Small Island Developing States SIDS

SIDS Saving paradise Ensuring sustainable development Small Island Developing States

NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of mate- rial in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries. paradise Saving Conclusion cooperation National MeteorologicalandHydrological Servicesandregional Tourism Energy Freshwater Coastal zonemanagement Natural andenvironmentalhazards Climate changeandsea-levelrise Introduction Foreword 24 12 21 20 16 18 iv 1 5 7

iii Saving paradise Contents Ensuring sustainable development

Foreword

Since the adoption of the Barbados

Foreword Programme of Action (BPoA) for the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in 1994, considerable efforts have been deployed to implement the high-priority programme areas deﬁned therein. Today, the achievements may seem meagre when compared to the objectives of the BPoA and the increasing challenges faced by SIDS in areas of trade, security and environment. This is true for most developing countries, but particularly so for SIDS.

The impediments are daunting, whether they be natural, indigenous or originate from global conditions. While the responsibility for meeting their socio-economic aspirations should rest primarily with the SIDS themselves, the world community, including strategic part- ners, UN system organizations and the private as well as in climate variability and change and sector, have the duty to commit resources and their impacts on sea-level rise. means of support. The support should be based on the strategies and the Programme of A unique feature of WMO is that its efforts are Action that SIDS will evolve at the 2005 geared to supporting the activities of the Mauritius International Meeting to Review the National Meteorological and Hydrological Implementation of the Programme of Action Services of SIDS, while ensuring that the coor- for the Sustainable Development of SIDS. dination mechanism and systems are developed and implemented by SIDS them- WMO has been at the forefront of collabora- selves. This booklet provides a brief overview tion with SIDS to ensure endogenous capacity of this distinctive global system in which each building and the availability of some of the country contributes according to its means and sophisticated products that recent advances in beneﬁts according to its needs in all socio- meteorology, hydrology, oceanography and economic and environmental areas where related sciences can provide. These include weather, climate and water play a role. observational data from all countries on weather, atmospheric composition, the ocean This brochure aims to contribute to awareness surface and surface and underground freshwa- of the potential contribution of weather, ter from a global network of in situ stations climate and water to sustainable development and satellite systems. and thus to the formulation and implementation of the Mauritius Programme of Action for WMO ensures the availability around the clock the sustainable development of SIDS and the of the most reliable weather forecasts and well being of their populations now and in the warnings with as much lead time as possible. future. Seasonal forecasts up to a year ahead are also being developed nationally or globally. The Organization gives particular importance to products that are essential for socio-economic sectors, including agriculture, water-resources M. Jarraud management, energy and tourism and for (Secretary-General) environmental protection. It also promotes research and capacity building in these areas, Small Island Developing States

iv Introduction

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are highly vulnerable to natural disasters, as well as human-induced factors. These have been highlighted by the Alliance of Small Island Introduction Developing States (AOSIS), which has played a key role in drawing attention to the concerns of SIDS and calling for urgent action. Indeed, the threats can be mitigated through appropriate strategies that are based on the basic principles of sustainable development and the concerted efforts of the countries concerned, and with the support of the international community. Photo: H. Kootval paradise Photo: Delphine Tailfer Saving

1 2 Small Island Developing States Introduction and HydrologicalServices(NMHSs)ofSIDS ing degreefromtheNationalMeteorological priorities. Alltheseareasrequireinputsofvary- fied 14issuesand/orfocalareasasurgent the principaloutputofConference,identi- tries. TheBarbadosProgrammeofAction(BPoA), and oceanographicissuesinmanyofthesecoun- highlighted themeteorological,hydrological environmental challengesfacingSIDS,butalso Developing Statesnotonlyrecognizedcommon Sustainable DevelopmentofSmallIsland the 1994BarbadosConferenceon Conference onEnvironmentandDevelopment, As anoutcomeofthe1992UnitedNations Mauritius andbeyond From Barbadosto Ensuring sustainabledevelopment ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (NMHSs) Hydrological Services Meteorological and from National significant inputs areas requiring Programme priority SIDS cooperation Regional institutionsandtechnical administrative capacity National institutionsand Science andtechnology Transport andcommunications Biodiversity resources Tourism resources Energy resources Land resources Freshwater resources Coastal andmarineresources Management ofwaste Natural andenvironmental hazards Climate changeandsea-levelrise 21st century. climate, waterandtheenvironmentof major challengesconcerningweather, forefront ofefforts toaddresssomeofthe projections. Inthisway, theNMHSs areatthe pollutants, seasonalpredictionsandclimate ahead, movementofatmosphericandoceanic casts ofextremeweathereventsseveraldays products innear-real-time andadvancefore- of SIDScanaccessthemostsophisticated As partofWMO’s globalnetwork,theNMHSs other socio-economicactivities. of dailyactivitiesinagriculture,tourism,and weather andclimate,whichaffect allaspects of naturalhazardsandday-to-dayvariationsin information, includingforecastsandwarnings tries shouldbeabletoproviderelated and HydrologicalServicesineachofthecoun- management. TheNationalMeteorological water resources,energy, andcoastalzone natural andenvironmentalhazards,fresh- related toclimatechangeandsea-levelrise, harnessed toaddressissuessuchasthose ment areadequatelyunderstoodand hydrology, oceanographyandtheenviron- advances insciencessuchasmeteorology, makers andthepublicwillneedtoensurethat sustainable development.Boththepolicy- Environmental securitylaysthefoundationfor mental aspectsofsustainabledevelopment. holistically andintimatelylinkedwithenviron- and othersocialissuesshouldbeseenasbeing as trade,goodgovernance,security, health requiring furtherimplementation.Issuessuch yearsandhighlightareasoftheBPoA 10 will reviewtheachievementsoverlast World SummitonSustainableDevelopment.It will alsobuildontheoutcomesof2002 Action fortheSuitableDevelopmentofSIDS the ImplementationofProgramme The MauritiusInternationalMeetingtoReview aegis ofWMO. the globalnetworkofNMHSsunder SIDS: some of the oceanographic information is essential for the challenges design, construction, operation and management of infrastructure such as dams, roads, Tropical cyclones are among the major chal- commercial and domestic buildings, harbours lenges facing SIDS in the Atlantic, Pacific and and bridges.

