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A COMPARISON OF HINDU AND BUDDHIST TECHNIQUES OF ATTAINING

Eddie Crang1e

'V';'tti,-nlrodya!:l ' is the cessation of mind- movement.! Thus wrote Patafija1i at the beginning of his y1ga- , relating to his technique of attaining fina emancipation (moksa). Both Yogic and Buddhist schools of thought share fundamental presuppositions about yoga. Included, among others, are: a.) the equation; exist- ence equals , and b.) the doctrine of the possibility of obtaining transcendental knowledge In addition, both schools stress a form of sel -discipline for obtaining release. The growing preoccupation of contemporary western studies in religion and the therapies etc., with the of , the essential characteristics of human suffering, and the freedom from such, leads invariably to the examination and theoretical consideration of the individual's, efforts to master consciousness. Our editors, in the Introduction, understand such expertise to encompass' ... a greater capacity to deploy various forms of attention in a host of ways towards any particular objects, thoughts, and feelings which make up the whole of our sensory environments" Yogic practices, however, aim also to reduce those aspects of the consciousness flow which are viewed as hindrances to attaining the •... ideal of perceptual and cognitive freedom', i.e. the final emancipation of highest !am&. It my intention, in this essay, to compare Hindu and Buddhist techniques of achieving sam&dhi and thus to contribute, hopefully, a little to the clarif- ication of some consciousness studies in Eastern trad- itions of philosophy, psychology, and religion. In particular, I will examine the method relating to the samidhi of 's Yoga-sutra and to that of 186 187 the Buddhist P.Rupa and In these cases a sense of 'I'. technique refers to the gradual removal of hindrances,' to the refinement of consciousness, until the psychic 'Nir' forms are those without deliberation and flux is arrested and the experience of complete fusion reflection: the mind does not interfere and so there of the subject and object of ensues: then, is no 'I' sense. ' ... the true nature of the object shines not distracted by the mind of the perceiver ... ' Both types are 'seeded' (sabija); that is, they are ' ... in relation with a 'substratum' (support) and In Patanjali's system of yoga there are eight steps produce tendencies that are 7ike 'seeds' for the future (asta)ga) or stages: two, namely moral restraints functions of consciousness.' (yima and disciplines of the body and psyche (), are considered to be necessary preliminaries to the Sa-vitarka samadhi, then, is enstasis when the mind remainder: three are accessary to mind control by has a gross (sthula) aspect of the object of concen- governing the disciplining of body (), vital tration as its base, while being accompanied by force () and senses and the final deliberation and reflection. It is a direct perception three stages are the process by the experience of of the object that extends into the past and future. unification occurs. These are concentration Nir-vitarka samadhi is the moment when the object is meditation (samadhi), descrIlie'CI as empty of name and meaning: when the mind ceases link- stasis and conJunction. three steps are known ing verbal and logical associations with it and the as 'samrama'. The eighth stage, enstasis, is the final object is' ... grasped directly... as a concrete and phase 0 the unification process. irreducible datum. '8 Dharana is '... holding the mind in a motionless Sa-vicara samadhi is the level of knowing the subtle fixing it to some mental or external object or inner aspect of the object of concentration by repeated effort. Eventually, an even current of accompanied with deliberation and reflection. However, thought (dhyana), undisturbed by other thoughts, is in nir-vicara samadhi, when absorption deepens and directed towards the object, thus allowing the yogin supramental reflection ceases' ... thought then becomes ' ... to the flux of ordinary mental activity,' one with these infinitesimal nucleuses of energy which (citta-v!tti) which gradually diminishes as the constitute the true foundation of the physical uni- absorption-deepens. The result is samadhi. verse. '9 When samadhi is obtained with the aid of an object At this same point of enstasis are found two other of concentration, this is called forms of contemplation; Ananda-samadhi, associated the lower form of samadhi which is-'1Ene accurate know- with supreme joy - unspeakable bliss. This becomes ing of distinguishab1es'.5 In samprajnati-samadhi the object of concentration, and all perception, are eight ontological levels of the contemplated object including that of the subtle aspect, is abandoned. and degrees of fusion attained. Each level has its This leads to asmita samadhi: the stage at which the own mode of function or logic. It may be that the self becomes the sole object of reflection and' ... the I states are not discrete but are differences discerned reaches his true self and understands 'I am on a continuum. These are: a. vitarka, b. vicara, other than my body". '10 c. ananda and d. asmita, each of which have two forms: 'sa'forms and 'nir' forms. 