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Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 43, No. 2, March 1995 (33) Nagarjuna and Spinoza on Truth •\ A Study in Comparative Philosophy•\ Tadashi KASAI Nagarjuna (—´Ž÷C. 150-250) and Spinoza (1632-1677) are two great philoso- phers who lived with different philosophical views in different times. Even so, here in this brief treatise, the author will make a comparative study of these two philosophers, believing that it is highly meaningful to clarify the distinguishing features of the two with a view to promot- ing a better understanding between East and West. Below the author will focus on Nagarjuna's concept of truth by analyz- ing "Madhyamakakarika,"1) which is said to be his most important work. The author will begin the analysis by referring to the `Prasannapada', Candrakirti's commentary. At the beginning of "Madhyamakakarika" Nagarjuna states as follows.2) "I salute him , the fully enlightened, the best of speakers, who preached the non-ceasing and the non-arising, the non-annihilation and the non-permanence, the non-identity and the non-diffenence, the non-appearance and the non-disap- pearance, the depdndent arising, the appeasement of obsessions and the auspicious." `Pratityasamutpada' , which is the main idea of this first verse, is the fundamental principle of "Madhyamakakarika." The last verse of this "Madhyamakakarika" goes as follows .3) "I re verently bow to Gautama who, out of compassion, has taught the true doctrine in order to relinquish all views." In the verse above the true doctrine is, as seen in Candrakirti's com- mentary, `Pratityasamutpada.' That is to say, the focus of "Madhyama- kakarika" is to clarify the essence of `pratityasamutpada' in terms of the ultimate truth. Then what is the true meaning of `pratityasamutpada' described in "Madhyamakakarika?" Out of the 27 chapters of "Madhya- -1020- (34) Nagarjuna and Spinoza on Truth (T. KASAI) makakarika," 25 chapters focus on `Mahayana,' and the last two chapters on `Theravada.' The `pratityasamutpada' addressed in "Madhyamakakarika" may be what is meant by `mutual relation' or `interdependence.' In the 'Thera- vada' `pratityasamutpada' is described as things arising from causation; that is' things arising from chronological occurrence of phenomena . However, in the `madhyamika' it is described as things in logical reci- procity. The relation between purity and impurity, for instance, will be discussed below. "We provisionally assert that impurity cannot exist without being mutually dependent on purity and that, in turn, purity exists only as related to impurity. Therefore, purity per se is not possible." (23.10) Furthermore, "we provisionally assert that purity cannot exist without being mutually dependent on impurity and that, in turn, impurity exists only as related to purity. Therefore, impurity per se does not exist." (23.11) Chapter 26 of "Madhyamakakarika" describes what `the twelve causa- tion' are, clarifying the conditions of perpetual repetition of birth and death of sentient beings, or what is meant by the worldly truth. To know that the twelve causation are `sunya' is the truth of the first principle. Below is a verse from "Madhyamakakarika," which notes that `pratitya- samutpada' means `not arising' :"At nowhere and at no time can entities ever exist by originating out of themselves, from others, from both (self-other), or from the lack of causes." (1-1) It is by and large consi- dered to be appropriate that things `arise from causation,' but things cannot exist by `arising' from themselves. In terms of phenomenal exist- ences, things are assumed to be `arising and perishing,' but the real truth is that things can neither be arising nor perishing. The self, which cannot independently exist separated from the five aggregates, can only be produced by causation through the five aggre- gates. From the verse (the first half of 22-3) "He who is dependent upon other nature would appropriately be without self", it follows that -1019- Nagarjuna and Spinoza on Truth (T. KASAI) (35) `pratitya -samutpada' means 'non-self .' The self as in 'non-self' means `substance ,' and therefore, non-self is non-substantiality, and eventually the non-self is `pratityasamutpada.' In "Madhyamakakarika" the three concepts of 'pratitya-samutpada,' `nihsvabhava ,' and `sunyata' are one and the same in meaning. `Pratitya- samutpada' is `nihsvabhava,' `nihsvabhava' is `sunyata,' and `sunyata' is `pratitya-samutpada.' It is reasoned that non-substantiality is logically reduced from 'pratitya-samutpada,' which is fundamental, and `nihsvab- hava' is reduced from non-substantiality. According to Nagarjuna, 'pratitya-samutpada' is `madhyama pratipad.' Below is a verse from "Madhyamakakarika," which teaches as follows: "We state that whatever is dependent arising , that is emptiness. That is dependent upon convention. That itself is the middle path." (24-18) `Sunyata' is ` madhyama pratipad' beyond the two extremes of existence and non-existence. `Madhyama pratipad' means `neither existence nor non-existence." `Existence' and `non-existence,' which cannot exist