Indian Oceans. Because of their frequency and Introduction severity, they constitute some of the greatest threats to the socio-economic well-being of the populations. These tropical systems may also be beneﬁcial, however, as they replenish the aquifers upon which most SIDS depend for their freshwater.

Longer-term climatic variations may be even more devastating to SIDS, since sea-level rise, resulting from climatic change, could perma- nently drown many of the low-lying islands of the Indian Ocean, the Caribbean and the Paciﬁc. Sea-level rise would also affect the coastal areas and freshwater sources of all island States, as well as agriculture, ﬁsheries, tourism and infrastructure.

Coastal zone management is therefore critical and requires data on tides, water levels, sea temperature, winds and coastal ocean circula- tion. Meteorological, hydrological and

Meteorological and climatological information is vital for day-to-day agricultural operations, as well as for designing and construction purposes. paradise Photos: Y. Boodhoo Photos: Y. Saving

3 4 Small Island Developing States Introduction important exportindustry, whilefishoftenformthebasicofsustenanceformany. Weather andclimate affect allsectorsoftheeconomy. ForSmallIsland DevelopingStates,fishingisan enable eachnationtobuilditssustainable lations. WMO’s structureandoperations will ensureasustainablefuturefortheirpopu- of theStates,individuallyandcollectively, that necessary, itistheownershipandcommitment support oftheinternationalcommunityis to achievesustainabledevelopment.Whilethe They arecrucialelementsinthequestofSIDS sciences toeverydaylifeanddecision-making. oceanographic, andotherenvironmental application ofmeteorological,hydrological, ity areaslistedintheBPoArequire national, regionalandgloballevels.Theprior- Addressing theseissuesrequiresactionat manner. decision-makers andthepopulationinatimely casts andearlywarningstoalert information tousers.Theyalsoprovidefore- casting theweather, anddisseminatingthe weather, climateandwaterresources,forfore- Services areresponsibleformonitoring National MeteorologicalandHydrological and tourism,aswellleisureactivities.The economy suchasagriculture,transport,fishing Weather andclimateaffect mostsectorsofthe Ensuring sustainabledevelopment international cooperation. WMO providingtheoverallframeworkfor development thoughitsownNMHS,with change Maldives toclimate Vulnerabilities ofthe ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ore FirstNationalCommunicationofthe Source: Human health Water resources Food security Impacts ontheeconomy Damage tocoralreefs Damage toinfrastructure Land lossandbeacherosion Climate Change Nations FrameworkConventionon Republic oftheMaldivestoUnited

Photo: Fiji Meteorological Service Climate change and sea-level rise

Some island States, such as Kiribati, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and the Maldives, have their highest elevations only 4 metres above mean sea-level and are therefore highly vulnerable to projected sea-level rise.

The rise of sea-level globally is due primarily to the expansion of ocean water resulting from an increase in ocean temperature and, to a smaller extent, to the melting of glaciers. Since 1861, mean annual global surface temperature has increased by an average of 0.6°C and it is most likely that this increase will continue in the 21st century. The Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), established by WMO and the United Climate change and sea-level rise

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in Photo: Martin Ferm, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute its Third Assessment Report, attributes this Small low-lying islands are at particular risk from increase mainly to human activity. sea-level rise induced by climate warming.

In recognition of the potential adverse impacts of climate change resulting from the greenhouse effect, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) set an objective of stabilizing “greenhouse-gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate systems”.

It is estimated that SIDS contribute less than 1 per cent to global GHG emissions and they are not yet obligated to implement GHG mitigation measures. Nevertheless, many have shown a commitment to the objectives of the UNFCCC by completing inventories of GHG emissions as a step towards achieving greater energy independence and implementing GHG reduction for sustainable development.

According to the IPCC, during the last 100 years, sea-level has risen at a rate of 1- 2 mm/yr and is projected to rise 9-88 cm by the paradise end of the present century. Such a rise would pose grave problems for SIDS. A large part of

Photo: NASA the Majuro atoll, for example, which is home The classic atoll is composed of a coral reef to 50 per cent of the population of the