'Sa' forms are 'propertied' This level of knowing is also called '-megha- wnen the object-oI meditation IS associated with samadhi': the 'cloud of dharma' in which the yogin deliberation and reflection: the mind names the object ' ... feels that he is saturated (with virtues) and... (sabda), gives it significance () and' ... prop- has a feeling of 'Enough' in respect to all knowledge erties by comparison with some on and all consciousness ... ' and so precipitates the the basis of remembered past experience. '6 They have subject orientated enstasy - asamprajnata-samadhi. ll * has been used throughout except in cases where the seemed appropriate. These are marked with Asamprajnata samadhi, procur;fed by supreme detach- the letter 'P.'. ment or abandonment (para-vairagya) of all worldy ob- 189 188 jects, still remains seeded with subconscious impress- five psychological factors, previously mentioned arise ions but these are burnt up with repeated in him. The object reflection is taken up practise until the yogin attains the nirbija at This me, to be (without seed) state of Kaivalya - ' ... the enstasis s1milar to the sa forms of samadhi in of total , without sensary content or which the object of concentration,n its gross and intellectuabstructure.. in which the yogin is actually subtle aspects, is considered in similar light. all Being. ' EmancipationI However, as concentration and bliss intensifies The samadhi of is to be the second D.jhana is entered and the obstacles of ' similar to that of the Yo and the meditation- applied and thinking are dispensed with 17 al techniques bear some 9a-sutra as I hope to show. The 'nir' forms of nir-vitarka and nir-vicara samadhi In this instance, I will examine, mainly, the different bear a resemblance to this state in the sense that the Buddhist Raptures in relation to samprAjnata gross and subtle aspects of that meditation are and asamprAjnata sama 1. experienced without The Noble Eight-fold Path of the , like When the third p.jhafia is entered, zest is Patanjali's is concerned also with moral, dispensed with, leaving appiness and one pointedness bodilY,and mental discipline. The last three members of mind. In this state ' the sense of self is of the Path are directly related to the unification still further diminished there supervenes a process. These are: a. 'right exertion' (P.samma- clear, perfectly conscious bliss ... 'i8 vayama), which, by controlling the emotive reactions Ananda samadhi resembles this experience because of to external activity, wards off mental supreme joy being its object of concentration.How- activity; b. 'right ' (P.samma-),which ever, the satisfying (P.ptii) is the cultivation of awareness in order to keep the of the third p.{hana gives way to the subtle joy 0 mental contents under constant control and to produce tranquil mindfu ness19 which probably bears a greater relaxation of body and mind. This is done by choos- resemblance to the towards asmita samadhi. ing a certain body function, such as breathing, and following it with the mind,_and £. the development of The last stage of the P.Rupa Jhanas is reached , unification' (P.samma-samadhi) which comprises when any kind of emotion is stopped and all that re- of eight meditative phases named P. 'jhana'. mains of the five psychological factors is onepointed- ness of mind; consciousness of is trans- These phases of consciousness are progressively cended creating perfect equanimityZO con!ciousness refined until all false ideas of life, matter and the passes beyond to the first of the P.Arupa Jhanas; hindrance of thought are dispersed. Like the levels the formless attainments. I am reminded, here, of the of samadhi in the Yoga-Sutra, these are divided into renunciation of dharma-megha-samadhi and entry_to two main types: the P.Rnpa Jhanas which are attained the subject orientated enstasy of asamprajnata samadhi by concentration and meditation on a mental or external by supreme detachment and abandonment of all worldy form and b. the P.Arupa Jhanas: the 'formless attain- objects. ments. ' It is at this point of the essay that I would like The four P.Rupa Jhanas, the practise of mind-object to draw attention, again, to seeded consciousness and contemplation, possess five psychological elements consciousness without seed. When it is seeded, which are reduced as the concentration of mind consciousness is affected by suppressed ideas and feel- intensifies. These are: 1. investigation (vitarka, ings which remain as tendencies within the mind: these P.vitakka), 2. reasoning (vicara), 3. zest (P.piti), tendencies lose their to germinate in the higher 4. happiness (P.piti-) and 5. one-pointedness of realms of consciousness. mind (P.ekaggatacitta).15 I that_the Jhanas resemble the sabija- The first P.jhana is the state of mind in which the wh:rcli is seeded, at least, due to meditation is disassociated from sense and the the 1nc ination to sustain this samadhi. The formless attainments are seeded to the degree that they owe their 190 191 HINDU BUDDHIST SAMPRAJNATA - Subject-Object Orientated. 4 RUPA JHANAS (P.) - Subject-Object Orientated. 'seeded' 'seeded'

