Appendix: Tables

Table 2.1 Men's occupations, Katsina City, 1971

Occupation* Wak. Wak. Wak. Wak. Total Gabas** Arewa*** Kudu Yamma Long-distance traders 201 277 350 263 1091 Tailors 54 216 354 230 854 Dyers - 180 140 138 458 Koranic scholars 53 170 73 159 455 Builders 93 98 84 86 361 Middlemen 34 119 30 137 320 Butchers 21 22 21 183 247 Barbers 39 27 48 35 149 Weavers 5 4 92 34 135 Blacksmiths 14 6 40 60 120 Jewellers - - 20 64 84 Tanners - 3 - 76 79 Leather workers 3 23 - 47 73 Drummers 24 - - 8 32 Potters - - - 3 3 Sub-total 541 1145 1252 1523 4461 Other workers 1834 138 733 178 2883 Total 2375 1283 1985 1701 7344 Notes: * All occupations in the Tax Lists are included. The occupational categories employed are direct translations fromth e Hausa. ** Includes Yarinci. The high proportion of non-specified occupations, i.e., non-craft or other than those above (more than 75%) reflects the non- traditional orientation of the area. Wakilin Gabas shares with Wakilin Kudu administration of the Sabon Layi area, in which the majority of non- indigenes in the city have resided. *** Includes Marina. The area of Wakilin Arewa covers parts of both Haben Bimi and Fada, including some wards near the Friday market. Source: Extracted from Tax Assessment Lists.

377 378 Appendix

Table 2.2 Men's occupations, Yarinci and Marina, 1971*

Yarinci Marina Occupation** No. of men % of men No. of men % of men Salaried worked 70 52.6 18 7.6 Koranic scholar 17 12.8 14 5.9 Trader: Market trader 2 1 197 -| Foodstuff seller 1 I Shop owner 4 > 9.8 9 i* 30.5 Petty trader 4 8 f f m Other trader 2" . 19 JI Dyer - J - 31 13.1 Builder/ cement worker 8 6.0 31 13.1 Tailor/ embroiderer 2 1.5 22 9.3 Other occupation 22* 16.5 33** 14.0 No employment*** - - 5 2.1 No information 1 0.7 10 4.2 Total 133 99.9 236 99.8 Notes: * Includes all married and non-married men, and all unmarried men 25 or older. ** Shows the single most important year-round economic activity of each man. t All salaried employees and pensioners are included here. tt Includes a tobacco seller and a shop assistant. Includes 2 shop assistants, 4 long-distance traders, and traders in cloth (5), used clothes (3), calabashes (3), henna (1) and livestock (1). Includes 6 servants, 3 carpenters, 2 washermen, and 2 gardeners. Also one mechanic, driver, contractor, bicycle repairman, caretaker, palace worker, gambler, thief, and a man seeking employment. Includes 5 washermen, 5 praise singers, 3 barbers, 3 gardeners, 3 bicycle repairmen, 2 drivers, 2 blacksmiths, and 2 watchmen. Also one lorry owner, contractor, carpenter, palace worker, caretaker, market labourer, beggar, and gambler. Most men engage in some work, switching to less arduous employment when forced to do so by age or illness. Tables 379

Table 2.3 Number of wives per husband, Yarinci and Marina, 1971

Yarinci Marina Number of wives No. of men % of men No. of men % of men One wife 88 71.0 169 77.2 Two wives 18* 14.5 38** 17.4 Three wives 14t 11.3 11 5.0 Four wives 4tt 3.2 1 0.5 Total 124 100.0 219 100.1 Notes: * Two men had a silkiti (non-coresidential) marriage with one of their wives. One woman lived and worked outside Katsina City; the other was maintained by her husband outside Yarinci. ** Three men had one of their two wives living outside the ward. f Two men had a silkiti marriage with one of their three wives. Each of these two women lived in her own house, one within Yarinci and one outside the ward. tt One man maintained three of his four wives outside Yarinci. 380 Appendix