encircling a shallow lagoon. Saving

5 6 Small Island Developing States Climate change and sea-level rise ■ ■ change andsea-levelriseare: Some ofWMO’s initiativesrelatedtoclimate climate changeprojection. the predictionofclimatevariabilityandfor encouraging thedevelopmentofcapacitiesfor ing thecollectionandanalysisofclimatedata, programmes worldwide,focusedonpromot- WMO hasbeenimplementingnumerous ity andidentifyingoptionsforadaptation, effects ofclimatechange,reducingvulnerabil- As itscontributiontomitigatingtheadverse erosion ofbeachesinmostSIDS. submergence oflowlands,losswetlandsand rise wouldleadtorapidlandlossthrough the Caribbeanmightbeinundated.Sea-level Bahamas, andtheTurks andCaicosislandsin Kiribati wouldbelost.Somecaysofthe Marshall Islands,andsignificantlandmassin guidelines willbedeveloped bySIDS. ity assessments,adaptationstrategies andpolicy NMHSs alsoformthebasisonwhichvulnerabil- data collected,processedandexchangedbythe for planningadaptationclimatechange.The Understanding climatevariabilityisimportant ■ ■ Ensuring sustainabledevelopment ■ ■ climate, including: potential impactsofhumanactivitieson ties inclimatechangeprojectionandthe Promoting researchonreducinguncertain- change detection; data forclimateresearchand Ensuring thereadyavailabilityofhigh-quality though theprovisionofscientificinputs. Supporting theUNFCCCprocess,especially developing countriesintheprocess. IPCC andencouragingtheparticipationof Supporting theassessmentactivitiesof and climateevents; rence andintensityofextremeweather impacts ofclimatechangeontheoccur- Increased accuracyaboutthepotential economic development; as farpossibleatlocallevel,onsocio- climate changeattheregionalleveland, Increased accuracyabouttheimpactof (CLIPS) and Prediction Services Climate Information Date rescue (DARE) for planning. tourism andwaterresourceswithatool as agriculture,disasterplanning, knowledge, provideusersinsectorssuch tion productsand,withtheirlocal global climatemonitoringandpredic- particular SIDS,toaccessregionaland ated CLIPStoassistcountries,in yearsago.Accordingly, WMOiniti- 10 some regionswasidentified tion onseasonal-to-interannualscalesin (ENSO) phenomenonforclimatepredic- of theElNiño/SouthernOscillation The potentialofusingnewknowledge tions forApia,Samoa,gobackto1890. dates from1843andclimateobserva- The Barbadosmonthlyrainfalldataset are availableasofthemid-19thcentury. the CaribbeanandSouth-West Pacific tragedies inthefuture.Rainfalldata data willlessentherisksofsimilar collection, processingandarchivalof damage byfireandwater. Theproper Some NMHSshavelostdatafrom script tobe“captured”. cameras, haveenableddataonmanu- techniques, suchasdigitalscannersand Caribbean. Recently, moreadvanced DARE projectcommencedforthe computer-accessible format.In1995,a form tobetransferredmicrofilmand has allowedvaluabledatainmanuscript analyse theirdataefficiently. Thisproject oping countriestomanage,preserveand launched withtheaimofassistingdevel- The DataRescue(DARE)projectwas Natural and environmental hazards

SIDS are highly vulnerable to weather- and climate-related natural and environmental hazards, such as tropical cyclones, ﬂoods and droughts, which cause death and injury and economic losses. During the 10-year period 1992-2001, about 90 per cent of all natural disasters worldwide were of meteorological or hydrological origin. Other events, which can be just as devastating, are storm surges and mudslides. Other catastrophic events are volca- noes, earthquakes and tsunamis. Photo: Fiji Meteorological Service

The heavy rains associated with large tropical Early warning systems systems often trigger ﬂooding.

WMO supports the efforts of each affected Centre for Cyclone Warnings—but the Natural and environmental hazards SIDS to develop its own warning system which responsibility of issuing warnings for each is scientiﬁcally proven and culturally based. nation rests with its National Each cyclone basin has its own regional coordi- Meteorological Service. nation mechanism for monitoring tropical cyclones, accessing the most sophisticated forecasts, capacity building, naming of cyclones, and issuing regional forecasts. Each Region has its own Regional Specialized Meteorological : NASA paradise Jeanne Image oh Hurricane Saving

7 8 Small Island Developing States Natural and environmental hazards Ensuring sustainabledevelopment rapid successionintwomonths, of thefourhurricanestohitareain dents wereaffected. Althoughtheweakest 000ofthe100resi- where about80 particularly inthecoastalcityofGonaïves, caused severefloodingandmudslides, some 33cminthenorthernmountains occurred inHaiti.Heavyrainstotalling state ofFlorida.Theworstdamage Republic, Haiti,theBahamas,andUS Virgin Islands, PuertoRico,theDominican Jeanne from thewaterbyclimbingontorooftops. Many oftheinhabitantssoughtrefuge buildings wereinundatedbyfloodwaters. generated. Houseswerewashedawayand was thestormsurgeandhighwavesit damaged orlost,butthegreatestimpact half theisland’s 15000homeswere km/hwithmuchhighergusts.About 256 5 hurricane(sustainedwindsof category pounded theCaymanIslandsasa percentoftheisland’s buildings. 90 Grenada thenextday, destroyingsome fied toacategory4hurricaneasithit eye movedsouthoftheislandandintensi- top ofastormsurgeabout1.5m.The Bridgetown withwavesashigh2mon Barbados, rippingoff roofsandbattering September. On7September, itroaredinto southern andwesternCaribbeaninearly canes ofthecentury. Ittorethroughthe Ivan Caribbean leaving thousandshomeless. On7March, times, causingwidespreaddestruction and cal cyclone Between 26Januaryand4February, tropi- Indian Ocean 0 000were lefthomeless. 300 people wereinjuredandanestimated were inGonaïvesalone.Another2601 3 006peopledeadinHaiti,ofwhom2826 SIDS andtropical cyclonesin2004 was oneofthemostpowerfulhurri- nmdSpebr affected theUS , inmid-September, Elita hit Madagascarseveral Jeanne Ivan left trees andcuttingcommunications. Vanuatu, tearingdownhomes,uprooting Cyclone which ringtheisland.InFebruary, Tropical mcliffs and hugewavesengulfedthe18 tened by300km/hwinds.Astormsurge wasflat- 24.6million.ThecapitalAlofi US$ damage amountingtoanestimated of thepopulationweredisrupted. supplies andtelecommunicationsto99% completely destroyed.Water andelectricity buildings wereaffected. Manyhouseswere damaged andtheairportgovernment ing havoc.Themainhospitalwasbadly km/h,wreak- of Yap withwindsofover200 and thestrongest.Itstruckislandgroup Nanmadol Songda, Sarika,Tokage, Nock-ten, December: States ofMicronesiabetweenApriland Ten tropicalcycloneshittheFederated North Pacific 20 years. fiercest stormtohavestruckMadagascarin gusts ofover250km/h. more than400km,withrecordedwind The diameteroftheareaimpactwas 000others. and livelihoodsofsome800 peopleandaffecting thelives killing 200 Tropical Cyclone living memoryinNiue, months afterwards.Theworststormin extent thatitsfuturewasinthebalancefor Niue wasbyfartheworstaffected tothe ing behinddamageofvariousdegrees. Samoa, Tonga, NiueandCookIslands,leav- Pacific islandsofTokelau, Samoa,American Cyclone In thefirstweekofJanuary, Tropical South Pacific Heta Ivy Sudal, Omais,Tingting, Chaba, and cut throughthecentreof moved throughtheSouth Talas. Gafilo Sudal struck theisland, Gafilo Heta was thefirst was the caused Damage inflicted on the infrastructure of Niue, South Pacific, by Tropical Cyclone Heta in January 2004: (above) the hospital; and (below, left) the Justice Department Natural and environmental hazards paradise Photo: Nation Publishing Company Ltd., Barbados Hurricane Ivan in September 2004 destroyed 90 per cent of Grenada’s buildings. Saving

