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Faith, Moral Authority, and Politics

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Faith, Moral Authority, and Politics Faith, Moral Authority, and Politics: The Making of Progressive Islam in Indonesia by Alexander R. Arifianto A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved June 2012 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee Okechukwu C. Iheduru, Chair Carolyn M. Warner James R. Rush Roxanne Lynn Doty ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY August 2012 ABSTRACT Several Islamic organizations have experience major changes in their theological frames and political identities away from fundamentalist and revivalist theological orientation to one that embraces a progressive Islamic theology that synthesizes these norms with classical Islamic teachings. What are the factors that explain these theological changes? What are the causal mechanisms that help to promote them? Using the moral authority leadership theory, I argue that Islamic groups would be able to change their theological frames and political identities if the changes are promoted by religious leaders with 'moral authority' status, who are using both ideational and instrumental strategies to reconstruct the theological frames of their organizations. In addition to moral authority leadership, intermediary variables that also affect the likelihood of a theological change within Islamic groups are the institutional culture of the organization – the degree of tolerance for non-Islamic theological teachings - and the relationship between the Islamic group and the state. This study is a comparative historical analysis of two Indonesian Islamic groups: the Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and the Muhammadiyah. It finds that the NU was able to successfully change its theological positions due to the presence of a charismatic moral authority leader, the tolerant institutional culture within the organization, and the ability of the organization to ally with the Suharto regime, allowing the reform to be institutionalized with little intervention from the regime. On the other hand, theological reform within the Muhammadiyah was not successful due to the lack of a leader with moral authority status who could have i led the reforms within the organization, as well as to the dominance of a revivalist institutional culture that does not tolerate any challenges to their interpretation of Islamic theology. The analysis makes theoretical contributions on the role of religious leadership within Islamic movements and the likelihood of Islamic groups to adopt liberal political norms such as democracy, religion-state separation, and tolerance toward religious minorities. It identifies the mechanisms in which theological change within Islamic group become possible. ii To my parents, who taught me everything about life and are always there for me; and to Professor Brian Smith of Ripon College, who first introduced me to the study of religion and politics iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My journey to obtain my PhD degree and to begin a career in the academia has been a long, arduous, but enjoyable one. There are so many mentors, colleagues, friends, family, and other supporters that I am indebted to at this point. This is only a partial list of those I could think of at this point, my apologies if I accidentally leave anyone from this list. First, I want to thank members of my dissertation committee: Professors Okey Iheduru, Carolyn Warner, James Rush, and Roxanne Lynn Doty. Each of them has contributed to my intellectual development in their own unique way. Having worked as his teaching assistant for three years, I value Professor Iheduru’s commitment as a scholar and a teacher. I admire his dedication to both his profession as well as to his students. I want to thank him for all the feedbacks and moral support he has given me over the past five years, as well as his timeliness in writing permission letters and other paperworks that facilitated my dissertation research and writing. I appreciate Professor Warner’s detailed and timely feedbacks on the numerous drafts of this dissertation. I value her comments on how to achieve theoretical and methodological rigor, how to balance the different theoretical perspectives within the discipline, as well as her advice on how one can be successful in the political science profession. As a historian and a leading expert in Indonesian political history, Professor Rush has given me countless feedbacks from a different disciplinary perspective. I welcome his advice on balancing the theoretical rigor and historical detail in my case analyses. He also provides me with a shoulder to cry on whenever I encountered iv difficult moments during my dissertation writing process and during my graduate study at Arizona State University. Lastly, Professor Doty joined my committee on a later date than the other committee members. However, she maintains a lively interest in my project, asks curious questions about it, and above all, always encourages me to succeed in my research and writing. I want to thank other faculty members from the School of Politics and Global Studies at Arizona State University for their numerous advice and support during my five-years with the school: Professor Patrick Kenney (former Chair/Director of the School), Professor Ruth Jones (former Director of Graduate Studies), Professor Sheldon Simon, and Professor Michael Mitchell. I also want to thank the school’s staffs, especially Patricia Rothstein, Cindy Webster, and Thu Nguyen, who have assisted me in navigating the often complex processes and paperworks related to graduate study, grant applications, as well as other administrative matters as well. I want to thank current and former graduate students from the politics program: Jessica Auchter, Kil-Joo Ban, Yong-Ouk Cho, Chris Lundry, Maria Ortuoste, Charles Ripley, and Patrick Roe, for their professional feedbacks to my numerous conference papers and dissertation chapters and for their personal friendship as well. I want to thank Professor Mark Woodward from the School of Historical, Philosophical, and Religious Studies for all his assistance and support during my fieldwork in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in summer 2010. I also want to thank his v graduate student assistant, Diana Coleman, for all her help and advice during my fieldwork as well. Throughout my graduate study, I appreciate the professional advice and friendship from other young political scientists who share a common interest in the study of religion and politics in Indonesia. I especially want to thank Julie Chernov-Hwang, Jennifer Epley, Eun-Sook Jung, Jeremy Menchik, Tom Pepinsky, and Sarah Shair-Rosenfield for their professional advice and support on this project. In addition, I want to thank Professor Emeritus R. William Liddle from the Ohio State University, the “grand old man” on the study of Indonesian politics in the United States, for his feedbacks on earlier chapters of my dissertation and for his numerous professional advice and support as well. Last, but most importantly, I want to thank my parents, Mr. Benjamin Saksono and Mrs. Widyana Tanti Natapradja, for all the love and support, especially during the long years of higher education studies in the United States. I cannot even begin to repay their moral and financial support that they have given me from the time I was born to the present time. Now that my doctoral study is finally completed, I hope I could begin to return the love and support you have given to me all these years. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1 2 LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORY, AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 22 Review of Competing Explanations ................................ 23 Political Culture (Culturalist) Approach. .............. 23 Rational Choice (Rationalist) Approach. .............. 27 Social Constructivist Theory. ............................... 35 Weberian Charismatic Leadership Theory. .......... 42 Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses .......................... 47 Conceptualizing Political Islam. .......................... 51 Theorizing Moral Authority. ................................ 55 Intervening Variables. ......................................... 61 The Institutional Culture of the Organization. ................................ 63 Relations between the State and the Religious Organization. .... 66 Dependent Variable. ................................ 70 vii CHAPTER Page Causal Mechanisms for Successful and Unsuccessful Theological Change. ........... 74 Research Methodology.................................................... 77 Case Selection and Justifications. ........................ 78 Data Sources. ...................................................... 81 3 THE SUCCESSFUL REFORM PATHWAY: THE CASE OF THE NAHDLATUL ULAMA ....................... 86 Historical Background of the Theological Reforms Within the NU ....................................... 90 Analysis of Theological Change within the NU ............. 110 Abdurrahman Wahid’s Moral Authority Leadership. ............................ 110 Tolerant Institutional Culture within the NU. ..... 126 NU’s Relations with the Indonesian State. ......... 130 Alternative Explanations on Theological Reforms within the NU...................................... 136 Culturalist Explanation of the NU Reform. ........ 138 Rationalist explanation
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