Visualizing Marriage in Northern Ethiopia the Production and Consumption of Gama

Home , Ethiopian birr, Fasilides, Menelik II, Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, Yonas

Visualizing Marriage in Northern Ethiopia The Production and Consumption of Gama

Leah Niederstadt all photos by the author, unless otherwise noted

isitors to private homes in Aksum, Ethiopia EOC (Biasio , ; Chojnacki ; Sobania and Silverman may notice a genre of painting that remains , , forthcoming) as well as for gold- and silver-smith- relatively unknown outside of the Tigrai ing. While many painters from the Aksum area have moved to Regional State (Fig. ). Known as gama, which the regional capital Mekelle or the national capital Addis Ababa, is also the Tigrinya word for “wedding,” the the number of artists working in and around the city remains paintings depict a bride and groom, oen high. Many of these are priest-painters who hold oces within with attendants, and key iconic images of Aksum, the birthplace the city’s churches in addition to their work as artists. ey are ofV the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOC). Produced active members of Aksum’s ecclesiastical community and carry by church-trained artists and their apprentices, gama stylistically titles such as Mergeta (choir master) and Haleqa (chief priest) as resemble paintings found in Ethiopian Orthodox churches, in bars, well as honorary titles beginning with the Ge’ez word Liq (arch restaurants, and hotels, and in the artwork carried home by foreign or chief), such as Liq Berhanat (Chief of the Light). ey also visitors as souvenirs. While Aksum’s tourist shops are full of paint- work as teachers in a centuries-old apprenticeship system that ings on board and canvas depicting secular and religious themes, remains strong in the region (Sobania and Silverman : ). gama are much less visible to tourists, as they are either produced Adult male painters train younger male relatives—most oen on commission or sold in small suqs (neighborhood stores) into sons, but also nephews, younger brothers, and even grandsons— which few foreign visitors venture (Fig. ). Found in Ethiopian as well as other boys and young men (Fig. ). A few painters even Orthodox households in Aksum and in Tigraian communities train their daughters (Fig. ), although work as a painter, partic- throughout Ethiopia, their prominent display in communal living ularly one focused on creating artwork for the EOC, remains an spaces signies that a family’s daughter is married, and properly unusual occupation for women (Teklemichael ). so, as her husband followed tradition by giving his bride’s family a e consumption of painting—both active and passive—per- gama. is article explores the history of gama and their contem- vades daily life for Aksum’s Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. In porary consumption and production and argues that they remain addition to the wedding paintings that are the focus of this article, a prominent element of Aksumite expressive culture, even as pho- they encounter hand-painted images on the walls of their churches, tography has become a widespread and increasingly aordable in the pages of manuscripts held by their clergy, and on the surface means of documenting weddings. of takafatch (icons) used for public religious services and private prayer in the home. Representations of religious narratives, AKSUM AS AN ARTISTIC CENTER famous battles, and scenes from daily life appear on an ever-chang- Aksum and its surrounding region have long been a historic ing variety of wooden and metal crosses, icons, and other objects center for the production of painting traditions associated with the oered for sale in Aksum’s tourist shops (Silverman and Sobania , forthcoming). Canvas paintings of scenes from Aksumite L N , an anthropologist by training, teaches courses in history—including the erection of the famous Aksum stelae and museum studies and visual culture in the Art/Art History Department the Queen of Sheba’s visit to King Solomon—are prominently at Wheaton College (Norton, Massachusetts), where she also serves as framed and mounted on the walls of bars, hotels, and restaurants Curator of the Permanent Collection. She holds postgraduate degrees throughout the city, and indeed, similar images are found in hotels, from the University of Michigan and University of Oxford, and her re- bars, and restaurants throughout Ethiopia and its diaspora. search focuses on contemporary expressive culture in Ethiopia and on In addition, painted representations of Jesus Christ, the the management and use of academic collections. niederstadt_leah@ Virgin Mary, other saints, and religious scenes are reproduced wheatoncollege.edu. on chromolithographs manufactured in Ethiopia or imported

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 1 Gama for Hagos Gebre Igziabher and Aksumawit Semera displayed in the living room of Aksumawit’s mother’s home. The gama, which is the more expensive “modern” type, was created by the priest-painter Abba (Father) Lakemaryam to commemorate the couple’s wedding on February 5, 2000 (Tir 28, 1992 in the Ethiopian calendar [EC]). Aksum, Ethiopia. June 2009.

from China and India (Simmons ; Silverman ). ese Ethiopian-style chromolithographs are created from hand-painted mechanically produced images appear in churches taped to walls images, providing a wider audience for church-trained artists. or framed and placed Today, chromolithographs illustrating both EOC and European Christian imagery are oered for sale throughout Ethiopia, includ- on altars alongside hand-painted works. … Chromolithographs ing Aksum. In addition, these images appear in taxis and bajaj, are also used individually to oer personal protection and to pro- the now seemingly ubiquitous blue and white three-wheeled vehi- vide various avenues for creative expression on personal altars [in the home]. ese religious images are oen adorned and used cles imported from India (Endeg ; Simmons ). Painted with Ethiopian cultural objects such as woven baskets to assert a Christian images are everywhere in Aksum. distinctly Ethiopian aesthetic and religious identity. Likewise, the Church-trained artists living and working in the city and sur- images can also be turned into public displays of faith through rounding region produce artwork for three client groups: the placement on car dashboards and in shop windows or other pub- tourist trade, EOC churches, and Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. licly visible spaces (Simmons : ). For each, they create work on commission and on speculation, both of which carry nancial risk. Members of EOC congrega- For many years, chromolithographs solely depicted European tions purchase paintings to donate to churches as thanks for an images of Christian gures and scenes. However, the contin- answered prayer or to celebrate life events such as a christening or ued development of Ethiopia’s printing industry, along with graduation. Such gis are oen commissioned, although some cli- the entrepreneurial eorts of artists and business owners, has ents choose to buy extant works even if doing so means they have led to the production of chromolithographs that reproduce no input on the nal product. When a new church is constructed Ethiopian gures and scenes, particularly those of popular EOC or an older church renewed, aliated clergy commission an artist saints not normally found in European contexts. Usually, these

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | (or team of artists) to create paintings for it. In some cases, they 2 Gama displayed in the suq (neighborhood store) owned by Wayzero Tsehaitu Reda and her choose an artist based on previous experience working with him; husband Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, an in others, they nd a painter based on reputation or on rst-hand Ethiopian Orthodox priest-painter. The gama on observation of his artwork in another church. Artists receiv- display is the less expensive “traditional” type. Aksum, Ethiopia. June 2009. ing such commissions may be asked to paint a church’s ceiling, maq’das (sanctuary), or exterior (Fig. ). Relationships between tourist shop owners and artists are formed in a similar manner. Shop owners purchase artwork from artists who approach them with goods to sell or they develop patron-client relationships with artists whose work they nd marketable (Sobania and Silverman , forthcoming). Until the late twentieth century, Aksum’s , forthcoming). Regardless of their type, commissions allow artists worked primarily for the EOC market. However, “while artists to engage directly with patrons, consulting on and taking a signicant portion of artistic production in Aksum is still des- into consideration client preferences regarding content, composi- tined for use in the region’s churches, the more lucrative market tion, color, and size of work, much as artists worldwide do when for the town’s many painters and metalworkers is the foreigners oered commissions (Johnson , ). Most patrons pay for who come to visit the historic town” (Sobania and Silverman their commissions, but economic hardship can result in their : ). Today, few, if any, painters create solely for the church abandonment, leaving the artist to nd another buyer in order to or for the tourist trade, choosing, instead, to take advantage of recoup the time and money invested creating the work. the economic opportunities that come from producing for both. When producing paintings on speculation, artists consider is is true of artists based in Aksum, in other towns and cit- market demand and create in the hope that someone may buy an ies in northern Ethiopia, and in the capital. In an increasingly already completed painting. Such work may be highly innovative challenging economic environment, some painters have further in terms of its subject matter and/or form (Sobania and Silverman diversied their income by entering other trades, such as wood- , forthcoming). Although not entirely uncommon, such working or shopkeeping. For example, the artist Liq Berhanat innovation is usually driven by a particularly creative business Berhane Gebre Iyasus now spends much of his time designing, owner or artist (Silverman , ; Sobania and Silverman building, and selling wooden oce and household furniture in