9 10 Small Island Developing States Natural and environmental hazards vulnerability reduction tural workinriskmanagementand design andplanningofsometheinfrastruc- hydrological regimearerequiredforthe term dataonweather, climateandthe intensity anddurationareessential.Long- occurs. Forthispurpose,predictionsofrainfall lated urbanareaswherefloodingfrequently and storm-drainageworksindenselypopu- used tocalculatetheflowsforsizingculverts duration curvesofrainfall.Suchinformationis conducting studiesonfrequency/intensity/ The NMHSsarecalledupontoassistin alleviating disastrousfloodingofrivers. and St.Vincent, amongothers,withtheaimof progress aspilotprojectsinBarbados,Trinidad in place.Floodplainmappingexercisesare management plan,butsomeareputtingplans Many SIDSlackacomprehensiveflood- being thebasicdomesticfuel. massive andcontinuingdeforestation,wood mudslides—problems oftenmadeworseby Haiti, forexample,isvulnerabletofloodsand and thedumpingofwasteinriverchannels. trees andothervegetationfromhill-slopes from, orbeenexacerbatedby, theremovalof Most floodingintheCaribbeanhasresulted a resultoflanduseorblockedwatercourses. human interferencewiththerunoff regimeas lying areas.Floodingisoftenaggravatedby with accompanyingfloodsespeciallyinlow- Tropical cyclonescancauseintenserainfall Floods areamongthemostdisastrousevents. Floods Other hazards Ensuring sustainabledevelopment omy inmitigatingtheimpacts ofdrought. increasingly vitaltomanysectors oftheecon- information tothevarious end-users,are ings, aswellweather, climate andwater dissemination ofrelatedforecastsandwarn- tion, storageandanalysisthe reduction intherainfallregime.Datacollec- tively quicklywhenthereisamarked For SIDS,droughtconditionsmayariserela- Drought infrastructure. considerable damagetoroad, railandother paths ofthelandslides.Inaddition, therewas to beevacuatedandrelocatedawayfromthe settlements, asmorethan100000peoplehad of human damage. Therewasconsiderabledislocation spread socio-economicandenvironmental triggering 280landslidesthatcausedwide- of Madagascarwithinatwo-weekperiod, In theyear2000,twocyclonesstruckisland destroyed, evenbyslowdownhillmovement. such asroadsandutilitypoles,canbe the valleysbelow. Housingandinfrastructure, avalanches, whichcanburyentirevillagesin quickly, however, andeventurninto begin tocreepdownhill.Somecanmove tend todevelop,andthesoilrockmasses tion reducesthefrictionalforces,slipplanes these materialslieonsteepslopesandsatura- normally accompanytropicalcyclones.When sandstones, duringtheheavyrainswhich and rockssuchasclays,mudstones,loose Landslides arecausedbythesaturationofsoil Landslides mudslides. Haiti isvulnerabletohurricanes,floodsand

Photo: WMO The monitoring of air quality and the transport of transboundary air pollutants, as well as prediction of the movement and intensity of pollutants and toxic chemicals in the air and over the oceans, form essential information for taking suitable and timely measures to avert the impacts of the pollutants. Photo: International Committee of the Red Cross

Some island States are now undertaking ﬂood- plain mapping exercises to avoid some of the damage caused by ﬂooding Natural and environmental hazards Pollution of groundwater, surface and marine water

SIDS have scarce surface freshwater aquifers and many rely on groundwater. Global warming leading to higher sea-level will also cause a higher incidence of ﬂooding, with increased saltwater intrusion into surface and groundwater sources.

In the context of waste management in SIDS, protection of the environment from pollution is extremely important for sustainable development and in particular for the tourism and ﬁshing industries. paradise Saving

11 Ensuring sustainable development

Coastal zone management Coastal zone management

Beach and coastal erosion are problems shared by SIDS and low-lying countries.