SA VITARKA SAMAoHI 1st JHANA (P.) - 5 Psychological Factors Present 'With Deliberation & Reflection'. 1. Investigation/Application of Thought 'Gross Object of concentration is 'Propertied' (VITARKA,P.VITAKKA) SA VICARA SAMADHI 2. Reasoning/Discursive Thought (VICARA) 'With Deliberation & Reflection' 3. Zest 'Inner' Aspect of Object of is 4. Happiness 'Propertied' . 5. One-Pointedness of Mind. SA ANANDA SAMADHI 'With Deliberation & Reflection' Bliss as Object of concentration is 'Propertied' SA ASMITA SAMADHI 'With Deliberation & Relection' Self as Object of Concentration is 'Propertied'

NIR VITARKA SAMADHI NOT 'With Deliberation & Relection' 2nd JHANA (P.) -3Psychological Factors Present Gross object of concentration is NOT 'Propertied' 1. Zest NIR VICARA SAMADHI 2. Happiness NOT 'With Deliberation &Reflection' 3. One-Pointedness of Mind 'Inner' Aspect of Object of Concentration is NOT 'Propertied' Feeling of Bliss Intensified

NIR ANANDA SAMADHI Bliss as Object of Concentration 3rd JHANA (P.) - 2 Psychological Factors Present NOT 'Propertied' 1. Happiness 2. One-Pointedness of Mind NIR ASMITA SAMADHI 'Self' as Object of Concentration NOT 'Propertied'

Subject Orientated ASAMPRAJNATA - Subject Oriented 'seeded' "Seeded" Burning up subconsciousness impressions " " " " " " " " Limit of Karmic Action - Without Seed. Without Seed P.:NIBBANA