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 3 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus with his son Abraham Berhane, then age 15. These were among the ﬁrst gama Abraham created entirely on his own and were offered for sale in the family’s store. Aksum, Ethiopia. May 2005.

the workshop he runs with his eldest son Abraham, as the market e groom orders it for the bride’s family and gives it to them on for paintings has tightened due to the economic climate and the the third day aer the marriage. It stays with the mother of the bride. You cannot nish a gama quickly. If I work full-time, I can inux of chromolithographs. nish one in a week or even three days. Two to four weeks is a more In addition to painting for the tourist market and for churches, normal time period. Aksum’s artists create gama for Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, specically for those who closely identify with the city and its Commissioned gama are usually larger and more complicated, heritage and who claim aliation to the Tigraian ethnic group. appealing to an urban clientele with greater access to educational us, gama is very much an artistic and cultural tradition tied to and nancial resources and awareness of contemporary wedding Aksum. As with other work, artists create gama on commission trends. Well-known local artists, including Liq Berhanat Berhane, and on speculation. For gama painters working on commission, Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, Ato Berhanemeskel Fisseha and his the production of a painting happens well in advance of the mar- son Deakon Ephrem Berhanemeskel, serve such clients locally; riage. Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid said, but they also receive commissions from Tigraians based in other

4 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus watches as his daughter Melat Berhane, then age 5, draws in a notebook. A priest-painter by profession, he has taught all ﬁve of his children to sketch and paint. Aksum, Ethiopia. June 2009. Photo: Mulugeta Gebrekidan

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | 5 The painted exterior of the Church of Enda Iyesu. Aksum, Ethiopia. May 2007.

Ethiopian cities (Fig. ). For rural customers, these artists create in secondary school. Several of Liq Berhanat Berhane’s children smaller, simpler gama, produced in advance and as multiples for once expressed a desire to work as full-time painters, yet as of sale in suqs. the spring of , only his eldest daughter Selamawit continues Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid and Liq Berhanat Berhane each to paint. His eldest son Abraham manages the family’s furniture began painting in childhood aer visiting churches and seeing workshop while his second son Daniel has a career in the church. the wall paintings in them. e son of a priest, Liq Heeruyan His two younger daughters, Million and Melat, are students. Gebre Wahid was trained by several priest-painters from an early Gama artists paint in their homes, either in the living room age; he created his rst gama around the age of . Liq Berhanat or in a bedroom that also serves as a studio. Gama are created Berhane is the son of farmers and did not have any training in by priest-painters in the same manner as they produce paint- painting; he is largely self-taught. He recalled, ings for the church and tourist markets. Cotton cloth known as abujedi is stretched and nailed to a wooden frame, then divided e rst gama I did was on paper with colored pencil. I sold it for into sections, depending on the size of the work(s) being painted Ethiopian Birr (ETB). en I did one with colored pencils on abu- (Fig. ). Painters who work almost solely on commission, such as jedi cloth of a half meter when I was or years old. I took the ETB and I bought paint from a building materials store and I did a Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, meet with clients and sell paintings painting of Mary, which I traded for kilos of te. I sold it in the from their homes (Fig. ), while others produce for suqs, where market to buy all the materials I needed to make more paintings. the works may be sold without an artist’s signature. Until , Liq Berhanat Berhane produced paintings at home, then sold Both men have trained their sons and daughters to paint them in the small store at the front of his house (Fig. ). When he although none of their children worked as full-time painters while moved into furniture production several years ago, the store was

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 6 Photograph of a framed, modern-type gama created by Deakon Ephrem Berhanemeskal for Yonas Alemayehu and Elsa Wolde Giorgis, a Tigraian couple living in Addis Ababa. They were married on September 30, 2007 (Meskerem 20, 2000 EC). The artist, who was using the gama depicted in the photograph as a model, had propped the photograph on top of the stretcher on which he was sketching a newly commissioned gama. Aksum, Ethiopia. November 2009.

closed. A sign advertising gama remains on the building, how- kibir (respect) and that it represents both local bahel (tradition) ever, as the family still oer gama for sale during the primary and a kal kidan (promise/covenant) between the bride and wedding season, which starts aer the celebration of Timket groom and their families. Wayzero Abeba Tsehaiyay, who sells (Epiphany) in mid-January and ends when Lenten fasting begins gama in her shop near Aksum’s northern stelae eld, said. “It’s in late February. Similar signs found outside shops and artists’ a strong cultural obligation. Everyone does it.” Ma’areg Mesn, homes now oen include a cell phone number for easier client a -year old bajaj driver in Aksum, commented, “If people get access (Fig. ). married, they have to have a gama. It’s a promise. e wedding is like a promise to the family and the community.” Two of GAMA HISTORY AND MEANING Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam‘s ve daughters have married and While it is unclear exactly when the practice of creating wed- she proudly displays their gama in the living room of her home ding paintings began, the meaning of gama is clear to the artists (Fig. ). When asked what gama mean to her, she immediately who create them and the families who display them. Gama are answered, “I feel joy. … e gama represents respect. It expresses not intended to be portraits—in other words, the bride and that your daughter was a virgin and that she was married in a groom depicted are not meant to physically resemble named formal wedding ceremony. … It is Aksum tradition.” individuals —they function, instead, like a marriage certicate. e importance of a woman’s virginity prior to entering into According to Liq Berhanat Berhane, marriage was also mentioned by priest-painters and their clients. When I rst asked Liq Berhanat Berhane about gama more than a If a man and woman are married without a gama then they are decade ago, he said that when the tradition began, families would not ocially married. e gama is about respect. It is like a kind sometimes take a piece of bloodstained cloth or hide from the of certicate. It includes the names and the date [of the marriage] but the gures are not dened specically. A gama tells everyone bed on which the newly married couple rst slept and nail it over that these people are respectable because they follow the rule. eir the gama to publicly demonstrate that the bride had been a vir- children are married legally in the church and they are faithful to gin at the time of the wedding. He then commented that while the traditions. Other people can also learn from them when they people in the city no longer practiced this part of the tradition, see the gama, so it sets an example for society. If people don’t have a gama, sometimes the community doesn’t consider their marriage those in the countryside sometimes did. When asked if gama to be legal. are given when a woman is no longer a virgin, Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam demurred before saying, “Yes, it could be; but the Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid commented that original idea of gama is to show that the woman was a virgin and was married in a respectful manner.” Almost everyone has a gama. … Even if people don’t get married e rst gama were probably created in the late nineteenth in the church, they want a gama. e number of people who want or early twentieth century, following the emergence of what a gama hasn’t reduced. In fact, it’s almost become necessary—the Elisabeth Biasio refers to as “contemporary painting in tradi- husband has to buy it. It’s an expression of respect and joy. tional style” (: ). e establishment of Addis Ababa in led to increasing numbers of foreign visitors to Ethiopia and eir clients, local shopkeepers selling gama, and other resi- resulted in growing demand for paintings that reected the coun- dents of Aksum agree. Repeatedly, I was told that gama means try’s history and culture, as these ferengi (foreigners) were eager

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | to acquire souvenirs. Church-trained artists began producing in a white dress and groom in a suit and tie standing in front of paintings with both religious and secular imagery for this mar- Aksum’s northern stelae eld. Commemorating the marriage of ket. Gama appears to have evolved during this artistic shi from a woman who was in her s in , it was probably created in painting solely for royal and church patrons toward a broader the s, but the tradition is believed to date back more than a clientele, one that included both Ethiopians and ferengi. Biasio century. According to Liq Berhanat Berhane, would term gama a form of either “folk painting” or “traditional elite painting.” e former is “work produced by local artists for e practice of gama began in Aksum. … During the time of local indigenous consumption,” while the latter “was produced Menelik II [r. – ], photographs were not available for people on commission, oen from a ruler, by the very best artists.” ese to record the marriage. So, we wrote the date of the wedding on a gama as a way of remembering it and giving it respect. People are “art forms grounded in local communities. ey fulll indig- would say, “Bekal kidan tegebu (ey were married by promise).” enous functions, are produced by artists with a traditional, oen church-based training, and are intended for local consumption” (Biasio : ). Based on her denitions, whether gama qual- ies as “folk painting” or “traditional elite painting” depends 7 A row of gama under production. Whether upon the artist and the socioeconomic status of the client. Key to creating gama or paintings depicting religious or the genre, however, is that it is intrinsically local, both produced secular scenes, artists work on several at once. In and consumed by Tigraians. Unlike “contemporary painting in this case, Liq Berhanat Berhane stretched a length of cotton cloth known as abujedi onto a wooden traditional style” or several forms of “popular painting,” gama frame before sketching the desired image onto have not yet attracted signicant attention from collectors and the cloth, which was divided into sections as collecting institutions, which helps explain why they have not needed. Until they were able to produce paintings on their own, his children assisted him in creat- yet been the subject of academic study. ing such works by painting the ﬂoral and geomet- e earliest extant wedding painting I have seen is a type ric motifs and ﬁlling in large blocks of color, such as the blue used for the cloaks worn by the bride referred to as zemenawi (“modern”) because it featured a bride and groom. Aksum, Ethiopia. December 2004.