Coastal and marine resources play a Photos: Leslie Barker crucial role in the socio-economic development of all Small Island Developing States. These assets are exploited in a variety of ways and by a wide range of stakeholders. Coasts provide opportunities for, among others, housing and settlements, agriculture, tourism and recreation, fishing and mariculture, mining, transport and waste disposal. Through these activities, many SIDS are able to provide shelter, food, jobs and other forms of support for their populations.

Coastal and marine resources

The importance of coastal areas to the liveli- hood of island populations and the competition among stakeholders for access to them, cause resources to deteriorate rapidly. The damage manifests itself in many ways, including the loss (including that from external sources, such as of mangroves and other coastal ecosystems, hazardous waste which is transported across the mining of sand, accelerated beach erosion, oceans where many SIDS are located), and degradation and destruction of marine ecosys- depletion of ﬁsh stocks. These effects are largely tems and vegetation (e.g. coral reefs and the outcomes of unsustainable practices which

Small Island Developing States seagrasses), poor water quality due to pollution are often triggered by necessity and poverty.

12 year after year, in many cases unabated. In s Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos Islands, it is estimated that the rate of erosion was 0.3-0.45 m/yr for the period 1906–1969. Winter storms with northerly swells play a highly significant role in beach erosion in the Caribbean. The mining of sand is another activity which destabilizes beaches, and the improper construction of groynes prevents the longshore movement of sand. Stable beaches have to be maintained if tourism is not to suffer.

The problem of coastal degradation in SIDS is exacerbated by the threat of global warming and rising sea-level, as the ecosystems will have to cope with the anthropogenic stresses identi- ﬁed above in combination with the negative effects of global warming. Coastal zone management

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has indicated that projected climate change would lead to higher water levels and, consequently, a higher incidence of ﬂooding and inundation in SIDS (most of which are low- lying), increased wave erosion and saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers and loss of coastal infrastructure and will threaten the survival of key ecosystems. Speciﬁcally, the occurrence of coral bleaching, which is associated with elevated sea-surface temperatures, is already evident throughout SIDS in the

Photo: Y. Boodhoo Photo: Y. Caribbean, Paciﬁc Ocean and Indian Ocean. Groynes properly installed help prevent beach Episodes of bleaching are more intense, for erosion. example, during El Niño years when sea-surface temperatures are higher. Coastal erosion

Intense tropical systems trigger floods but other hazards, also. The population of Dominica still remembers Hurricane David in 1979. Homes were destroyed and agriculture was severely affected, but the hurricane also caused massive coastal erosion. For example, several roads were cut off when mudslides and huge waves eroded beaches. Heavy seas exacerbated the erosion, which was estimated at 0.7 m/yr for the period 1970–1984. paradise Beach erosion

Beach erosion can be a disaster, especially if a hurricane induces storm surges. In all SIDS, beach erosion is a hazard which takes place Saving

13 14 Small Island Developing States Coastal zone management Ensuring sustainabledevelopment management Integrated coastalarea pollution. threatened bysea-levelrise,severestormsand other marinelife,andbirds.Theirexistenceis and provideavaluablehabitatforshrimps Mangroves arehighlyproductiveecosystems biodiversity Ecosystems: protecting resource base.Itisatoolthatallows holders withoutjeopardizingthecoastal economic andsocialbenefitsforallstake- process thatseekstoachievemaximum a sustainablemanner. ICAMisadynamic looking aftercoastalandmarineresourcesin perhaps themostappropriateframeworkfor grated coastalareamanagement(ICAM)is It is nowwidelyacknowledgedthatinte- A healthymangrove(left)and the consequencesofpollutionafteranoilspillatsea(right)

Photo: V. Torres of basicprocesses,suchascoastalerosionand scientific basisforunderstandingthedynamics oceanography andhydrologyprovidethe ology, climatology, marinemeteorology, derived fromtraininginfieldssuchasmeteor- More specifically, theskillsandexpertise as urgentpriorities. commitment forfundingshouldberegarded national programmeswithalong-term have implementedisolatedprojects,full island countries)level.WhilemanyotherSIDS level (e.g.Barbados)andtheregional(Pacific mented inafewSIDSatboththenational programmes havebeensuccessfullyimple- biological sciences.ComprehensiveICAM meteorology, hydrologyandotherEarth upon awidearrayofdisciplines,including needs. Theprocessnecessarilydrawsheavily level rise),aswellshort-term,present-day medium- andlonger-term concerns(e.g.sea- managers toplanfor, andrespondto, coastal resources,areamongthegroupsof Moreover, SIDS,withtheirlife-sustaining these disciplines. properly understoodwithoutreferenceto populations (tonamebutafew)cannotbe and ofvitalhabitatsaggregationfish construction ofharboursandsafeanchorage creation ofnaturalinletsandbaysforthe Thus, theformationofbeachesanddunes, driven largelybywaves,tidesandcurrents. larvae) withinthecoastalandmarinezonesis energy, sedimentandevenorganisms(e.g.fish deposition. Forexample,thedistributionof consequences forbiodiversity, tourism,recreationandfishing. Coral reefsandfishstocksareatriskfromrisingsea-surfacetemperatures,withsignificantadverse manage theserisks. critical inpreparingthesecountriestobetter World MeteorologicalOrganization,willbe these fieldsundertakeninmanySIDSbythe doubt, thetrainingandcapacitybuildingin ology, hydrologyandoceanography. Without combination ofsciencesthatincludesmeteor- approach thatisstronglygroundedina implemented withoutaninterdisciplinary gies cannotbeproperlydesignedor appropriate adaptationoptions.Suchstrate- ability, buildupresilienceandimplement option thereforebuttodecreasetheirvulner- impacts ofglobalwarming.SIDShaveno countries mostatriskfromtheprojected