Table 2.4 Position in compound of adult men, Yarinci and Marina, 1971*

Yarinci Marina Position No. of %of No. of %of men men men men Compound head 86 64.7 176 74.6 Related to male compound head: Son 14 Brother, same father and mother** Brother, same father, different mother 20.8 Brother, same mother, different father Other kin tie ;}"Is Unrelated to male compound head: Malam 5 ^ Client or servant*** 8 M1.3 Other tie 1 0.8 Free accommodation 1 J ; } Related to female compound head: Son 1.5 1.3 Other kin tie * } Unrelated to female compound head: Client or servant 3.8 1.3 Free accommodation No compound head: Rental 12 11.3 1.3 Free accommodation 3 } Total 133 100.1 236 100.1 Notes: * Includes all married men and non-married men, and all unmarried men 25 years old or more, in both wards. ** In two compounds, one in each ward, the junior brother was compound head. In both cases, the senior brother was over sixty and wifeless. *** Includes five servants of the Emir, living in his houses. Tables 381

Table 4.1 Categories of women, Yarinci and Marina

Yarinci Marina Category No. % No. % Married women, living with their husbands 176 63.8 279 68.7 Married women, residing away from their husbands 11 4.0 12 3.0 Non-married women 35 12.7 41 10.1 Old women 46 16.7 58 14.3 Other women 8 2.9 16 3.9 Total 276 100.1 406 100

Table 4.2 Residential ties of non-married women, Yarinci and Marina*

Yarinci Marina Tie No. of % of No. of % of women women women women Compound head 5 14** t 4 10 Living with kin: Both parents 3 Mother 40 9 } 41 Father •3 1J 5 J Other kin 11 31 18 44 Living with affines 1 3 1 2 Other residential ties: Living with patroness 1 11 2 Free accommodation ;} } Total 35 99 41 99 Notes: * Includes all non-married women in the two wards at the time of the initial survey. ** All percentages rounded to the nearest integer. 382 Appendix

Table 4.3 Position in compound of older women, Yarinci and Marina*

Yarinci Marina Position No. of % of No. of %of women women women women Compound head 14 30** 28 47 Related to male compound head: Mother 5 1 14 1 Mother's co-wife 1 y 22 5 Y 37 Other kin 4 J 3 j Unrelated to male compound head: Client or servant 5 - - Free accommodation*** 1 }» 2 3 Related to female compound head 6 13 1 2 Unrelated to female compound head: Client 1 - - Free accommodation 2 } > 1 2 No compound head: Renting 2 1 8 Sharing free accommodation 5 } » 4 y Total 46 100 59 99 Notes: * Includes all women in this category in both wards at the time of initial interview. ** All percentages rounded to the nearest integer. *** If one agrees with Mauss that no gift is free, and that all gifts demand some response, then one might reject the notion of free' accommodation, and prefer to classify the recipients as clients of the donor. However, in some cases, any form of reciprocity other than respect and gratitude seems so unlikely that this category is introduced here. Nor would the occupants see themselves as clients of the compound head except in the very widest sense of the term. Tables 383

Table 4.4 Occupations of non-married women* and older women* in relation to age, Yarinci

Occupation Age Total 14-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+

Preparation and sale of snacks - 2 1 4 15 22 Petty trade 2 2 Embroidery, knitting, sewing 1 1 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning - 2 2 Services, e.g. grinding and pounding 1 2 2 5 10 Salaried employment 1 1 - 1 1 4 Other occupation*** - - 3 1 3 7 No occupation 2 3 1 - 7 13 Total 4 9 7 6 35 61 Notes: * Only women included in the intensive survey whose age and occupation were known are shown here. The 26 non-manied women represent about 74% of the non-married women in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 35 older women represent about 76% of the older women in the ward. *** Includes two hairstylists, two messengers, a midwife, a water seller, and one woman seeking employment. 384 Appendix

Table 4.5 Occupations of non-married women* and older women* in relation to age, Marina