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 8 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid discussing gama in the living room of his home. An in-process gama can be seen on the right. He created the painting hanging on the wall for his daughter Rahel’s wedding to Negash Kidan on June 2, 2002 (Ginbot 25, 1994 EC). Aksum, Ethiopia. June 2009.

9 Located on the main road to the northern stelae ﬁeld, this neighborhood store sells a wide variety of goods including gama. The blue and white hand-painted sign reads, “We have gama for sale” and includes the cell phone number by which the artist can be reached. Aksum, Ethiopia. April 2016. Photo: Mulugeta Gebrekidan

Wayzero Likeyelshi Belay Gessesse, who celebrated her i- –). Similarly, Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid commented that eth wedding anniversary in , had a gama for her marriage, the practice dates back at least to the early twentieth century. as do each of her married daughters (Fig. ). She said that the “Before Haile Selassie I [r. – ], the gama was very simple, tradition dates back to the time of her grandfather Dejazmatch with just the bride and groom, the cross above and names below. Gessesse, who served as governor of Tigrai in (Rosen : Aer [his coronation], the gama became more complicated.” Liq

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | Berhanat Berhane agreed that a modern type of gama developed uncommon in remote rural areas. In Ethiopia’s northern Christian during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I. is was a period highlands, several forms of marriage traditionally existed. ese of great modernization and innovation in Ethiopia, one build- include what historian Edward Ullendorf referred to as damoz, ing on the eorts of previous emperors including Tewodros II (r. or short-term marriage by contract; kal kidan, a form of “binding – ), Yohannes IV (r. – ), and Menelik II. From the civil marriage”; and kal kidan bekwerban, in which the marriage late nineteenth century onward, the import of North American is performed as both a civil ceremony and a religious ceremony and Western European goods and technologies into the country incorporating communion ( : –). Kal kidan bekwerban is aected myriad aspects of Ethiopian society, including weddings. “strictly speaking, indissoluble … Church ceremonies are custom- ary also among the ruling classes and are compulsory for clergy” Just before the Second World War, introduction of elements of (Ullendorf : ; see also Augustyniak : ; Pankhurst Western value inuenced traditional institutions. Marriage dress and weddings were aected to some extent … trendy college and high school graduates readily adapted Western wedding attire: the white dress and veil for the bride, the black suit or the tuxedo for the groom (Mengesha, Deressa, and Imagnu : – ).

e arrival and increasing availability of foreign styles of wedding clothing were soon reected in gama. Ethiopian marriage practices are extremely varied, which is 10 Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam’s living room not surprising given the country’s ethnic and religious diversity. is richly appointed with a ﬂat-screen TV, china (For more on marriage in Ethiopia, see Augustyniak ; Beyene cabinet, refrigerator, sofas and chairs in new and Tolera ; Fafchamps and Quisumbing ; Kebede ; slipcovers and hand-embroidered antimacassars, and numerous family photographs. Alongside Mengesha et al. ; Pankhurst ; and Ullendor .) Shared brightly colored woven Tigrai baskets, a clock, religious beliefs provide for commonality of practice amongst fel- and an image of Jesus Christ, two gama are prominently displayed on the walls. The gama on low believers, while distinguishing them from other groups, as the right appears in Figure 1. The wedding paint- ethnic traditions also do. Increasingly, economic stratication and ing on the left is a recent addition, celebrating the urbanization further promote both commonality and diversity. union of Wayzero Abeba’s daughter Birkti Semera with Dawit Wolde Giorgis on January 25, 2015 (Tir For example, photography is nearly ubiquitous in documenting 17, 2007 EC). Aksum, Ethiopia. April 2016. urban weddings of all faiths and at most income levels, but is very Photo: Mulugeta Gebrekidan

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 11 Wayzero Likeyelshi Belay Gessesse standing in front of the gama for her daughter Askale GAMA TYPES Tilahun’s wedding to Daniel Haile Selassie on January 30, 2016 (Tir 22, 2008 EC). Above the e two primary types of gama are identied by artists and wedding party, the painting depicts the repatri- their clients as bahelawi (cultural/traditional) and zemenawi ated Obelisk of Aksum, the 20th century New (modern). Clear distinctions exist between these types, each of Cathedral of Maryam Tsion, the Chapel of the Tablet, the 17th century Old Cathedral of Maryam which appeals to a particular customer base. Bahelawi wedding Tsion, and King Ezana’s Stela. Her eldest daugh- paintings are divided into two primary registers, with an addi- ter’s gama is displayed in the same room in tional blank space at the bottom of the painting for the artist to Figure 13. Aksum, Ethiopia. March 2016. Photo: Mulugeta Gebrekidan add the names of the bridal couple and the date of the wedding (Figs. –, ). One register, usually the lower, features a bride and groom depicted in the clothing and accessories associated with a church wedding. e second register features geometric or oral motifs or a representation of one of Aksum’s famous stelae. Zemenawi wedding paintings, which are created as a single scene, depict a bride, groom, and their mizeotch (attendants) : ). In Aksum, this form of marriage is widespread for sev- standing in front of the city’s iconic architecture (Fig. ). ey eral reasons, including the city’s history as birthplace of the EOC wear clothing now associated with modern, urban weddings in and the correspondingly deep religious beliefs of its residents. e Ethiopia and in many other parts of the world: a white dress and clerical oces held by many men also encourages kal kidan bekw- veil for the bride; suit and tie for the groom and groomsmen; erban, as these roles necessitate this form of marriage. Couples and long, usually colorful, dresses for the bridesmaids. Textual participating in kal kidan bekwerban marry in a church while information about the couple and their wedding is either painted wearing a kaba (cloak) and zewde (crown) (Fig. ). e “symbol directly into the scene—this is particularly common with older of this royal [rite of] passage is the ociating priest placing the zemenawi wedding paintings (Fig. )—or at the bottom of the crowns on the couple’s heads” (Mengesha, Deressa, and Imagnu gama in a space specically designated for this purpose. e : –; interpolation in original). It is this type of marriage practice of inscribing information about the bridal couple and that is represented in the earliest form of wedding paintings, which the wedding date has been part of the gama tradition from its Aksumites now refer to as bahelawi gama (Figs. –, ). origins, as previously mentioned.