Photo: International Coral Reef Information Network

15 Saving paradise Coastal zone management Ensuring sustainable development

Freshwater

The Earth has abundant resources of water, but the amount that is easily acces- Island drought

Freshwater sible for sustaining human life is minute Mediterranean droughts impact the by comparison. The imbalance is further islands of Cyprus and Malta to the underscored when we consider the water extent that they have serious sea-water resources available to SIDS. By definition, intrusion problems. The demand for they have limited landmasses which do potable water in Barbados has doubled not allow for extensive surface water- from 90 million litres per day in the bodies or for large underground sources of 1960s to over 180 million litres today. water. The restricted water resources of Barbados also has increased salinity the SIDS are extremely vulnerable to both problems. long-term climate change and to shorter- term climate variability, such as the series Islands like Dominica and St. Vincent in of drought and wet years induced in some the Caribbean are largely dependent on countries by occurrences of El Niño and La small surface-water sources. Their rela- Niña. tively small rivers can be affected by reduced rainfall in the watershed, or be easily polluted by upstream anthro- Resources and availability pogenic activity. Dominica has already been recording reduced flows from On some of the islands, because of the small lower rainfall, in the last few decades. size of the watersheds and catchment areas, freshwater occurs either as thin groundwater lenses floating on saltwater, or as small rivers and lakes. The low-lying atolls of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, e.g. the Maldives, Tuvalu together with other limestone islands such as and the Cook Islands, and the Bahamas, Barbados and Antigua, are all dependent on groundwater, as well as on the direct use of rainwater.

The thin, underground freshwater lenses of these islands are at risk from sea-level rise, which would signiﬁcantly reduce their extent and thus the volume of available freshwater. Reduced precipitation would also reduce replenishment of the lenses. Increased demand, resulting in overpumping, causes both saltwater intrusion and the reduction of freshwater.

SIDS must have more efficient water-resources management if they are to sustain and improve the living standards of their populations. Efficient management requires rainfall, river and and underground flow data collection over sufficiently long time periods, rigorous analysis of these data and rainfall and flood forecasts— and this means that SIDS must have efficient national meteorological and hydrological insti- tutions. Collaboration among the various Due to their limited land area, SIDS have restricted freshwater resources which are under threat from States in sharing scant technical and financial Small Island Developing States both pollution and climate variability. resources is also a prerequisite.

16 World Hydrological Cycle Observing System

The water resources of some SIDS have been 10 years ago, is intended to build capacity of Freshwater developed effectively but in most, however, no the National Hydrological Services (NHSs) of a agency can be considered a complete National region by strengthening the observation Hydrological Service (NHS) which makes hydro- networks, improving the data-management logical observations, collects, analyses and systems (thus allowing the Services to provide archives these data and publishes the results. products specific to end-user needs) and Some governments have appointed lead agen- promoting the free international exchange of cies in water but, for the vast majority, their these data. main task is distribution for public supply. CARIB-HYCOS and SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC In most SIDS, hydrological data collection and HYCOS, which are regional components of processing and rainfall prediction are not HYCOS currently being developed, will mean adequate. WMO’s World Hydrological Cycle that integrated water-resource management Observing System (WHYCOS), launched about will become a reality for SIDS in the Caribbean paradise Photo: FAO

Access to freshwater for human and livestock consumption, as well as for domestic and agricultural use is a prerequisite for sustainable development. The situation is critical in all developing countries and SIDS in

particular. Saving

17 Ensuring sustainable development

Energy Energy Energy is one of the most critical factors in sustainable development, yet energy genera- tion from fossil fuel is held responsible for some of the environmental problems facing society today. Some of the most critical technologies for sustainable development are energy technologies.

Towards sustainability

Increased greenhouse-gas emissions are considered to be the major contributors to climate change and sea-level rise, which, as we have already seen, can lead to signiﬁcant loss of the coastal lands that constitute a significant proportion of the valuable land areas of many low-lying SIDS, with ensuing and severe socio- economic disruption. In addition, SIDS have the very real problem of the negative impact of high energy prices on their already fragile economies.

SIDS therefore need to move to a more sustainable energy system, which will not only have a lesser impact on their economies, but will also be more environmentally friendly. Renewable

forms of energy must play a more signiﬁcant and Electric Board Photo: Eugene Water role in the energy mix of these States. Despite certain difﬁculties, renewable energy is a viable option for SIDS.

Renewable energy

Renewables refer to energy sources These are storage technologies (e.g. which can be sustained indefinitely. batteries, seasonal thermal storage, Renewable energy flow includes insola- pumped hydropower), which allow tion, wind, biomass production, flowing energy flows to be used when and where water, geothermal, or ocean thermal, needed; high power semi-conductors tides). All these flows, except for geo- allow efficient integration into the grid; thermal flow, can be said to be derived energy conversion technologies (gasifi- from the Sun, and they can be converted cation of biomass) may expand options into useful power. for renewable energy; fuel cells can produce electricity from hydro-carbons Other key technologies, which do not more efficiently than direct combustion. produce energy directly but can inte- grate renewable technologies into energy supply systems, are also available Adapted from A New Power Base, by K.L. Kozlof and to assist in optimizing global energy use. R.C. Dower (1993) Small Island Developing States

