioners with a suitable conceptual you’re not excited about what you’re doing, framework to understand how to support you should be doing something else. We athletes' to become attuned to a field of have a way of playing, but we’re always affordances, underpinning their agency in tweaking it. If teams expect something from competitive sport. Skilled intentionality is us then we’ll throw something else at them. founded on the intertwined relationship among We’re hard to coach against and we won’t emotion, cognition, perception, and action of change that. As a coaching group we like to athletes who are challenged by sport be inventive and I know the players enjoy practitioners to adapt to dynamic constraints of playing the way we do [emphasis added]. specific fields of an affordance landscape. The aim is to support each athlete in gaining an This extract suggests the existence of a form

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Harnessing Socio-Cultural Constraints on Athlete Development Rothwell, Davids, & Stone (2018) of life (philosophy and culture embedded in a the relationship between socio-cultural methodological framework) that refuses to constraints and the emergence of an athlete's subscribe to conventional styles of play, skilled behaviors (Araújo, et al., 2010). discussed earlier by Phil Clark. Consequently, To address these challenges the team has a different way of playing that Bronfenbrenner's proposed bioecological model exploits evolving practice landscapes that of human development provides methodological require players to use information to guidance for identifying relevant socio-cultural continuously co-adapt their actions to the constraints that affect the development of movements of opponents and teammates in athletes (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), and this model achieving task goals (Chow et al., 2016). Being looks beyond the athlete's immediate embedded in a form of life of this nature means environment (although important) to explore the that players become sensitive to and utilize wider socio-cultural constraints that influence (rapidly appearing and dissolving) affordances skilled behavior (Gabbard & Krebs, 2012). The in dynamic performance contexts that are not evolution of the bioecological model of human effectively simulated under the narrow task development (Rosa & Tudge, 2013) does not constraints of traditional socio-cultural practices provide a universal explanatory theory of skilled (i.e., styles of play). These ideas imply how behavior (Araújo et al., 2010). However, transitioning of teams between performance adopting the model can provide methodological states of stability and relative instability can guidance to analyze the relationships that evolve emerge to underpin successful performance in between an athlete's exposures to a multitude of sports such as rugby league. constraints (e.g., person, process, context, time), the influence these constraints have on affordance utilization, and the socio-cultural Conclusions and Future Research practices that are embedded in sporting forms of We argued that the social, cultural, and life (Krebs, 2009). To explore these relationships a historical contexts in which athletes develop an mixed methods research approach can be increasingly functional relationship with a employed to detail a form of life in a specific performance context are important constraints sport, establish the relationships between a form of on expertise which are relevant to understand in life and an athlete's capacity to utlize available sport. This category of constraints is currently affordances, and analyze the task-specific relations lacking in substantive empirical research, between athletes and dynamic practice and especially with respect to its effects on expertise competition settings. An ecological dynamics in sport (Uehara et al., 2016), although there are examination of the person environment strong theoretical and philosophical ideas which relationship will allow a functional analysis to implicate the importance of these constraints in identify how perception and action can be shaping behaviors. An important challenge for harnessed to pick up and utilize affordances by sport practitioners is to elucidate the role of individuals (Warren, 1988). socio-cultural constraints in the design of affordance landscapes to enhance the Authors’ Declarations development of sport expertise. In tackling this challenge, high performance sport can use a The authors declare that there are no personal or powerful theoretical and methodological financial conflicts of interest regarding the framework to guide sport practitioners in research in this article. exploring socio-cultural constraints to facilitate The authors declare that they conducted the an athlete's utilization of the multitude of research reported in this article in accordance available affordances to suport skilled action. with the Ethical Principles of the Journal of The role of ecological dynamics in this task will Expertise. focus attention on the person-environment relationship, leading to a better understanding of

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