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | Bahelawi wedding paintings are simpler in composition, phys- 12 Purchased in Addis Ababa in April 2016, this photograph depicts the kal kidan bekwerban ically smaller, and, therefore, less expensive than modern-type marriage of Dejazmatch Kassa Wolde-Mariam, gama. ey are produced for geberayotch (farmers) and yegetir ﬁrst president of Haile Selassie I University (now sowotch (people from the countryside). Artists state that resi- Addis Ababa University), and Her Royal Highness Princess Seble Desta, granddaughter of Emperor dents of the small villages in the Aksum region have a preference Haile Selassie I, on January 31, 1959, in Addis for bahelawi gama due to their lower price, which makes them Ababa. Both wear modern wedding attire in ad- more aordable, and because they like “simpler paintings.” dition to crowns and, in his case, a kaba (cloak). The couple were imprisoned when Emperor Haile Rural customers are also thought to prefer depictions of the bride Selassie I was overthrown in 1974; Dejazmatch and groom in the clothing associated with a church wedding, Kassa did not survive imprisonment (Kelly 2014) but his wife was freed, along with other family with which they are most familiar. Traditionally, each gure in members, in 1988. Collection of the author. a bahelawi gama wears an embroidered cloak and a crown; and the only visible distinctions between the couple are that the bride wears earrings and has long hair. Very rarely, the woman may be depicted as physically smaller. Although less ornate than their modern counterparts, traditional-type gama provide for artistic whose daughter is worthy of such an expensive painting, and of the freedom of expression in the geometric and oral motifs, which groom, who is able to aord it. “If the groom doesn’t bring a good allow painters to use bright colors and a variety of shapes includ- quality gama, it can become a problem; so, to make the bride’s fam- ing circles, squares, diamonds, and hearts (Fig. ). ily happy, he has to order a good quality painting.” Finally, the fact Zemenawi wedding paintings are created for yeketema sowotch that many zemenawi gama are produced on commission enables (city residents). Artists explain that urban dwellers prefer zemen- clients to customize paintings, choosing the color of the clothing awi gama for several reasons. First, these paintings are physically worn by the bridal couple and their attendants, the depiction of larger and more ornate, which makes their presence in a family particular churches, or the color of oral motifs and other objects home more prominent, as do their many vibrant colors. Second, incorporated into the painting. the higher price of a modern-type gama serves as a public and One iconic element appears in both bahelawi and zemenawi wed- private indicator of the socioeconomic status of the bride’s family, ding paintings: the carved -meter-tall stela (hawlti in Tigrinya)

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 13 Zemenawi gama for Mekonnen Kidane Maryam and Genet Belay, who married on January 23, 1988 (Tir 15, 1980). The bride, groom, and single attendant stand on an ornate carpet ﬂanked by two pillows and a water pitcher, all elements of a traditional t’ilosh, or dowry. King Ezana’s Stela appears to the upper left with the Chapel of the Tablet and the Old Cathedral of Maryam Tsion appearing above the couple. The gama is displayed in the main reception room of the bride’s family home, as is her younger sis- ter’s wedding painting, seen in Figure 11. Aksum, Ethiopia. March 2016.

known as King Ezana’s Stela. Until September , , when the Increasingly, both the cross-like symbol and King Ezana’s Stela are repatriated -meter-tall Obelisk of Aksum was unveiled, incorporated into bahelawi gama, with the cross at the top and King Ezana’s Stela was the tallest standing monument in Aksum’s the stela appearing between the bridal couple (Fig. ). When the northern stelae eld, which is integral to the city’s designation as stela appears in the upper register, a metal water pitcher is depicted a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It served as the primary icon between the bride and groom (Fig. ). is vessel, which represents for Aksum and the region, and one of the primary symbols of hospitality and respect, also appears consistently in zemenawi Ethiopia. Images of the hawlti have long appeared on the cover wedding paintings. of guidebooks and in advertisements promoting Ethiopia, and Artists incorporate several objects in modern-type gama that they have been reproduced innumerable times in magazine and comprise the bride’s t’ilosh, or dowry (Fig. ). “In the past, the newspaper articles about the country, on websites and t-shirts, and woman had a dowry that included a mintaf (carpet), an alga tras in small stone replicas oered for sale in Ethiopian tourist shops. (bed pillow), and a kuskust (water pitcher).” e dowry’s inclu- In bahelawi gama, the upper register usually depicts a cross-like sion in gama highlights yeduro gize bahel (past traditions), which, symbol or the northern stelae eld, with owering bushes and although no longer always practiced by urban families, remain smaller stelae surrounding King Ezana’s Stela. If the obelisk does symbolically important. According to Liq Berhanat Berhane, Liq not appear as the focus of a register in traditional-type gama, it Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, and numerous other Aksumites with is depicted between the bridal couple. According to Liq Berhanat whom I spoke, t’ilosh was traditionally given to young couples Berhane, “e cross at the top is given by God, no one knows how by the bride’s parents to provide them with some of the goods it arrived … e hawlti is a symbol for when you get married.” needed to establish a household.

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | In the old times, people gave their children what they needed to live 14 Zemenawi gama painted by Liq Berhanat when they were married. Part of the tradition is for the family to Berhane for his wife Tsehaitu Reda for their wash the hands and feet of the bride and groom, like was done for wedding on July 12, 1987 (Hamle 5, 1979 EC). Jesus Christ. In the past in rich households, people had this kind of In the top half, he included the New Cathedral of Maryam Tsion, with bell tower, King Ezana’s water pitcher in their house. It demonstrates respect because it is Stela, the Chapel of the Tablet, and the Old [normally] only to be used by guests. Cathedral of Mary Tsion. The bottom half depicts the bridal couple and attendants as well as components of the bride’s dowry. Family photographs e dowry also represents the esteem that should now be placed nearby are of deceased relatives. The accorded to the newly married pair. “e pillow indicates respect gama and Tigrai baskets have been covered with and that no one else has power over them because now they are plastic to protect them from dust and roof leaks. Aksum, Ethiopia. June 2009. a couple who lie down together.” is is oen indicated by the inclusion of two pillows, one for the bride and one for the groom (Figs. – ). Once married “they were no longer two separate persons, but two in one esh; and that so in like manner should their hearts and wills be” (Alvares quoted by Pankhurst : ). Including dowry components in gama demonstrates the bridal family’s commitment to the marriage; in turn, her husband rec- ognizes their support through his purchase of a gama. Visual a relatively recent practice, following the development of zemen- reference to the dowry also provides an outlet for creative expres- awi gama. According to Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, “We began sion. While the water pitcher is generally represented in yellow or adding the attendants to gama at the end of the Imperial period gray, referencing the metal from which such vessels were made, or beginning of the Derg [circa ]. In the past, we used the the carpet and pillow are painted in bright colors and embel- cross but no attendants.” Today, three bridesmaids and three lished with geometric or oral motifs. groomsmen are standard in modern-type gama, regardless of Artists also exercise creativity in their depiction of the atten- how many mizeotch actually attend the bride and groom. dants. In zemenawi gama, the bride wears a modern white In addition to the couple, attendants, dowry, and stela, at wedding dress, known as a velo, while the groom and his grooms- least one of Aksum’s iconic buildings is ubiquitous in zemen- men wear suits, usually of dark colors, oen matching and with awi wedding paintings: the Old Cathedral of Maryam Tsion. colorful ties. e bridesmaids’ long matching dresses are brightly When the Aksumite king Ezana converted to Christianity in colored and oen ornately ounced. Representing attendants is , locals believe he built a church on what is now the site

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 of the Old Cathedral (Phillipson : – ). ought to have in the s. is project included construction of a bell tower been torn down in the tenth century, it was rebuilt before being and the Chapel of the Tablet. e latter building was created destroyed yet again during the Abyssinian-Adal War ( – ) for a unique purpose: Inside, “according to the traditions of the by the forces of Ahmed Gragn (Henze : –). e cur- Ethiopian Orthodox Church, is kept the Ark of the Covenant, rent structure, built by Emperor Fasilides (r. – ), dates brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I, the son of [King] Solomon to the seventeenth century (Munro-Hay ). Because the Old and the Queen of Sheba” whom Ethiopians claim as their own Cathedral only admitted male worshipers, Emperor Haile Selassie (Phillipson : ). I commissioned the construction of a massive new cathedral All three edices form an ecclesiastical complex, or “Cathedral precinct” (see Phillipson : –) that is “the holiest place in the Ethiopian Christian kingdom” (Munro-Hay ). ey serve as physical reminders of Ethiopia’s ancient past and of the longevity of the EOC as well as its status as guardian of the Ark of the Covenant. Based on artistic license or client request, modern-type gama may also include the Chapel of the 15 Zemenawi gama sketched by Melat Berhane, age Tablet or the modern Cathedral of Maryam Tsion (Figs. – ). 5. The bride, with either veil or long hair, and groom Artists and their clients state that the inclusion in gama of these stand in front of King Ezana’s Stela and the Old Cathedral of Maryam Tsion. The young artist’s signa- iconic structures reinforces their EOC faith and local history ture appears below the couple. Collection of the author. and culture. e Old Cathedral of Maryam Tsion is, however, Aksum, Ethiopia. November 2009. always represented because it is Aksum’s oldest church, liter- 16 Bahelawi gama sketched by Daniel Berhane, age 15. ally and guratively grounded on the ancient civilization for At the time a deacon in the EOC, Daniel’s hopes for which the region is renowned and physical home of the Ark of the future are indicated by his identifying himself as the groom—the text in the yellow register reads “Gama the Covenant until the Chapel of the Tablet was constructed. of Haleqa Daniel Berhane, Aksum”— and as the artist, (Phillipson : – provides a description of the ancient indicated by the bottom line of text, which reads, in Aksumite podium on which the Old Cathedral is built.) part, “Artist Haleqa Daniel Berhane Gebre Iyasus.” In both inscriptions, he identiﬁes as Haleqa (Chief Priest), Much as with other gama elements, artists use Aksum’s iconic a title he did not yet hold, but one that his father, by architecture as a means of adding color and complexity to their then Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, had previous- paintings. Bright primary and secondary colors predominate, ly held for many years. Collection of the author. Aksum, Ethiopia. November 2009. especially the red, yellow, and green found on the windows,