18 Energy The renewables Most of these energy forms depend very much on reliable meteorological and hydrological The renewables that are currently available to information and forecasts for their design, siting most SIDS are wind, solar, biomass and, to a and efficient operation: lesser extent, ocean thermal energy conversion , and mini-hydropower. These options are not all ■ Ocean thermal energy conversion requires equally exploitable or economically viable, but oceanographic data, including, but not they are, generally, more environmentally limited to, current sea temperatures and friendly and economically sustainable than sea-bed morphology; hydrocarbons. ■ Wind and solar energy, which are already While there are a few exceptional cases of devel- being used extensively worldwide, require oping countries achieving a contribution of considerable meteorological data collection renewable energy greater than 50 per cent to and analysis; their total energy supply, in Latin America and the Caribbean, for example, a figure between ■ (Mini-)hydropower, which could be impor- 10 per cent and 20 per cent is currently more tant to SIDS, requires careful hydrological realistic and achievable. Curaçao, a small monitoring, data collection and analysis, as Caribbean island, produces more than 50 per well as projection. cent of its total energy demand from wind. It is estimated that Barbados could produce 33 per The contribution of NMHSs is vital if SIDS are to cent of its total energy demand by 2010 from utilize renewable forms of energy more exten- renewable sources; and this does not take into sively. Despite some difficulties, appropriately account the 36 000 solar heaters currently in use. chosen renewable energy is still a viable option for SIDS. paradise Photo: Leslie Barker

Solar panels on the roof provide power for a large building complex. Saving

19 Ensuring sustainable development

Tourism

Tourism Tourism is one of the largest economic activities publication provides technical guidance on how in the world today and has become one of the risk assessments using climatological and hydro- largest earners of foreign currency for SIDS. logical data provided by NMHSs can be used to Tourists’ expenditure can account for as much as reduce the vulnerability of tourists and tourist 95 per cent of the Gross National Product of facilities and exploit existing natural resources in some countries such as the Maldives, and as an optimal, yet environmentally friendly, fashion. much as 75 per cent of export earnings in the case of the Bahamas. SIDS have also been assisted by WMO in the areas of maritime and air transport, both areas Tourism is also a signiﬁcant contributor to being of critical importance to the tourist employment in SIDS, providing jobs for between industry. The World Area Forecast System 20 and 70 per cent of the labour force. It is clear, (WAFS) enables SIDS to use accurate weather therefore, that any threat to the viability of this information in a cost effective manner to assist industry in these States is of major concern. national and international aviation opera- These threats can be both short- and long-term. tions. Marine meteorological forecasts are The annual storm season can pose problems for similarly vital for safe maritime activities. beach stability, the structural integrity of the hotel plant, with the need for constant repairs owing to hurricane damage and, indeed, the very safety and comfort of the tourists.

There is therefore the need for maintenance of the beaches and for the proper design of hotel structures. Day-to-day weather forecasting is also essential for tourism. In the longer term, impacts of sea-level rise could have adverse consequences for the industry. Meteorological and oceanographic data, particularly concerning the coastal zone are of prime value for tourism in SIDS.

WMO, in collaboration with the World Tourism Photo: Delphine Tailfer Organization, has produced the Handbook on A paradise for tourists—but for how much Natural Disaster Reduction in Tourist Areas. This longer? Photo: Leslie Barker

Tourism is a major earner of foreign currency for SIDS and a signiﬁcant employer. Small Island Developing States

20 National Meteorological and Hydrological Services and regional cooperation

In view of the importance of the work of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) to the sustainable socio- economic development of SIDS, the World Meteorological Organization supports its Members in developing adequate structures and building capacity to ensure that relevant and the most sophisticated information is available in a timely manner to address issues of concern to them. These include natural hazards, climate change and sea-level rise and their impacts, including environmental degra-

dation, and provide support to agricultural NMHSs and regional cooperation production, ﬁshing and mariculture, freshwater resources, coastal zone management, transport WMO programmes by sea and air, energy and tourism.

For this purpose, the World Meteorological Organization coordinates global meteorologi- Global Change in Small Island Developing States, cal and hydrological activities of its Caribbean Region: the SIDS-Caribbean Project”. 187 Members and conducts its work through technical commissions, scientiﬁc and technical The Project involves the following countries: programmes and in collaboration with regional Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, groupings. Most of WMO’s efforts are directed St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, St. towards supporting NMHSs. In particular, WMO Lucia, the Commonwealth of Dominica, encourages the transfer of technology, cooper- Montserrat, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Christopher ation and capacity building. and Nevis, Anguilla, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Cuba, Turks and Caicos Islands, Bahamas, and the Netherlands Antilles.

Regional cooperation The Project ensures enhanced meteorological and climatological knowledge and improved Regional cooperation forms a cornerstone of scientific capacities, allowing better planning WMO’s strategy in supporting the NMHSs. The for sustainable development in the Caribbean examples below shows the range and nature of region. In particular, the countries concerned activities that WMO supports in this context. will have greater capability to monitor and predict weather and climate phenomena. They will also have access to up-to-date information SIDS-Caribbean Project for policy formulation, strategic planning and improved awareness and delivery of such infor- paradise An example of regional cooperation in the mation to decision-makers and the public to implementation of the Declaration of Barbados ensure preparedness against the adverse and the Programme of Action is the regional impacts of climate variability and global project “Preparedness to Climate Variability and change. Saving

