Studies in Medieval Literature King Arthur: From Myth to Modernity Arthur of History Was King Arthur A Roman Soldier?: The Lucius Artorius Castus Supposition

School of Professional Studies Fall, 2018 Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

• Fragment of a mid-late 2nd - early to mid-3rd century CE Roman funerial monument • Set in the wall of the Church of St Martin on the Dalmatian coast of Croatia prior to 17th Century CE Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

A Possible Reconstruction of the Latin Text D(IS) M(ANIBUS) L ARTORI(US CA)STUS (CENTURIO) LEG(IONIS) III GALLICAE ITEM (CENTURIO) LE]G(IONIS) VI FERRATAE ITEM (CENTURIO) LEG(IONIS) II ADI(UTRICIS I)TEM (CENTURIO LEGIONIS) V MA(CEDONICAE) ITEM P(RIMUS) P(ILUS) EIUSDEM (LEGIONIS) PRAEPOSITO CLASSIS MISENATIUM (ITEM PR)AEFF(ECTO) LEG(IONIS) VI VICTRICIS, DUCI LEG G(IONUM) (DUARU]M BRITANICIMIARUM ADVERSUS ARM(ORICANO)S PROC(URATORI) CENTENARIO PROVINCIAE LIB(URNIAE) IURE) GLADI VIVUS IPSE ET SUIS (EX TESTAMENTO) English Translation based on the Lucius Artorius Castus Reconstruction of the Latin Text Archaeological Evidence

In the Hands of the Infernal Gods

Lucius Artorius Castus, centurion of the Third Legion Gallica, also centurion of the Sixth Legion Ferrata, also centurion of the Second Legion Adiutrix, also centurion of the Fifth Legion Macedonica, also chief centurion of the same legion, in command of the Misenum fleet, prefect of the Sixth Legion Victrix, commander of two British legions against the Amoricans, centenary procurator of Liburnia with the power of the sword. He himself set this up for himself and his family in his lifetime according to his testament. Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

NAME: Artorius = Arthur?

LOCATION: Britannicimiarium = Britain? Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

NAME: Artorius = Arthur?

LOCATION: Britannicimiarium = Britain?

ROLE: “item praef(ecto legionis VI Victricis – Prefect of the Sixth Legion Victris”? Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

NAME: Artorius = Arthur

LOCATION: Britannicimiarium = Britain

ROLE: “item praeff(ecto legionis VI Victricis – Prefect of the Sixth Legion Victris”

ROLE: “duci leg c(ionum) [duaru]m Britanicimiarum” – Leader of Two British Legions” or “duci leg c(ionum) [alar]m Britanicimiarum” – Leader of the British Legionary Cavalry Squadrons”? Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

NAME: Artorius = Arthur?

LOCATION: Britannicimiarium = Britain?

ROLE: “item praeff(ecto legionis VI Victricis – Prefect of the Sixth Legion Victris”?

ROLE: “duci legg(ionum) [duaru]m Britanicimiarum” – Leader of Two British Legions” or “duci legg(ionum) [alar]m Britanicimiarum” – “gladi – of the sword”? Leader of the British Legionary Cavalry Squadrons”? Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman • Artorius = Arthur • A Soldier • A High-Ranking Officer • Commanded a Legion Stationed in Britain • Led British Cavalry Units • Associated with “the sword” Et Voilà “King Arthur” Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

Logic and the Burden of Proof

Simply Because Something Possibly Happened Is No Proof That It Actually Happened. A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman • Artorius = Arthur • A Soldier Argumentum Fieri Posse • A High-Ranking Officer Or • Commanded a Legion Stationed in Britain • Led British Cavalry Units “Conspiracy Theory Fallacy” • Associated with “the sword” Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

Logic and the Burden of Proof

The data, facts which exist, and the logical connections between the data A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman must indicate to a critically thinking • Artorius = Arthur audience that the stated claim is at least • A Soldier • A High-Ranking Officer reasonable. • Commanded a Legion Stationed in Britain • Led British Cavalry Units • Associated with “the sword” Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