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | doors, and fence of the Old Cathedral and the Chapel of the 17 Memhir (Teacher) Sisay Hagos and Lake Gebre Giorgis hanging the modern-type gama Tablet and in the stained-glass windows of the new Cathedral of painted by Selamawit Berhane for her wedding. Maryam Tsion (Fig. ). e stelae are, however, usually depicted She was married on February 17, 2013 (Yekatit in gray, referencing the granite from which they were carved. e 10, 2005 EC) and the gama was presented three days later during the mels, a party welcoming the color scheme in zemenawi gama depends on a painter’s artistic newly married couple to her childhood home as intent, client preferences, and the availability of paint in the local man and wife. Collection of Liq Berhanat Berhane market. e use of color also varies in bahelawi gama, but sty- Gebre Iyasus and Wayzero Tsehaitu Reda. Aksum, Ethiopia. April 2016. listic conventions require that the kaba, zewde, and hawlti are always rendered in appropriate colors. For example, the crowns worn by the bridal couple are always a golden color, while their cloaks are blue, indigo, or purple, with metallic or embroidered embellishments painted in white or a gold or silver color. ese decorative details are added to gama by apprentices, who are also allowed to add blocks of color to large, sketched-in areas by his son Deakon Daniel Berhane, then years old, are on a canvas (Sobania and Silverman : , –). Later in compelling for their use of color, experimentation with layout, their training, they produce bahelawi gama by themselves, even- and signatures, which indicated his aspirations for a career in the tually progressing to painting the larger, more detailed zemenawi EOC and for marriage. His representation of a bahelawi gama gama on their own. Before his children were allowed to paint includes, as one would expect, the bridal couple wearing cloaks directly onto gama, Liq Berhanat Berhane’s sons and daugh- and a stela surrounded by owers and geometric forms; however, ters sketched with color pencils or pen on paper (Fig. ). Liq he listed himself as the groom and signed the sketch, “Haleqa Berhanat Berhane did not guide or correct their sketches; he says (Chief Priest) Daniel Berhane,” a title he did not yet hold (Fig. they learned what to include in a gama by watching him and their ). Initially, Liq Berhanat Berhane sold the gama created by his older siblings create paintings. A series of sketches created in children as his own, a common practice in the apprenticeship

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 system. Later, he allowed them to sign their own names to paint- quoted a price of ETB (US ). Due to their larger size and ings, because their skills had improved and because his church complexity, zemenawi gama command higher prices, with the responsibilities had increased, leaving him with less time to greatest prices paid for the largest, most ornate gama or for those paint. eir gama were displayed for sale in the shop run by their produced by well-known artists such as Ato Berhanemeskel mother, continuing a family tradition, and contributing econom- Fisseha. In , one painter commented, “For the modern ically to the support of their parents, siblings, and themselves gama, the price used to be ETB. Now, it’s [US ], (Fig. ). Today, this practice continues, to some extent, with [US ], [ ], , [US ] ETB. Even the price can reach Wayzero Selamawit Berhane creating both bahelawi and zemen- , ETB [US ].” at year, a medium-size zemenawi gama awi gama for sale. from Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid cost ETB (US ), iden- e smaller size and simpler composition of bahelawi gama tical to the price charged by Liq Berhanat Berhane. In , the makes them more easily aordable. In , they could be pur- price quoted for a medium-size zemenawi gama ranged from chased for – Ethiopian Birr (US –), while in , they , to , ETB (US –). e signicant price increase in sold for – ETB (US –). In , artists and shop owners gama between and can be attributed to several factors. First, the recent global recession has had a lasting and negative eect on Ethiopia. Rising ination rates combined with poor terms of exchange for the Ethiopian Birr caused prices to rise on most goods and services, further deepening the poverty in which many Ethiopians live. Artists vary their prices based on a painting’s size, level of detail, and quality of execution as well as the 18 Wayzero Selamawit Berhane and her father Liq Berhanat Berhane holding the zemenawi gama she cost of materials and the time needed to complete the work given created for her wedding to Gebre Melak Nirayu. In other concurrent commitments. Gama prices increased mark- the spring of 2016, she was the only active painter edly during this seven-year period because the cost of materials in the family, as her father and siblings were pursu- ing other economic and educational opportunities. rose, as did the cost of consumable goods, housing, education, Aksum, Ethiopia. April 2016. and other services for which artists must pay.

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | PRESENTING AND DISPLAYING GAMA new social role. In Aksum, the mels further reinforces this change A man’s presentation of gama to his wife’s family is a form of of status by incorporating presentation of the gama. Aer the symbolic exchange, as the painting serves to uphold social norms, groom acquires a wedding painting, he gives it to his best man connect families, and reinforce local tradition (Fafchamps and and groomsmen. ey are then responsible for presenting the Quisumbing : ; see also Mengesha et al. : ). painting to the bride’s parents and placing it in a prominent posi- Rather than enhancing a couple’s nancial or physical capital, a tion on a wall in their home (Fig. ). gama strengthens their social capital and that of the bride’s fam- A gama is normally displayed on the wall of a family’s salon ily through its prominent display. In addition to the important (living room) opposite the main entry door, where all visitors role played by family members in organizing and supporting a can immediately see it and recognize that the family has a mar- wedding economically and socially (Augustyniak ; Beyene ried daughter and has followed local tradition (Figs. , , ). and Tolera ; Kebede ), the couple’s closest friends are According to Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, “we learned the tradi- involved. eir participation is reected in modern-type gama tion from our parents—before, people did not hang their gama on by the mizeotch who stand on either side of the bride and groom, a nice wall because they did not have one, so they had it on a pillar divided by gender. In some wedding paintings, the attendants in the tukul”—a mud-walled, thatch-roofed, single-room circu- are represented as physically smaller, reinforcing their status as lar house commonly found throughout the northern Christian individuals serving the bride and groom (Figs. , – ). As one highlands. Woven Tigrai baskets in brightly colored geometric Tigraian friend stated, this practice “is the inuence of the old patterns, plastic owers, photographs, and other objects of value, traditional church art [in which] slaves are portrayed as smaller such as clocks, metal garlands, and chromolithographs, are hung than the kings [they serve].” While female friends help the bride nearby—or even on—gama, reinforcing and enhancing their sta- with her hair, clothing, and make-up for wedding festivities, the tus as important objects (Figs. , , , ). In many instances, groom’s closest friends are responsible for hanging the gama in gama are covered with plastic for protection (Figs. , ). Even the home of the bride’s mother at the mels (literally “answer” or in the case of divorce, gama stay on display: “It remains on the “return”), a feast hosted by the bride’s family on the third day wall because it expresses her virginity and the respect that they aer the wedding. Commonly practiced by Ethiopian Orthodox are unied.” If a woman inherits her parent’s home, her gama Christians, it welcomes the bride and groom to her childhood remains on display. e wedding painting Liq Berhanat Berhane home as a married couple, enhancing public recognition of their painted for his wife Wayzero Tsehaitu Reda hangs in the home in

19 These four wedding paintings were complete and ready for sale in early 2005. The top three gama adhered to convention; the bottom painting, however, was a new innovation. It depicted a bride and groom wearing the modern wedding attire typical of larger, zemenawi gama in the size and two-register design traditionally associated with bahelawi gama. Liq Berhanat Berhane created the works with assistance from his eldest daughter and son. Aksum, Ethiopia. January 2005.