Occupation Age Total 14-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+

Preparation and sale of snacks 1 3 4*** 5 13 Petty trade - - - - 3*** 3 Embroidery, knitting, sewing 1 1 2 Services, e.g. grinding and pounding 1 1 2 Preparation and sale of meals 1 3 4 Large-scale foodstuff processing - - 1 - 1 2 Large-scale trade in one or a few items 2 2 Other occupation* 1 2 - - 5 8 No occupation 3 3 - - 6 12 Total 5 7 6 5 25 48

Notes: * The 23 non-mam'ed women shown here represent about 56% of the non-mam'ed women in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 25 older women represent about 43% of the older women in the ward. *** Includes one woman selling at the market. f Each of the three non-married women assisted her mother with her trade. The older women include two praise singers, two water sellers, and a midwife. Tables 385

Table 4.6 Occupations of women in silkiti marriage, Yarinci" and Marina**

Yarinci Marina Occupation Age*** Total Age Total 35-49 50+ 30-49 50+

Preparation and sale of snacks 1 1 2 2 3 5 Petty trade - 2 2 1 - 1 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning - 1 1 - - - Preparation and sale of meals - - - - 1 1 Large-scale trade in one or a few items - 1 1 - 1 1 Salaried employment 2 1 3 - - - Other occupation* - 1 1 - 2 2 Total 3 7 10 3 7 10 Notes: * The 10 Yarinci women comprise all but one of the women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 10 Marina women comprise all but two women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. *** Age categories are telescoped here because of the small sample, and the absence of very young women among silkiti wives. f Includes a water seller in Yarinci, and a fortune teller and a caretaker in Marina. u > O N 0 Tables^ 3 385 t 1 1 Table 4.6 Occupations of women in silkiti marriage,7 Yarinci" and 3 2 - - Marina** Othe r Yarinci Marina countries* * Occupation Age*** Total Age Total 1 1 2 2 4 35-49 50+ - 30-49 50+ 1 0 Othe r Preparation and sale of states * snacks 1 1 2 2 3 5 Petty trade - 2 2 1 - 1 1 2 2 7 8 1 2 3 2 Stat e

Traditional crafts, e.g. Sokot o spinning Elsewher e - 1 1 - - - Preparation and sale of meals 1 1 1 9 - 2 - - - 4 - 1 3 Kan o 2 9 Large-scale trade in one Stat e or a few items - 1 1 - 1 1 Salaried employment 2 1 3 - - - i n 1 Other occupation* 1 1 1 1 2 2 5 - 2

- - - Stat e

Total Kadun a 3 7 10 3 7 10 Elsewher e Notes: * The 10 Yarinci women comprise all but one of the women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 10 Marina women comprise all but two women in silkiti marriages %o f fro m 75 % 75 % 58 % 66 % 69 % 64 % wome n in the ward at thKatsin a e time of the initial interview.

*** Age categories arProvince** * e telescoped here because of the small sample, and the absence of very young women among silkiti wives. f

Plac e o f origin * Includes a water seller in Yarinci, and a fortune teller and a caretaker 1 2 5 5 in Marina. - 4 1 7 Daur a Emirat e 6 3 2 1 1 5 2 3 4 8 Katsin a Province* * 13 5 Katsin a Emirat e 8 3 2 - - 4 1 7 Cit y Katsin a 1 2 8 5 7 0 2 0 2 0 4 5 m Tota l 252 no . o f wome n Place of origin o f karuwa i and length time in karuwanc prio r t o it s creatio n a separat e state . ** * Percentage ar rounde d th neares integer Include Nige Stat ( 4 tota l tim e spen t i n karuwanci was ascertained , an d represent s hal f (49.5% ) th numbe r o karuwai Katsin a time th e initia l survey . woma n from Saud i Arabi a wa s bo m Kazaure , Kan o State an d accompanie he r parent pilgrimag e t wher e sh gre w up . Sh returne d t o Nigeri a fo r he marriage , an remaine i n Nigeria ** * Include s al l karuwai who m women) , Bom o (2) Bauch i Gongol a (1) an d Platea u . * Include s Republi c f Nige r (6 ) Saud Arabi Th e 1- 2 year s 3 month s 3- 6 month s 3- 4 year s 7-1 1 month s Lengt h o f Les s tha n karuwanci m tim e i n 5 year s o r mor e Table 5.1 Notes: * Wher e place s o f birt h an d rearin g differed , th latte r wa use fo thi followin table . Tabl reflect Katsin a Tota l Tables 387