“Ockham’s Razor” Lex Parsimoniae - Law of Parsimony“

“Plurality must never be posited without necessity”

A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman in other words • Artorius = Arthur • A Soldier “The problem-solving principle that the simplest • A High-Ranking Officer solution tends to be the right one.” • Commanded a Legion Stationed in Britain • Led British Cavalry Units In other words • Associated with “the sword” KISS “Keep It Simple, Student!” Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

BOGUS!!!! • Lucius Artorius Castus died in the 3rd Century “Arthur” arises in the late 5th, early 6th century • Artorius is a common Roman nomen gentilicium The gens Artoria, was a minor plebeian clan ancient Rome, descended from the Etruscan origins. A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman No evidence that the name Artorius influenced naming • Artorius = Arthur conventions in Britain • A Soldier • Led British Cavalry Units • A High-Ranking Officer Based on one possible reconstruction of the damaged text, • Commanded a Legion Stationed in Britain “duci leg c(…]m Britanicimiarum” • Led British Cavalry Units • The Sword of Power: “Excalibur” • Associated with “the sword” More likely explanation of the statement “proc[...) centenario provinciae Lib[...] gladi” As Procurator he had the power to punish citizens King Arthur (2004 Film) General

The 2004 Film, King Arthur

✓Irish-British-American Preoduction ✓ (Very) Quasi Historical Adventure ✓ Directed by Antoine Fuqua ✓ Based (very) loosely on o Lucius Artorius Castus Theory o Nennius / Geoffrey of Monmouth o Withdrawal of Rome from Britain o British Struggles against Picts / Saxons King Arthur (2004 Film) Characterization of Arthur

✓ Roman cavalry officer, Artorius Castus, ✓ Son of a Roman father (Uther Pendragon) and a British mother (Igrayne) ✓ Commands a unit of Sarmatian auxiliary cavalry in Britain ✓ End of the Roman occupation circa CE 409 ✓ Loyal to Rome and a devout Christian ✓ Follower of the teachings of Bishop Pelagius ✓ Stationed on Hadrian's Wall against the Woads (Picts) ✓ Woads led by Merlin King Arthur (2004 Film) Major Characters

✓ Arthur’s Band of Samartans: Lancelot, Bors, Tristan, Gawain, Galahad, and Dagonet ✓ Bishop Germanus as a Senior Cleric and Roman Commander ✓ Saxon king Cerdic and his son Cynric ✓Guinevere, a “Woad Princess” ✓Merlin, Leader of the “Woads” King Arthur (2004 Film) Narrative Elements

1. Artorius Castus, “Arthur,” is a Roman cavalry officer, commanding a unit of Sarmatian auxiliary cavalry, “knights,” in Britain. 2. His unit rendezvous with a convoy escorting the Bishop Germanicus to Hadrian’s Wall where they beat off an ambush by the Woads, unassimilated Britons. 3. Arthur and his surviving knights Lancelot, Bors, Tristan, Gawain, Galahad, and Dagonet expect to be discharged from their fifteen-year service commitment Rome and return home after this last mission 4. On the night when they are to receive their discharge, Germanus sends them on a final, and potentially suicidal, mission to rescue Alecto, the Pope's favorite godson, and his family who are threatened by the Saxons north of the wall. 5. The Saxons are led by their king, Cerdic, and his son Cynric. 6. Arthur tells his knights that he will not obligate them to go with him on this mission, but of course they all do 7. When the knights arrive at Alecto’s villa, they discover that his father, Marcus, has imprisoned a number of pagans, including Guinevere, a Woad and the daughter of the Woad chief, Merlin King Arthur (2004 Film) Narrative Elements