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 20 Building on her father’s earlier innovation (see Figure 19), Selamawit Berhane began creating small, two-register wedding paintings that blend elements of the bahelawi and zemenawi types. Their dimensions and layout are standard for traditional-type gama, as is the presence of the stelae, but several other elements are unusual for gama of this size. The Chapel of the Tablet does not typically appear in bahelawi wedding paintings nor does a full dowry or mizeotch. The inclusion of crowns and the bride’s cloak is unique when accompanied by the modern wedding attire normally found in zemenawi gama. In these hybrid wedding paintings, Selamawit more accurately represents the way in which Ethiopian Orthodox Christians appear during kal kidan bekwerban ceremonies, at least since the mid-20th century (see Figure 12).

which he now lives because, “It was at her mother’s house, which her father to create and sell large zemenawi gama under her own is this house. It stays always in this house [because] it shows we name. For her September wedding, she created her own were legally married.” e only instances in which gama are gama; in the spring of , while expecting her rst child, she intentionally removed is if a house comes under new owner- was the only painter actively working in the family (Fig. ). ship and a family moves or if it is destroyed or damaged beyond In Aksum, at least one other young woman, also the daughter repair, for example, by a leaking roof or renovations. of a priest-painter, produces gama, although she primarily creates artwork for the tourist market. In Zana, a small town INNOVATION AND CHANGE IN THE PRODUCTION AND kilometers southwest of Aksum, Wayzero Lemlem Gebremeskal, CONSUMPTION OF GAMA a self-taught artist, creates paintings, including gama, for sale to Like all cultural practices, the production and consumption her local community (Teklemichael : ). of gama has not remained static. roughout the past century, Over the past decade, further innovation in gama production numerous changes have occurred in the ways in which gama are has been driven by Liq Berhanat Berhane and his children. In displayed—e.g., on walls instead of tukul pillars—and in how , he began painting traditional-type, two-register gama with they are produced, as paper and pencil have been replaced by the bride in a white dress and the groom wearing a suit and tie, as canvas and paint. eir cost has, of course, increased, and fur- they would normally appear in larger zemenawi gama (Fig. ). ther changes have occurred in the type of wedding ceremony In , his eldest daughter Selamawit was painting two-register, depicted, as attendants, hearts, and modern clothing are now small gama that were a further hybrid of the bahelawi and zemen- options along with the cloak, cross, and crown. Another key awi type. ese feature two stelae and the Chapel of the Tablet in innovation is the training of daughters as gama painters. By her the top register while the bride and groom, anked by attendants, early s, Selamawit Berhane was considered skilled enough by appear below wearing crowns and modern clothing, with the

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | bride also wearing an embroidered cloak (Fig. ). When asked 21 This photographic banner was created for Askale Tilahun’s wedding to Daniel Haile Selassie about the innovation, she replied, “I just thought it would be an on January 30, 2016 (Tir 22, 2008 EC). It was interesting idea. When people get married in the church, they hung in the family compound throughout the wear a velo (wedding dress) and suf (suit) with the kaba (cloak) wedding festivities before being moved inside her parents’ home, where it was displayed in a living covering it. So, these paintings show this” (Fig. ). us far, the room. Their gama was displayed in the main only gama I have seen incorporating these innovations were pro- reception room of the house (Figure 11). duced by Liq Berhanat Berhane and his children, and they have proven to be marketable. When this project began, one question I had about gama production was how depiction of King Ezana’s Stela would change with the repatriation and subsequent re-erection of the Obelisk of Aksum. Once the stela’s repatriation was conrmed, Liq Berhanat Berhane began incorporating the Obelisk of Aksum into his gama. “Even before it returned, I started to paint two stelae in my gama. And when people asked why, I said, ‘Because it is coming back. If you make a gama with two hawlti, you get even more respect for the marriage!’” Depicting both stelae is A second question was how improved access to photography now standard, and throughout Aksum, I have seen examples of would aect gama production and consumption. Over the last both bahelawi and zemenawi gama featuring the reunited stelae decade, digital photography has become widespread in Ethiopia’s (Figs. , , ). When asked about the meaning of the repatri- urban centers, including Aksum, and the costs associated with it ated stela and its inclusion in gama, priest-painters, their clients, have become increasingly aordable as the price of related equip- and local shopkeepers consistently replied that it represented ment has fallen and the number of digital photography studios local tarik (history), bahel (culture), and kibir (respect). Many has increased. While it is clear that photography is an important also mentioned that the Obelisk of Aksum’s return symbolized aspect of contemporary weddings in Aksum, it fullls a dier- Ethiopian independence and strength, given that it is one of the ent function than gama. “For marriage, gama is the main way few instances in which African material culture has been repatri- we remember it. Photography is additional to this practice.” A ated by a former occupying power. couple’s gama is an idealized representation intended to fulll a

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 22 Selamawit Berhane and her husband Gebre Melak Nirayu posing in front of the Obelisk of Aksum and King Ezana’s Stela. Collection of Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus and Wayzero Tsehaitu Reda. Aksum, Ethiopia. April 2016.

specic social function, one that is not yet seen by young people and their families to be met by photography. Many local residents commented that one can get married without photographs, but not without a gama, although I was told repeatedly that “most people have both.” at said, families invest signicant funds to document their children’s weddings with photography and video. Photographs and video footage are shot of the various ceremonies and feasts, including the mels, to celebrate the wedding and to document the individuals involved in them. Once produced, photographic images are printed and framed for display in the homes of the bride and groom and their parents (Fig. ). ey are also compiled in photograph albums that can be shared with visitors to the home long aer a wedding has occurred. In considering the eect of contemporary social change on clients if photography will supplant gama, every single person traditional marriage practices, Yilma Kebede writes, “it can be responded in the negative, oen vehemently. e closest anyone assumed that due to the impact of modernization, young men came to suggesting a photograph-related change to gama was and women are not paying due attention to some of the tra- Temesgen Gebrekidan, a young engineer-turned-entrepreneur, ditional activities and hence marriage and other traditional who suggested that gama might be more appealing to a younger ceremonies are weakening” ( : ). Yet young adults born generation if they were created in a smaller format and with a and raised in Aksum closely identify with the city’s culture and more realistic depiction of the specic bride and groom, then traditions, including the practice of acquiring and displaying framed, much as wedding photographs are. He was, however, gama. Wayzero Askale Tilahun and Ato Daniel Haile Selassie, adamant that gama could not be replaced by photography. who live and work in Addis Ababa, extensively used photogra- Another young man commented, phy to celebrate and document their January wedding in Aksum. ey posed for a large photographic banner to be dis- e culture has been like this for a long time. Photography will not played in the courtyard of her parents’ home to welcome guests; stop it because gama and photography are dierent. Gama means the following the festivities, it was hung inside the house (Fig. ). church [cathedral precinct], the hawlti … everything together in one ey also hired a photographer to document the wedding and painting. In a photograph, you can only have the stelae park or only the church, you cannot represent all that is important about Aksum related feasts, including multiple images within the northern and our culture in a photograph. Only the gama can do that. stelae eld—access to which requires the payment of a ETB per person admission fee—and with the new Cathedral of Innovation in gama production is certain to continue, as is Maryam Tsion in the background. When Selamawit Berhane the practice of producing and displaying gama. e market for married on February , , her family spent more than wedding paintings appears to remain steady and families hun- to hire a photographer and videographer, in addition to pay- dreds of kilometers away continue to commission gama from ing the required admission fee to the northern stelae eld. Aksum’s painters. e number of young artists, such as Deakon e photographs, which were compiled in a photo album, Ephrem Berhanemeskel and Wayzero Selamawit Berhane, is also contain numerous images of the couple and their family and promising, as they see gama as a means of earning a living and friends in front of the stelae (Fig. ). In this sense, then, wed- expressing themselves artistically, while maintaining family tra- ding photography in Aksum attempts to replicate the imagery dition and ensuring the continuity of local culture. produced in gama. Yet when I asked priest-painters and their