21 22 Small Island Developing States National services and regional cooperation economic sectors,includingagricultural production. inall WMO providessupporttothework ofNationalMeteorologicalandHydrologicalServices SIDS Ensuring sustainabledevelopment Hydrology (CIMH) Meteorology and Institute for The Caribbean aquifers. of saltwaterintrusiononcoastal hydrology ofextremeeventsandeffects climatology; ﬂoodplainhazardmapping, tropical meteorology, satellitecloud ogy, theclimatologyofsmallislands, such asagrometeorology, biometeorol- ical data.Itconductsresearchinareas archival centreforclimateandhydrolog- prediction centresandservesasan information fromseveralinternational prediction fortheCaribbeanbasedon The CIMHprovidesseasonalclimate English-speaking Caribbean. which comprises16governmentsinthe Meteorological Organization(CMO), The CIMHisanarmoftheCaribbean level inmeteorology. technicians atentry, middleandsenior Meteorology Institute(CMI),hastrained when itwasestablishedastheCaribbean Training Centre(RMTC)and,since1968, nated WMORegionalMeteorological Located inBarbados,theCIMHisadesig- development. and globalchangeforlong-termsustainable against theadverseimpactsofclimatevariability access informationtoensurepreparedness will enabledecision-makersandthepublicto policy formulationandstrategicplanning.This climate phenomenaforimprovedawareness, capacity tomonitorandpredictweather the IOCSecretariatwithaviewtoenhancing WMO hasthereforebeenworkingcloselywith climate-change impacts,includingsea-levelrise. caused by, severeweathereventsbutalsofor of preparingfor, andminimizingthedamage (IOC) isimportant,notonlyfromthestandpoint in thecountriesofIndianOceanCommission Improvement ofmeteorologicalinfrastructure mitigation. ucts insupportofearlywarninganddisaster timely meteorologicalinformationandprod- being putintoplacetoprovideforaccurateand Réunion (France)andSeychelles),systemsare Ocean (Comoros,Madagascar, Mauritius,La disasters inislandsoftheSouth-West Indian In thefaceofrecurringhydrometeorological South-West IndianOcean

Photo: FAO South-West Paciﬁc Ocean Towards strengthened and North Indian Ocean future cooperation

Climate variability and change are part of a set The Nassau Ministerial Declaration on SIDS and of local and global environmental changes that the AOSIS Strategy Paper have noted the wide- are being addressed in the Paciﬁc and North ranging problems facing Small Island Indian Ocean regions as in other parts of the Develop-ing States and how they impinge on world. Human health is one speciﬁc aspect of their development agenda. They recognize global change that impacts on sustainable devel- weather, climate and water as playing critical opment. Effects on health, either in the short or roles in human welfare and the environment. long term, are expected to increase the vulnerability of Small Island Developing States. Some The conclusion is that it is of utmost importance aspects of concern are vector-borne and diar- to protect life and property and to make opti- rhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections, mum use of resources. malnutrition and injuries caused by weather extremes.

Applications of forecast information in mitigat- ing negative health impacts of climate variability and extreme events, and on assessing vulnerability and adaptive capability in Small Island Developing States remain a priority. WMO maintains close working relationships with regional organizations such as the South Paciﬁc Regional Environment Programme and the

South Paciﬁc Applied Geoscience Commission. National Services and regional cooperation paradise Photo: G. Tortoli/FAO

WMO helps Small Island Developing States protect their natural resources and infrastructure by reduc- ing vulnerability to natural and environmental hazards. Photo: Delphine Tailfer Saving

23 Ensuring sustainable development

WMO and the SIDS Programme of Action:

■ Enhancement of national, regional and ■ Risk-management applications, such as international capacity to monitor the Earth’s hazard mapping, suitable agro-climatic atmosphere, land and oceans, including zoning and the establishment of partnerships strategies for integrated global observa- as essential tools for land-use and prepared- tions, including improved products, analysis ness planning; and applications to sustainable development; ■ Ensuring that SIDS develop and utilize their climate databases for various sectors of the ■ Development of the regional components economy, including climate predictions; of the World Hydrological Cycle Observing System, in particular, the Carib-HYCOS and ■ Transfer of appropriate technologies; assis- South-West Pacific-HYCOS projects for tance in the establishment of regional sustained freshwater availability; centres for capacity building and training; establishment and maintenance of informa- ■ Strengthen disaster-management capacity at tion and databases on new and innovative national and regional levels and vulnerabil- technologies; and

NMHSs and regional cooperation ity assessment (an important factor in determining the adequacy of early warning ■ Development of a strong and effective systems, as well as to understand and prevent human resource base in all ﬁelds and across disasters); all sectors; greater regional and subregional cooperation for the joint sharing of ■ Strengthening of institutional, scientiﬁc and resources, technologies and expertise, as technical capacity at national and regional well as at bilateral and multilateral levels. levels and building effective response measures to cope with the effects of climate change and sea-level rise; support initiatives to assess the consequences of climate change;

Conclusion

The 10-year review in Mauritius is a landmark WMO pledges continued support for initiatives event that will generate renewed political in favour of sustainable development and the commitment by all stakeholders on practical implementation of the United Nations actions in support of SIDS. Millennium Development Goals in areas that include climate change and sea-level rise, Meteorology, hydrology, oceanography and natural and environmental disasters, inte- related sciences and the National Meteorological grated coastal area management, freshwater and Hydrological Services are vital in the imple- resources, protection of land resources, and mentation of all the areas addressed by the new and renewable energy. WMO remains Barbados Programme of Action. The role of firmly committed to the BPoA and will those Services will be increasingly important in continue to support SIDS in achieving sustain- the implementation of the Programme of Action able development for the welfare of their on the road beyond Mauritius. populations now and in the future . Small Island Developing States

24 World Meteorological Organization

7bis, avenue de la Paix Case postale 2300 CH-1211 Geneva 2 Switzerland Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 83 14 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 27 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.wmo.int