in- dependently of each other, are two concepts that assume each other in their origination. There is a relation of interdependence at the bedrock of the `opposition of `existence' to `non-existence.' Thus, it is reasoned that `to be beyond opposition' is `madhyamapratipad.' Below are two verses which describe Nagarjuna's view of Buddha: "When he is empty in terms of self -nature , the thought that the Buddha exists or does not exist after death is not appropriate." (22-14) Nagarjuna rejects any views spoiled with meaningless arguments. All things and `tathagata' are not different, but one and the same in the end. `Tathagata' described in "Madhyamakakarika" , judging from various commentaries, means `dharma-kaya.' "Dharma-kaya.' of this tathagata' is `tathata ,' "nihsvabhava,' and "pratitya-samutpada.' Thus, it is stated that one who comprehends the law of 'pratitya-samutpada' can immediately be a Buddha (perfect Enlightened One). The author will here focus on Nagarjuna's thought of `nirvana.' "The teacher has spoken of relinquishing both becoming and other-becoming. -1018- (36) Nagarjuna and Spinoza on Truth (T. KASAI) Therefore, it is proper to assume that `nirvana' is neither existence nor non-existence." (25-10) It is reasoned that `nirvana' is `neither existence nor non-existence.' The concept of `nirvana' is on the premise that `existence' and . `non-existence' are in a mutual relation. It also states that `nirvana' is non-annihilation, non -permanence,' 'non-ceasing,' and 'non -arising .' Furthermore, it states that there is no distinction between `samsara' and `nirvana .' One who grasps 'pratitya-samutpada' in terms of `prajna' will percei ve the view of `nirvana', thus attaining enlightenment to be 'advaita' with 'pratitya-samutpada.' A verse (24-40) states that "one who perceives 'pratitya-samutpada' also perceives suffering, the cause of suffering, the extinction of suffering and the path to `nirvana.' 'Pratitya-samutpada' and `catvary aryasatyani' (suffering, the cause of suffering, the extinction of suffering and the path to `nirvana') are identical, but the `modus essendi' of 'Pratitya-samutpada' is different from that of `catvary aryasatyani.' 'Pratity-samutpada' and `catvary aryasatyani' are traditionally believed to be the 'law'; that is , the `truth.' 'Pratitya-samutpada,' which is the fundamental principle, is the ultimate truth, while the `catvary aryasatyani' is the contents of 'pratitya -samutpada' in instruction . For Spinoza the ultimate truth is God. In his first philosophical work, which is written in Dutch, Spinoza states that "God de Waarhijd, of de Waarhijd God is",4) meaning that God is the truth, or the truth is God. In order to discover the best method for finding out the truth, Spinoza states, "there is no need of another method for discovering such method."5) For Spinoza it is evident that, for the certitude of truth, no further sign is necessary beyond the possession of a true idea. Method is nothing else than reflective knowledge, or the idea of an idea. Spinoza continues, the good method is that which teaches us to direct our mind according to the standard of the given true idea. "Per Deum intelligo ens absolute infinitum , hoc est, substantiam con- stantem infinitis attributis, quorum unumquodque acternam, & infinitam essentiam exprimit."6) -1017- Nagarjuna and Spinoza on Truth (T. KASAI) (37) "By God , I mean a being absolutely infinite•\that is, a substance consisting in infinite attributes, of which each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality." This definition of God by Spinoza is one and the same with that of God in the terminology of a scholastic philosophy. Here, by substance, Spinoza means "that which is in itself, and is con- ceived through itself." 'Causa sui' is defined as that of which the essence involves existence. God is 'causa sui' and 'substantia.' Spinoza's 'Ethica' develops based on his eight `definitio essentialis.' By that which `in se else,' Spinoza means the one which exists inde- pendently by the necessity of its own nature, and of which the action is determined by itself alone. Substance not only exists through the universe but also shows its existence even in minute particles of matter, thus existing in a `hen kai pan' manner. `Per se concipi' describes the non-dependency of the conceived substance as `that of which a conception can be formed independently of any other conception.' "Substance is prior to all things, as described in "substance is by nature prior to its modifications." Furthermore, "in Nature there is nothing but substances and their modifications," and "by mode," Spinoza means, "the modfications of substance." "Besides God no substance can be granted or conceived ." (Eth. I. Prop. 14), states Spinoza. What is clearly shown in this statement is Judaism, in which no substance is required except God, the only substance. Thus, "whatever is , is in God, and nothing can either be granted or be conceived without God" (Eth. I. Prop. 15). Spinoza states this, most probably because he is a Jewish with an intellectual love of mind toward God.
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