VOL. 51, NO. 3 AUTUMN 2018 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 | Notes author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. found in Ethiopia, which has a young and growing 18 Wayzero denotes a married woman and Wayzerit population currently estimated to have surpassed I am indebted to a number of individuals who supported is used for an unmarried woman. Individuals with pro- 100 million. e country is also home to a number of this project, including the artists and other Aksumites fessional titles such as Professor or Doctor use those world religions, including Islam, Judaism, and various mentioned in this article. Institutional support was instead of Ato, Wayzerit, or Wayzero. forms of Christianity, and to a range of animist beliefs. provided by the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) at 19 Numerous other stelae elds are found 36 Amharic for “salary.” Can also be transliterated Addis Ababa University, where I was a Visiting Scholar throughout the city of Aksum and surrounding region; as demoz. from 2001–2007, and by Wheaton College. In addition, however, the northern stelae eld is the most visible 37 Amharic for “covenant” or “promise.” e word my thanks to Professor Raymond A. Silverman and and well-known, given both the size and number of is more accurately transliterated as q’alkidan; however, Professor Neal Sobania for rst introducing me to Aksum’s the stelae it contains and the eld’s proximity to the for consistency, I will retain Ullendorf’s transliteration priest-painters, to Lemlem Bekele, Mulugeta Gebrekidan, cathedral precinct. throughout this article. Temesgen Gebrekidan, Meaza Hezkias, Dereje Negussie, 20 Wayzero Abeba Tsehaiyay, interview with the 38 Amharic for “promise/covenant by communion.” and Brook Tadesse for translation and/or other research author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. 39 Some artists also paint the name of the churches assistance, and to Mollie Denhard and Zephorene Stick- 21 Ma’areg Mesn, interview with the author, depicted in gama above the relevant building (Figs. 13, ney Helmreich for commenting on earlier dras. Finally, I Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. 19). extend thanks to the anonymous African Arts reviewers 22 Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam, interview with 40 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview for their comments and suggestions. the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. A girl or with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. 1 In this article, I will use the shorter, more com- woman’s virginity at the time of marriage is an import- 41 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the monly heard Ethiopian Orthodox Church, or EOC. ant factor for ethnic groups throughout Ethiopia. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. In Ge’ez, the liturgical language of the EOC, tewahedo See Augustyniak 2009, Beyene and Tolera 2006, and 42 Technically, the stone monuments found means “unied” and refers to the Ethiopian Orthodox Mengesha, Deressa, and Imagnu 1996. throughout the Aksum region are stelae, not obelisks, belief in a monophysite Jesus Christ. 23 Liq Berhanat Berhane, interview with the author, as they do not have a pyramidal top. e stela removed 2 Unless otherwise noted, all terms are transliter- Aksum, Ethiopia, June 14, 2003. Liq Heeruyan Gebre by Mussolini’s forces in 1937 has long been referred to ated from Amharic, the ocial working language of Wahid made a similar comment when I spoke with as the Obelisk of Aksum or Aksum Obelisk and this is Ethiopia’s national government. It is important to note him in June 2009. the name by which it continues to be referred. that more than seventy-ve languages are recognized 24 Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam, interview with the 43 Aer decades in Italy, the Obelisk of Aksum was in Ethiopia. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. repatriated to Ethiopia in April 2005. 3 Ge’ez is written in a script usually referred to as 25 Biasio denes this as “art that developed in 44 e ruins of the ancient town of Aksum, now del, which is also used to write Amharic, Tigrinya, urban settings, oen created by self-taught artists and covered by the modern city, were inscribed on the and several other Ethiopian languages. I have chosen directed toward the local population” and references World Heritage List in 1980 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/ to transliterate the del into the Latin alphabet without Alvin Sher’s 1997 article on butcher shop signs in Ethi- list/15). using diacritical marks and in a form that closely opia and Eritrea (Biasio 2009: 14). Only a few forms 45 Images of the paired stelae now regularly appear approximates pronunciation in the original language. of Ethiopian “popular painting,” such as signs for tej in advertisements and other media related to Ethiopia; Proper names, which are oen transliterated based on baitotch (honey-wine bars), have become collectible in however, they have yet to completely supplant images personal preference or historical precedent, have been the eyes of museums and collectors. of the single hawlti, particularly in architectural set- written based on the preference of each individual, 26 Several foreign researchers have purchased gama tings, e.g., building facades or fences, throughout the when known. in my company when I introduced them to Aksu- Tigrai Regional State. 4 In January 2014, I saw several Ethiopian-style mite artists who create wedding paintings. In April 46 Liq Berhanat Berhane, interview with the author, chromolithographs that appeared to have been pro- 2016, I was told that the IES Museum had gama in Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. duced from images created on a computer. its collection; however, the example I was shown had 47 is is the Amharic term for the engraved metal 5 When I rst met Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre been painted in Addis Ababa and depicted a wedding pitchers imported for centuries from the Arabian Iyasus in 2002, one wall in his home was covered by banquet scene. It closely resembled examples of “con- Peninsula into Ethiopia as luxury goods. (e Tigrinya a massive painting depicting the nine saints credited temporary painting in traditional style” sold in tourist term is diskuskusti.) Made of brass or bronze, they with expanding the EOC in the h century. e shops and was unlike any gama I had ever seen. held ts’bel (holy water) or water to wash the hands and work had been commissioned by a local farmer who 27 An esteemed academic and accountant, Professor feet of guests. Although few are still extant in private planned to donate it to his church. When famine Johannes Kinfu (1936–2017) also studied gama. Born households, several museums in Ethiopia, including struck northern Ethiopia that year, the farmer’s crops in Aksum, Professor Johannes was interested in many the Dessie Museum, have examples of kuskust in their failed and he was unable to purchase the painting, of the city’s cultural traditions, including gold-smithing, collections. Today, such pitchers are made of plastic. leaving the artist to nd another buyer. which was his father’s profession. To the best of my 48 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview 6 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interviews knowledge, his gama research was never published, with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31 and April although he gave a public talk on gama at Addis Ababa 49 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the 1, 2016. University in February 2010 as part of a lecture series author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. 7 Chief of the Chosen Ones. organized by the Society of Friends of the IES. 50 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview 8 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the 28 Given the painting’s location high on a wall, I was with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. unable to read its inscription; however, if one assumes 51 Amharic for “committee”; Derg was the term 9 Ato refers to a man who does not hold another that the woman was approximately 15 years old at the generally used to refer to the military government of title, whether military, noble, professional, or religious. time of her wedding, the painting would likely have Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, which ruled Ethiopia 10 Deacon. been created in the late 1930s through late 1940s. from 1974–1991. 11 Ato Berhanemeskel Fisseha and Deakon Ephrem 29 Liq Berhanat Berhane, interview with the author, 52 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the Berhanemeskel, interview with the author, Aksum, Aksum, Ethiopia, November 3, 2009. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. Ethiopia, November 2, 2009. 30 Wayzero Likeyelshi Belay Gessesse, interview 53 Our Lady Mary of Zion, i.e., the Virgin Mary, 12 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. Saint Mary. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. Wayzero Likeyelshi’s husband Ato Tilahun purchased a 54 Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was Imam of the 13 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview gama for their marriage in 1966, but it was damaged by Sultanate of Adal in the early sixteenth century, from with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. a leaking roof and is no longer extant. approximately 1527–1543. He was dubbed Ahmed 14 See Peer and Cameron 2013 for an engaging 31 Dejazmatch is a military title corresponding to Gragn, meaning Ahmed the Le-Handed, by the Abys- consideration of portrait photography throughout the general, although some scholars have translated it as sinian forces he defeated. See also Munro-Hay 1991; African continent. equivalent to “commander” or “count.” Phillipson 1998: 27–28, 115. 15 To the best of my knowledge, even given the 32 Wayzero Likeyelshi Belay Gessesse, interview 55 In 2011, a leak was discovered in the roof of the presence of Judaism in Ethiopia, no connection with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. Chapel of the Tablet. Following a successful fundrais- appears to exist between gama and the Jewish prenup- 33 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the ing eort, a new chapel was constructed to the east tial contract known as a ketubah. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. of the existing structure and consecrated on January 16 Liq Berhanat Berhane, interview with the author, 34 Liq Berhanat Berhane, interview with the author, 28, 2014 (Makins 2011). I have not yet seen the new Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. Aksum, Ethiopia, November 3, 2009. Chapel of the Tablet represented in gama. 17 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the 35 More than eighty-ve ethnic groups can be 56 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview

african arts AUTUMN 2018 VOL. 51, NO. 3 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/afar_a_00416 by guest on 27 September 2021 with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. Culture : – . Northeast African Studies (): –. 57 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview Beyene, Gemechu, and Assefa Tolera. . “Marriage Munro-Hay, Stuart. . “Aksum: An African Civili- with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, November 4, 2009. Practices Among the Gidda Oromo, Northern Wollega, zation of Late Antiquity.” Re’ese Adbarat Debre Selam 58 I travelled to Aksum twice in 2009 but not again Ethiopia.” Nordic Journal of African Studies (): –. Kidest Mariam e Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido until March and April 2016, and to Addis Ababa in Religion Church, http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandli- 2011, 2014, and 2015. During each visit, I was struck Biasio, Elisabeth. . “Contemporary Ethiopian treature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf by the rise in prices for most goods and services and by Paintings in Traditional Style: ‘Traditional’, ‘Folk’, or how oen friends and colleagues shared stories about ‘Popular’ Art?” Paper presented at the ird Interna- Pankhurst, Richard K.P. . A Social History of the high cost of rent and other commodities. tional Conference on the History of Ethiopian Art, Ethiopia: e Northern and Central Highlands from 59 Ato Mulugeta Gebrekidan, interview with the Addis Ababa. Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Tewodros author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. II. Trenton: Red Sea Press. Biasio, Elisabeth. . “Contemporary Ethiopian 60 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the Painting in Traditional Style: From Church-based to Peer, John, and Elisabeth L. Cameron, eds. . author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. Tourist Art.” African Arts ( ): –. Portraiture and Photography in Africa. Bloomington: 61 Wayzero Abeba Teklemariam, interview with the Indiana University Press. author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. When asked Chojnacki, Stanislaw. July . “Short Introduction to the same question, other artists, shopkeepers, and Ethiopian Traditional Painting.” Journal of Ethiopian Phillipson, David. W. . Ancient Ethiopia: Aksum: gama owners responded similarly. Studies (): – . Its Antecedents and Successors. London: British Museum Press. 62 Liq Heeruyan Gebre Wahid, interview with the Endeg, Kindeneh. . “Religious Bumper Stickers author, Aksum, Ethiopia, May 10, 2005. and Emergent Sectarian Discourse on the Public Rosen, Felix. . Eine deutsche Gesandtscha in 63 For example, when Wayzero Beyenesh Weleab- Space: e Case of Dessie and Addis Ababa /Prelimi- Abessinien. Leipzig: Verlag von Veit. zgi’s house was renovated, the gama it contained was nary Notes.” In Zelalem Teferra (ed.), Proceedings of the Sher, Alvin. . “Signage as Folk Art in Ethiopia and damaged and removed from the wall before being Second Annual Workshop of the Institute of Ethiopian Eritrea.” Northeast African Studies (): –. discarded. Interview, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, Studies May , , pp. –. Addis Ababa: Institute 2016. See also fn. 30. of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University. Silverman, Raymond A. . “Qes Adamu Tesfaw—A 64 To the best of my knowledge, she is the rst Priest Who Paints: Painting in the Ethiopian Orthodox Fafchamps, Marcel, and Agnes R. Quisumbing. . woman artist to paint her own gama. Church.” In Raymond Silverman (ed.), Ethiopia: “Marriage, Bequest, and Assortative Matching in Rural 65 Ato Ephrem Semera, interview with the author, Traditions of Creativity, pp. –, –. Seattle: Ethiopia.” Economic Development and Cultural Change Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. University of Washington Press. 66 Wayzero Selamawit Berhane, interview with the (): –. Silverman, Raymond A. . Painting Ethiopia: e author, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. Henze, Paul B. . Layers of Time: A History of Life and Work of Qes Adamu Tesfaw. Los Angeles: 67 Liq Berhanat Berhane Gebre Iyasus, interview Ethiopia. New York: St. Martin’s Press. with the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, June 25, 2009. UCLA Fowler Museum. Johnson, Edwin Hamilton. . “Patronage of Con- 68 Wayzero Teshaitu Reda, interview with the Silverman, Raymond A. . “Ethiopian Orthodox temporary Ethiopian Orthodox Painters.” In Birhanu author, Aksum, Ethiopia, November 4, 2009. Visual Culture in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Teferra and Richard Pankhurst (eds.), Proceedings of 69 Video footage is edited and then transferred A Research Note.” Material Religion ( ): - . to families in a format that can be viewed using the the Sixth International Conference on the History of technology they have accessible at home. For many Ethiopian Art, Addis Ababa, – November , pp. Simmons, Briana B. . “Christian Chromolitho- years, wedding videos were produced on VHS cassette –. Addis Ababa: Institute of Ethiopian Studies, graphs in Ethiopia.” African Arts ( ): –. Addis Ababa University. tapes; today, DVDs or ash drives may also be used, Sobania, Neal, and Raymond A. Silverman. . while families with computers may receive digital les Johnson, Edwin Hamilton. . Patronage and the “Patrons and Artists in Highland Ethiopia: Contem- of their wedding videos. eological Integrity of Ethiopian Orthodox Sacred porary Practice in the Commissioning of Religious 70 According to sta at the ticket booth for the Paintings in Present Day Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PhD Painting and Metalwork.” In Siegbert Uhlig (ed.), northern stelae eld, admission is tiered: 1–5 Ethiopi- thesis, London: School of Oriental and African Studies. Proceedings of the XVth International Conference of ans = 4 ETB each; 6–10 = 3 ETB each; 11–20 = 2 ETB Ethiopian Studies, pp. –. Wiebaden: Harrassowitz. each; 21+ = 1 ETB each. Foreigners pay a signicantly Kebede, Yilma. March . “Yädabbo sәm, A Wedding higher rate. Interview, Aksum, Ethiopia, April 1, 2016. Custom in Ethiopia.” Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi Sobania, Neal, and Raymond A. Silverman. . 71 Wayzerit Million Berhane, interview with the e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africa e “Icons of Devotion/Icons of Trade: Creativity and author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. l’Oriente ( ): – . Entrepreneurship in Contemporary ‘Traditional’ Ethi- opian Painting.” African Arts ( ): –. 72 Ato Temesgen Gebrekidan, interview with the Kelly, Clint. . “Scholar in Chains.” Response, http:// author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. spu.edu/depts/uc/response/new/ -summer/fea- Sobania, Neal, and Raymond A. Silverman. forthcom- 73 Ato Temesgen Gebrekidan, interview with the tures/scholar-in-chains.asp ing. Icons of Devotion/Icons of Trade: Contemporary author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. Painting and the Orthodox Church in Ethiopia. 74 Ato Ma’areg Mesn Gebrehiwot, interview with Makins, Tim. . “Lost Ark of the Covenant to Be the author, Aksum, Ethiopia, March 31, 2016. Moved to a New Location.” Gnome Planet, http://www. Teklemichael, Makda. . “Contemporary Women gnomeplanet.com/articles/ark_of_the_covenant.php Artists in Ethiopia.” African Arts ( ): –. References cited Mengesha, Astair G.M., Solomon Deressa, and Yeshi Ullendorf, Edward. . e Ethiopians: An Introduction Emabet Imagnu. . “e Context of Ethiopian Wed- to Country and People. London: Oxford University Press. Augustyniak, Zuzanna. . “Marriages in Ethiopia.” dings in North American: Ritualized Communication.” Studies of the Department of African Languages and

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