Table 5.2 Place of origin of Karuwai

Place of origin No. of women % of total Katsina City 20 | 5.8 Katsina Emirate }f D^TZLS5K* 19iS2 }Y? " 2311 55.55.s^5 f} 66.8 Daura Emirate J 19 JJ 5.5 J Elsewhere in Kaduna State 7 2.0 Kano State 41 11.9 Sokoto State 37 10.7 Other states** 14 4.0 Other countries*** 16 4.6 Total 346* 100.0 Notes: * Table reflects Katsina prior to its creation as a separate state. ** States include Bomo (6 women), Bauchi (4), Gongola (2), Plateau (1), andBenue(1). *** Republic of Niger (15 women); Saudi Arabia (1 woman). * These women comprised two-thirds (68%) of the total population of karuwai in Katsina City at the timeo f the initial survey. Tables 385

Table 4.6 Occupations of women in silkiti marriage, Yarinci" and Marina**

Yarinci Marina Occupation Age*** Total Age Total 35-49 50+ 30-49 50+

Table 5.4 Age at entry into karuwanci

Age at entry into karuwanci Number of women % of total 10-14 32 12.5 15-19 112 43.9 20-24 72 28.2 25-29 28 11.0 30-34 8 3.1 35-39 1 0.4 40-44 2 0.8 Total 255* 99.9

Note: * Non--response came mainly from some of the older karuwai who would not admit to practising karuwanci. Their inclusion might increase somewhat the minimal numbers in the categories of older women. This table is based on available data from karuwai included in Table 5.3.

Table 5.5 Marriages contracted prior to beginning karuwanci

Marriages before beginning Number of women % of total karuwanci None* 1 0.4 One 111 43.4 Two 101 39.5 Three 29 11.3 Four 8 3.1 Five 5 2.0 Six 1 0.4 Total 256 100.0

Note: * The one never-married woman was a Jaba woman from Southern Zaria in Kaduna State. 390 Appendix

Table 7.1 Additional occupations among karuwai Occupation Total in 14-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 or occupation more Petty trader (cigarettes, kola...) 24 5 8 8 1 2 Waitress in bar/hotel 6 1 5 Food preparation: Yam, rice, soup, etc. 3 _ 3 _ Tuwo 4 - - 3 1 - Cooked snacks 6 - 2 2 2 - Assistant 2 1 1 - - - Hairdresser 3 - 3 - - - Baby nurse 1 - - 1 - - Mattress seller 1 - 1 - - - Total 50 7 20 17 4 2 % in each age category 100% 14.0% 40.0% 34.0% 8.0% 4.0% % of total age group* with subsidiary occupation 9,6% 14.9% 34.0% 50.0% 66.7% Note: * See Table 5.3 for total numbers in each age category. Tables 391

Table 7.2 Relationship of age to number of marriages contracted among karuwai

Age of Total %of Ace. Number of marriages women no. sample % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10-14 2 0.8 0.8 2 15-19 67 28.0 28.8 42 22 3 20-24 79 33.1 61.9 23 37 14 4 1 - - - 25-29 41 17.2 79.1 6 11 18 5 1 - - - 30-34 33 13.8 92.9 3 9 13 2 4 1 - 1 35-39 8 3.3 96.2 - 2 2 3 - 1 - - 40-44 5 2.1 98.2 1 - - 3 - 1 - - 45-49 3 1.3 99.6 2 1 - 50 or 1 0.4 100.0 1 - more Total 239* 79 81 50 17 6 3 2 1 %in marriage category (total = 100%) 33.1 33.9 20.9 7.1 2.5 1.3 0.8 0.4 Note: * Includes all respondents for whom detailed and accurate marital histories could be compiled. The table is presented in the same format as Tables 8.4 and 8.5 concerning Yarinci and Marina women respectively, with which it can be compared. 392 Appendix