8. Arthur helps nurse Guinevere back to health from a fever caused by fingers mutilated by torture 9. Guinevere takes Arthur to meet with Merlin, her father and leader of the Woads. 10. (Flashback, Arthur mother, Igraine, died in a burning building during a Woad attack; Arthur hoping to rescue his mother, ran to his father’s, Uther Pendragon, grave and recovered his father’s sword, Excalibur.) 11. Merlin suggests an alliance between the Woads and the Sarmatian knights against the Saxons. 12. While fleeing on to the south, Alecto informs Arthur that Germanus executed Pelegius for his heretical teachings. 13. The knights lure a band of persuing Saxons led by Cynric onto a frozen lake; the ice breaks and Cynric’s band is destroyed; Arthur’s knight, Dragonet, is killed in the fight. 14. Upon their return to the wall, Germanus awards the knights their discharge papers but confirms that the Roman troops are being withdrawn. 15. Guinevere attempts to persuade Arthur to remain in Britain and defend the people from the Saxons; they sleep together which seems to seal the deal 16. Arthur decides to stay and defend the wall, but releases his knights from service to Rome. King Arthur (2004 Film) Narrative Elements

17. As the Roman garrison withdraws, the entire Saxon army arrives at the wall, led by both Cerdic, and Cynric. 18. The Woads, led by Merlin and Guinevere, arrive to fight against the Saxons under Arthur’s command. 19. Arthur, alone, confronts Cerdic north of the wall and demands he leave Britain 20. A Saxon detachment penetrates the wall but is slaughtered by Woad archers 21. Arthur’s knights, hearing the drums of the Saxon army, return to fight alongside Arthur. 22. Cerdic, seeing Arthur now with his knights on a hill overlooking the wall, leads the remaining Saxon army through the wall. 23. Using a smoke screen, Arthur and his knights attack the Saxons 24. The Woads reinforce Arthur and a general battle ensues • Cerdic kills Tristan in single combat • Guinevere attacks Cynric but is overcome by him • Lancelot rescues Guinevere resulting in both he and Cynric dying • Arthur kills Cerdic, and the battle is over. 24. Arthur asks the name of a hill overlooking the battle ground and is told, “Badon Hill.” 25. Arthur and Guinevere are married by Merlin, who declares Arthur king. 26. Arthur’s surviving knights decide to remain with him in Britain Et Voilà … fade into legend King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

Inaccuracies – Historical and Otherwise

General Rule of “Hollywood” Movies –

Entertainment, Not Accurate Information King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies 1. Chronology

c. 409 CE Roman Withdrawal from Britain c. 475 – 510 CE Battle of Badon? c. 495 CE Cerdic and Cynric in Wessex (Anglo Saxon Chronicle) King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies 1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis

“Arthur” was a Roman Officer in Command of Samartian Cataphracts, Heavy Cavalry, in Britain (C. Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas in 1978) Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

Who Were The Samartians? Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

Who Were The Samartians?

Confederation of Indo-Iranian steppe horse-warriors that existed from about the 5th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

Who Were The Samartians?

Confederation of Indo-Iranian steppe horse-warriors that existed from about the 5th century BCE to the 4th century CE.

• Defeated by the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in the Marcomannic 166 - 180 CE. Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

Who Were The Samartians?

Confederation of Indo-Iranian steppe horse-warriors that existed from about the 5th century BCE to the 4th century CE.

• Defeated by the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in the Marcomannic Wars 166 - 180 CE. • Provided heavy cavalry, cataphracti, to the Roman army as numeri, native auxiliaries Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection Who Were The Samartians?

Confederation of Indo-Iranian steppe horse-warriors that existed from about the 5th century BCE to the 4th century CE.

• Defeated by the Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in the Marcomannic Wars 166 - 180 CE. • Provided heavy cavalry, cataphracti, to the Roman army as numeri, native auxiliaries • A contingent of Sarmatian cavalry was sent to Britain circa 175 CE by Marcus Aurelius and stationed at the Fort at Bremetennacum in Lancashire, England Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

The Samartian Connection

Lucius Artorius Castus

• Praefectus Castrorum of Legio VI Victris late 2nd , early 3rd Century CE • Legio VI Victrix stationed in Britain • Samartian cataphracts stationed in Britain late 2nd Century CE Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