192 193 movement, through the levels of consciousness, to karmic of defilements, uncompounded, infinite, and eternal momentum and that the fourth Jhana is the stage are profoundly concerned with unconditioned of transition to consciousness WIthout seed. As .. some exists as to consciousness becomes increasingly purified' ... the the ,of consciousness; complete removal of one stage constitutes the when stops or ceases' on the attainment of the next. ,2 attainment of The first formless attainment is when the meditator It is not said to be annihilated. It no longer abandons form as his object of concentration and transmigrates. Z9 What happens to it? Perhaps this is practices space concentration23 to realize the sphere the essential difference between Kaivalya and : of space-infinity (P.akasayatana). Even sO,_he the fact that Buddhism makes no positive statement aoout sees that his attainment is shadowed by the rupa-Jhana the final state of the released. Buddhist doctrine (and) wishes to attain the state of infinite conscious- declares: 'In the dead man, not only are the three ness, considering it to be even more tranquil. '24 By formations (verbal, bodily and thought formations) continuing this practice, he passes beyond the sphere stilled but vitality is cut off, heat is cut off the of infinite space and enters the sphere of infinite faculties are cut off. In a man who has entered the consciousness: the second formless attainment attainment of the dissolution of perception and sen- sation, although the (three) formations are stilled vitality, heat and 58e faculties are not cut off. 'This This, also, is seen as an imperfection so ' ... the is the difference.' It could be that this difference consciousness lets go of every concept ... and enters a applies equally to the achiever of Kaivalya and that sphere where no-thing at all exists, not even the equates with the nirbija state of Kaivalya. perception of nothingness (p.akificafifia*atana) Self- consciousness is eliminated and ' ... teknower and In conclusion, I note that both Hindu and Buddhist known are merged in unity. '25 yogins, after a period of moral and physical discipline, developed proficiency at attaining a degree of enstasy Yet, the bliss of its tranquility is felt as subtle with the object of their concentration and, by the perception and this can only be neutralized by entering gradual removal of hindrances to consciousness, managed the sphere of neither-perception nor non-perception to intensify the degree of enstasis; eventually, (P.nevasannanasannayatana). Thus,' ... the limit of object-orientated enstasis was transcended and a degree all karmic action is reached; 'Z6 the yogin is at the of formless attainment/subject-orientated enstasis final and transitional stage to the attainment of ensued. This however, was still liable to subtle ' ... which is the total suspension of mind, partiality but was eventually surpassed to attain mental properties, and the mental qualities associated liberation and '... the knowledge of the ultimate real- with mind. 'Z7 ity of all objects, material and phenomenal. '31 There is similarity between Yogic and Buddhist techniques of attaining samadhi but in each case the References emancipation is thought to be different. While admitt- ing that yogins and non-Buddhist ascetics could have lIsherwood & Prabhavananda, How to Know God: The access to the eight transic states (P.jhanas),the Aphorisms of Patanjali, (N.Y.: New American Buddhists denied the authenticity of any claim by non- 19 9), p.ll. Buddhists to the attainment of the ninth state which is the release of Nirvana: the destruction of conscious- ness and whIch was specifically a discovery ZIbid., p.1ZZ. of the Buddha. 8 Whilst Buddhists (and others) would argue that Kaivalya and Nirvana are completely differ- 3Mircea Eliade, From Primitives to , (London: ent, the argument is not so clear cut. There Collins, 1967), p.500. is a striking between Kaivalya and in that both are thought of as pure, free of

194 195 4Georg Feuerstein, Textbook o;f Yoga,(London: Rider, 18Humphries, op.cit., p.180, quoting 1975) , p.13D. Silacara.

SIan Kesacodi-Watson, Samadhi in Patafijali's 19Feuerstein, op.cit., p.58. , (Australia: an unpublished manuscript, 1980), p.l3. 2°Mahathera Vajirananda, op.cit., pp.272-279.

6Ibid., p.1S. 2lHumphries, op.cit., pp.183-184.

7Mircea Eliade, YOfa:llllIIlorta1ity and Freedom, 22Mahathera Vajirananda, op.cit., p.332. (N.Y.: Panthean Books, 958), p.83, quoting Yogasara-samgraha. 23Upattissa, (The Path of Freedom) (Colombo: Dr. Weerasuria, 1 1), p.113. 8Ibi d., pp.81-83. Vajirananda, op.cit., p.459. 9Ibid., p.83. h' . 25Hump r i es , op i c i.t ,, p. 182 . ID1bi d . ,. p,84, quoting Yisfianabhiksu' s Yogasara- samgraha. 26Ibid., p.183. llIbid., p.84. 27Mahathera Vajirananda, op.cit., p.46S. 12Feuerst ean., op.cJ.t., .p. 132 . 28Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, op.cit" pp . 173 -174. 13E1iade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, op.cit., pp.93-95. 29Edward J. Thomas, The of Buddhist (N.Y.: Barnes and Noble, 1 71, 1st. publ., 14Ibid., p.17D. 1933 , p.132.

15Mahathera Vaj irananda, in 30Upatissa, op.cit., p.325. Theory and Practice, (Colombo: Gunasena, 1962), p.332, Robert M. Gimello, and Meditation', 31 in and Philosothical Anal;sis,(ed.) S. Katz, Thubten Zopa, The Wish Fulfilling Golden (Lon on: Sheldon Press, 978), p.l8 , abstracted from Sun of the Mahatana Thought Training, (an unpublished S;;maiifiaphala and Ponhapada Suttas of the PaH Digha manuscript), p. 21. NJ.kaya. Bibliography l6Christmas Humphries, Concentration and (London: Watkins, 1973), p.180. Buddaghosa Visuddhimagfa (The Path of Purity) (tr. Pe Maung Tin 17Edward Conze, Buddhist Meditation, (London: London: Luzac, 1971. George Allan & Unwin, 1956), p.117.

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