Table 7.3 Relationship of age to marriages contracted by Yarinci women, Marina women, and karuwai*

Age of women Total no. Marriages contracted (%) of women 1 2 3 4 or more Yarinci 10-14 4 100** — _ — 15-19 21 67 29 - 5 20-24 28 75 21 - 4 25-29 19 68 32 - - 30-34 22 68 23 9 - 35-39 22 32 50 14 5 40-44 10 50 30 - 20 45-49 13 31 31 15 23 50 or more 16 50 38 13 - Marina 10-14 4 75 25 - - 15-19 34 85 15 - - 20-24 29 72 24 - 3 25-29 32 59 25 13 3 30-34 16 63 6 19 13 35-39 28 75 18 7 - 40-44 16 56 31 - 13 45-49 9 67 22 11 - 50 or more 21 48 24 10 19 Karuwai 10-14 2 100 - - - 15-19 67 63 33 5 - 20-24 79 29 47 18 6 25-29 41 15 27 44 15 30-34 33 9 27 39 24 35-39 8 - 25 25 50 40-44 5 20 - - 80 45-49 3 67 - - 33 50 or more 1 - - - 100 Notes: * This table is based on information presented in Tables 8.4 (Yarinci), 8.5 (Marina), and 7.2 (karuwai). ** Shows percentage of women in each age category with the indicated number of marriages. Percentages are rounded off to the nearest integer. Tables 393

Table 8.1 Duration of first marriage, Yarinci

Length of Total No. Of %of No. of %of No. of %of marriage no. of divorces total extant total deaths total (years) marriages (N=65) marriages (N=70) (N=19) Less thanl 16 12 18.5 4 5.7 1-1.9 6 2 " 3 ""1 1 •1 2-2.9 8 4 4 > 24.6 > 12.9 > 5.3 3-3.9 8 4-4.9 4 4 m 1 — «*I —~ *J 5-9.9 35 17 26.2 16 22.9 2 10.5 10-14.9 25 9 13.8 10 14.3 6 31.6 15-19.9 24 7 10.8 14 20.0 3 15.8 20 or 28 4 6.2 17 24.3 7 36.8 more Total 154* 65 100.1 70 100.1 19 100.0 Note: * The 154 women from whom the above information was elicited represented 55.8% of the ever-mam'ed women in the ward at the time of the initial survey. 394 Appendix

Table 8.2 Duration of first marriage, Marina

Length of Total No. of %of No. of %of No. of %of marriage no. of divorces total extant total deaths total (years) marriages (N=63) marriages (N=110) (N=23) Less thanl 22 19 30.2 3 2.7 1-1.9 10 4 m 5 "1 1 •1 2-2.9 8 2 5 1 > 25.4 16,4 7 3-3.9 12 r 4-4.9 6 4 m1 2 *J — mrJ 5-9.9 31 13 20.6 17 15.5 1 4.3 10-14.9 36 8 12.7 24 21.8 4 17.4 15-19.9 16 3 4.8 11 10.0 2 8.7 20 or 55 4 6.3 37 33.6 14 60.9 more Total 196* 63 100.0 110 100.0 23 100.0 Note: * The 196 women from whom the above information was obtained represent almost half (48.3%) of the ever-married women in the ward at the time of the initial survey. Tables 395