The Samartian Connection

Lucius Artorius Castus

• Dux Alae Legionum Britannicae, “Commander of British Squadrons of Legionary Cavalry” • Some cavalry units in Britain were Samartian cataphracts

Therefore, Lucius Artorius Castus was the leader of heavy cavalry units, “knights,” in Britain. Lucius Artorius Castus Archaeological Evidence

A Late 2nd - Early 3rd Century Roman • A Soldier • A High-Ranking Officer • Named “Artorius” • May Have Commanded a Legion Perhaps in Britain • May Have Led British Cavalry Units • Associated with “power of the sword” • Led a band of heavy cavalry “knights” • Fought a cavalry war in a British- speaking part of the European continent Et Voilà “King Arthur” Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

The Samartian Connection

• Dux Alae Legionum BritannicaeBOGUS!, “Commander of British Squadrons of“Dux Legionary Alae Legionum Cavalry”Britannicae” • Some“Leader cavalry of twounits British in Britain cavalry were wings Samartian of the cataphractslegions” Based on one possible reconstruction of the memorial text.

“Adversus Armoricas,” “Against the Bretons” Based on one possible reconstruction of the memorial text. Lucius Artorius Castus Samartian Connection

The Samartian Connection

• Praefectus Castrorum ofBOGUS! Legio VI Victris late 2nd , early 3rd Century CE • Legio VI Victrix stationed in Britain Absolutely No Evidence Connecting Lucius Artorius Castus with • Samartian cataphracts stationed in Britain late 2nd Century CE Samartian Cavalry Units Stations in Britain King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion “Anti Orthodox Christian Sub-Text” Germanus ✓ Germanus arrived in Britain well after the Roman withdrawal, c. 429, probably in response to the Pelagian heresy ✓ He exercised no civil power for the Roman government ✓ He had no involvement in the death of Pelagius, who died probably of natural causes in Egypt, c. 418 ✓ He arrived from the Gallic-Roman town, Autissiodorum, modern Auxerre, France, not Rome ✓ Died c. 448 CE, well before the Battle of Badon King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion “Anti Orthodox Christian Sub-Text” Pelagius ✓ Monk, not a bishop ✓ Died probably of natural causes in Egypt, c. 418 ✓ No evidence that he was executed or murdered with the complicity of the empire or of the orthodox church ✓ His intellectual adversaries were Augustine of Hippo and Jerome ✓ He appeared before the Synod of Diospolis, 415, which concluded,

"Now since we have received satisfaction in respect of the charges brought against the monk Pelagius in his presence and since he gives his assent to sound doctrines but condemns and anathematises those contrary to the faith of the Church, we adjudge him to belong to the communion of the Catholic Church." King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion “Anti Orthodox Christian Sub-Text” The Pope ✓ Did not exercise civil power in the western Roman empire in the fifth century ✓ Empire was ruled by the emperor, Honorius and Constantine III, in 409 CE; the military was commanded by the Magister Militum, Flavius Stilicho until 408 ✓ “Donation of Constantine,” a document allegedly written in the 4th century giving the Pope temporal powers over Rome and the western empire, was an 8th-century forgery King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion 4. Nugae Characterization of Guinevere as a Pictish Warrior

✓ Legendary Tradition of Celtic Warrior Queens: Maebh, Boudicca, Cartimandua ✓ No foundation for this in legend or tradition ✓ Earliest mention of Guinevere identifies her as being of “Roman descent” (Geoffrey of Monmouth) How long would a 120 lb. woman with no apparent upper body strength, armed with nothing more than a suede bikini and blue paint, survive in hand-to-hand combat with heavily armed Saxon warriors? Characterization makes sense only as a feminist allegory King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion 4. Nugae Characterization of Arthur’s “Knights” ✓ Armed as “light cavalry”; Samartians were cataphracts, armored heavy cavalry ✓ Non-standard and non-uniform weaponry not consistent with Roman military practice ✓ “Fifteen-year enlistment contract” not consistent with Roman military practice King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion 4. Nugae Roman Naming Conventions ✓ Roman names classically had three, sometimes four, components: Praenomen – Nomen – Cognomen - (Agnomen) • Praenomen – individual’s personal name • Nomen –individual’s clan (gens) • Cognomen – personal name which usually indicated a subdivision of the clan • Agnomen – indicated the clan of an individual who was adopted or was granted to an individual in recognition of a significant accomplishment King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion 4. Nugae Roman Naming Conventions ✓ Roman names classically had three, sometimes four, components: Praenomen – Nomen – Cognomen - (Agnomen) ✓ L Artorius Castus, from the memorial slab, was Lucius of the Castus branch of the Artorius clan ✓ Sons inherited their Nomen and Cognomen from their fathers King Arthur (2004 Film) Historical Inaccuracies