Table 8.3 Relationship of foster children to foster parents

Number of Number of children, children, Yarinci Marina Consanguineal tie to fostering woman Sister 1 3 Sister's daughter 6 4 Sister's son 1 - Sister's grandson - 1 Brother 1 - Brother's daughter 4 2 Brother's son 3 - Brother's granddaughter - 1 Brother's grandson 1 - Daughter's daughter 5 3 Daughter's son - 1 Son's daughter 6 3 Son's son 2 3 Great granddaughter 1 2 Other relation (female child) 3 1 Affinal tie to fostering woman Husband's brother's daughter 1 2 Husband's brother's son 2 1 Husband's son's daughter 1 - Husband's son's son 1 - Husband's father's brother's daughter 1 - Husband's father's brother's son 1 - Other or no tie to fostering woman Foster daughter's daughter 3 - Orphan girl 1 - Orphan boy 1 - Total 46 27

Relationships to fostering man Sister - 1 Son's son - 1 Orphan boys 4 - Total 4 2 396 Appendix

Table 8.4 Relationship of age to number of marriages contracted by women, Yarinci*

Age of Total %of Ace. Number of marriages women number sample % 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more 10-14 4 2.6 2.6 4 - - - - - 15-19 21 13.5 16.1 14 6 - 1 - - 20-24 28 18.1 34.2 21 6 - 1 - - 25-29 19 12.3 46.5 13 6 - - - - 30-34 22 14.2 60.7 15 5 2 - - - 35-39 22 14.2 74.9 7 11 3 1 - - 40-44 10 6.5 81.4 5 3 - 1 - 1 45-49 13 8.4 89.8 4 4 2 - 1 2** 50-54 5 3.2 93.0 3 2 - - - - 55-59 1 0.6 93.6 1 - - - - - 60 or more 10 6.5 100.1 4 4 2 - - - Total 155 91 47 9 4 1 3 %in marriage category 99.9% 58.7% 30.3% 5.8% 2.6% 0.6% 1.9% Notes: * Based on data collected in the initialI survey. Includes one woman with eight marriages. Tables 397

7aWe 8.5 Relationship of age to number of marriages contracted by women, Marina*

Age of Total % of Ace. Number of marriages women number sample % 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more 10-14 4 2.1 2.1 3 1 - - - - 15-19 34 18.0 20.1 29 5 - - - - 20-24 29 15.3 35.4 21 7 - - - 1 25-29 32 16.9 52.3 19 8 4 - 1 - 30-34 16 8.5 60.8 10 1 3 1 - 1 35-39 28 14.8 75.6 21 5 2 - - - 40-44 16 8.5 84.1 9 5 - 2 - - 45-49 9 4.8 88.9 6 2 1 - - - 50-54 7 3.7 92.6 2 3 - 1 1 - 55-59 3 1.6 94.2 2 - 1 - - - 60 or more 11 5.8 100.0 6 2 1 - 2 - Total 189 128 39 12 4 4 2 %in marriage category 99.9% 67.7% 20.6% 6.3% 2.1% 2.1% 1.1% Note: Based on data collected in the initial survey. 398 Appendix

Table 8.6 Relationship of age to number of marriages contracted by men, Yarinci*

Age of Total %of Ace. Number of marriages men no. sample % 1234567 8

20-24 1 1.1 1.1 1 25-29 5 5.7 6.8 4 1 30-34 12 13.8 20.6 7 1 3 — 35-39 8 9.2 29.8 6 1 1 40-44 16 18.4 48.2 5 4 4 1 2 45-49 14 16.1 64.3 2 4 1 3 1 1 1 1 50-54 12 13.8 78.1 5 3 3 1 - 55-59 9 10.3 88.4 1 2 2 2 - 2 60-64 7 8.0 96.4 - 3 1 2 1 65-69 1 1.1 97.5

Table 8.7 Relationship of age to number of marriages contracted by men, Marina*

Age of Total %of Ace. Number of marriages men no. sample % 1 2 3 4 5 6 20-24 2 1.6 1.6 1 1 25-29 15 11.7 13.3 13 1 - - 1 30-34 23 18.0 31.3 10 10 2 1 - 35-39 15 11.7 43.0 6 6 2 - 1 40-44 28 21.9 64.9 9 6 7 2 1 3 45-49 17 13.3 78.2 7 5 3 2 - 50-54 10 7.8 86.0 2 4 2 1 1 55-59 4 3.1 89.1 2 1 _ 1 _ 60-64 7 5.5 94.6 1 2 - - 2 65-69 1 0.8 95.4 - __ - 1 - 70 or 6 4.7 100.1 1 3 2 - - - more Total 128 52 39 18 8 5 4 %in each category 100.1 40.6 30.5 40.1 6.3 3.9 3.1 Note: * These men represent more than half (54.2%) of the ever-married men in the ward at the timeo f the initial survey. 400 Appendix

Table 8.8 Divorce proceedings, Katsina area courts*

Total %

Divorce sought; granted with no compensation required 222 67.5 Divorce sought; granted on payment of compensation by wife 26 7.9 Divorce sought by husband, with return of his money and goods; granted by court 1 0.3 Divorce sought by wife, with return of her goods; granted by court 7 2.1 Divorce sought on grounds of no maintenance because of husband's continued absence; granted by court 18 5.5 Divorce sought, reconciliation effected 17 5.2 Request for confirmation of divorce; granted by court 6 1.8 Divorce disclaimer (1 case brought by husband) 3 0.9 Incomplete cases 29 8.8 Total (29 100.0 Note: * Cases heard from July 27, 1971 to July 26, 1972. The cases are categorized in terms of purpose or disposition. Tables 385

Table 4.6 Occupations of women in silkiti marriage, Yarinci" and Marina**

Yarinci 1 2 Marina Occupation Age*** Total Age Total 35-49 50+ 30-49 50+

Preparation and sale of 1

snacks 2 3 5 7 3 1 4 1 2 2 3 5 Petty trade - 2 2 5 2 1 - 1 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning - 1 1 - - - Preparation and sale of meals - - - - 1 1 Large-scale trade in one or a Yarinci few items - 1 1 - 1 1 Salaried employment 2 1 3 - - - Other occupation* - 1 1 - 2 2 Total 3 7 10 3 7 10 husbands, Notes: * The 10 Yarinci women comprise all but one of the women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 10 Marina women comprise all but two women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initia8 l interview. *** Age categories are telescoped here because of the small sample, and the absence of very young women among silkiti wives. f Includes a water seller in Yarinci, and a fortune teller and a caretaker in Marina. 2 7 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 3 3 5 5 4 2 1 0 3 of married women living with their 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 activities 3 9 4 o f Wealth y salarie d worker * Othe r worker* trade 1 3 1 9 1 0 1 5 2 3 2 4 120 ' No . wome n Occupatio Non e employe d b y Loca l Authorit an stat e government . survey . Occupational * Earnin g les s tha n £2 0 pe r month . ** * Include s two-third (68.2% ) o f al l mam'e d wome n livin g wit h thei r husband i th e war a t tim initia 9.1 o f Table 10-1 4 15-1 9 Notes: * Include s me n earnin g £2 0 o r mor e i salarie d employment . Thi include almos t al l th aristocrac y ward , wh ar 35-3 9 30-3 4 20-2 4 5 0 o r mor e Ag e 25-2 9 40-4 4 45-4 9 Tota l wome n Tables 385

Table 4.6 Occupations of women in silkiti marriage, Yarinci" and Marina**

Yarinci Marina Occupation Age*** Total Age Total 35-49 50+ 30-49 50+

Preparation and sale of snacks 1 1 2 2 3 5 Petty trade - 2 2 1 - 1 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning - 1 1 - - - Preparation and sale of meals - - - - 1 1 Large-scale trade in one 1 2 or a few items - 1 1 - 1 1 Salaried employment 2 1 3 - - - Other occupation* - 1 1 - 2 2 Total 3 7 10 3 7 10 1 2 3 5 7 3 4 Notes: * The 10 Yarinci women comprise all but one of the women2 5 in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. ** The 10 Marina women comprise all but two women in silkiti marriages in the ward at the time of the initial interview. *** Age categories are telescoped here because of the small sample, and the absence of very young women among silkiti wives. f