1. Chronology 2. Samartian Hypothesis 3. Religion 4. Nugae Roman Naming Conventions “Square Peg in a Round Hole Fallacy”

✓ Artorius Castus in the film has no personal name, but could have been addressed as “Artori” by colleagues of equal or greater prestige ✓ He would have taken both his Nomen and Praenomen from his father ✓ His father would also have been Artorius Castus NOT Uther Pendragon ✓ The film seems to be trying to force fit the Uther Pendragon / Igrayne lineage of Arthur on its Roman Character, Artorius King Arthur (2004 Film) Gleason’s Rating

“Dance 10, Looks 3”

Entertainment: B - / B

Historical Accuracy: F

A good flic to eat popcorn to, but don’t look too closely at the details. This is definitely not the “ The untold true story that inspired the legend” Lucius Artorius Castus What Can Reasonably Be Determined from the Funerial Monument Archaeological Evidence

There was a Roman soldier named Lucius Artorius Castus ✓ Died in the late 2nd / early 3rd century CE in Croatia ✓ Associated with Legion III Gallica, Legion VI Ferrata, Legion II Adiutrix, and Legion V Macedonica ✓ Based on legionary assignments, served in the Middle East and in Eastern Europe ✓ Perhaps the chief centurion, “PP,” of Legion V ✓ Assigned to or had a command in the Misenum fleet , “PRAEPOSITO,” ✓ Prefect, “AEF,” of the Legion VI Victrix, which was stationed in York ✓ Commander, “DUCI,” of some legionary units associated with the British provinces “BRITANNICIARUM,” against some enemy, “ARM” ✓ Centenary Procurator, “PROC CENENARIO,” probably of Liburnia “LI” in Croatia No Compelling or Reasonable Connection ✓ He set the monument up for himself and for his family in to the “Arthur” of British Legend his lifetime, “VIVUS” Lucius Artorius Castus Gleason’s “Conspiracy Theory”

Banna, “Birdoswald Roman Fort”

• A Roman fort on the western end of Hadrian's Wall, in Cumbria near the city of Carlisle • Evidence of two vici, civilian settlements built outside the wall of the fort on the east and west sides • Guarded a strategic bridge that carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing • Garrisoned by an auxiliary cohort of the Roman army • Only site on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the sub- Roman period has been proven • The granaries (horrea) were replaced by two successive large timber halls, similar to others found in many parts of Britain dating to the 5th and 6th centuries Lucius Artorius Castus Gleason’s “Conspiracy Theory” Banna, “Birdoswald Roman Fort”

• Cumbria is ideal “Arthurian” Country, positioned to enable “Arthur” to operate against the Scotti on the west coast , the Picti to the north, and the Saxons to the southeast. • Romano-British occupation of Luguvalium, modern Carlisle, seems to have continued unbroken after the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410 • When the Romans withdrew troops from Britain, some auxiliary units remained • A number of auxiliary units were stationed on the wall near Luguvalium, particularly Ala Gallorum Petriana, a cavalry unit which at full strength 720 troopers, 24 turmae each with 30 horsemen • Former Roman auxiliary units continued to occupy the Roman forts and “sold” their protection to towns and farm settlements in the area • “Arthur,” perhaps descended from the Roman officer class, was a leading commander of these free bands