Includes a wate Yarinci r seller in Yarinci, and a fortune teller and a caretaker in Marina. husbands, 8 2 7 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 3 3 5 5 4 2 1 0 3 of married women living with their 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 activities Loca l Authorit y an d stat e government . n earnin g £2 0 o r mor e i salarie d employment . Thi s include almos t al l th aristocrac y ward , wh ar tha n £2 0 pe r month . Occupatio n Non e Wealth y salarie d worker * Othe r worker* trade two-third s (68.2% ) o f al l mam'e d wome n livin g wit h thei r husband i th e war a t tim initia Occupational Tables 403

Table 9.3 Occupations of married women living with their husbands in relation to age, Yarinci*

Occupation Age Total 14-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+ Preparation and sale of snacks - 9 16 9 - 34 Petty trade - A** 2 - 1 4 Embroidery, knitting, sewing - - o*** - - 2 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning - 1 3 - - 4 Services, e.g. grinding and pounding 2 3 4 1 - 10 Preparation and sale of meals ------Large-scale foodstuffs processing - 1 - 1 2 4 Large-scale trade in one or a few items - - 1 1 1 3 Salaried employment - - 1 2 - 3 Total 2 15 29 14 4 64 Notes: * Includes all women with occupations shown in Table 9.1. ** At roadside. *** Includes one woman with a sewing machine. 404 Appendix

Table 9.4 Occupations of married women living with their husbands in relation to age, Marina*

Occupation Age Total 14-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+

Preparation and sale of snacks 4 7 9 6 3 29 Petty trade 1 6 3 - P** 12 Embroidery, knitting, sewing 12 23 10 1 - 46 Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning 1 5 1 3 1 11 Services, e.g. grinding and pounding 1 4 3 - 2 10 Preparation and sale of meals - - 1 1 - 2 Large-scale foodstuffs processing - 1 4 6 - 11 Large-scale trade in one or a few items - 4 2 2 1 9 Salaried employment ------Total 19 50 33 19 9 130 Notes: * Includes all women with occupations shown in Table 9.2. ** At roadside. *** Includes one woman with a sewing machine. Tables 405

Table 9.5 Occupations of women in Yarinci* and Marina, ** 1988

Occupation Yarinci Marina Preparation and sale of snacks 26 27 Petty trade 6 19 Embroidery, knitting, sewing - 9*** Traditional crafts, e.g. spinning Services, e.g. grinding and pounding 1 7 Preparation and sale of meals 5 12 Large-scale foodstuff processing - 10 Large-scale trade in one or a few items 6 3 Salaried employment Other 1* 9n No occupation 5 2 Total 50 98 Notes: * Comprises all women included in the 1971-3 married women occupational survey still in Yarinci, for whom later occupation could be established. ** Comprises all women included in the 1971-3 married women occupational survey still in Marina, for whom later occupation could be established. *** All now work with sewing machines. f Koranic teacher. n Includes 4 praise singers, 3 hairdressers, 1 owner of a grinding engine, and 1 adashe organiser. Notes

Chapter 1

1. The Chief Economic Adviser to the President, Chief Philip Asiodu, declared June 1 that the present Nigerian external debt is US $31 billion (Guardian, 2 June 2000). 2. The Naira was introduced in the early 70s, superseding the Nigerian pound, but prices continued to be generally given in pounds for some time; this is reflected in the text. The value of the Nigerian currency, the pound and subsequently the Naira, was maintained by the government until 1984. In ttie course of this diachronic study, the Naira has clearly had vastly different values. Generally, where specific costs or expenses are given, these are compared to other relevant economic benchmarks of that period, such as wages for particular categories of workers, minimum wage, etc., rather than just comparing it to the dollar, or pound. As an indication, however, we note that in 1985, a dollar would buy less than one Naira (.90). When Katsina State was created in September, 1987, the Naira traded at N4.19 to the dollar. In 1992, when the interbank foreign exchange market was deregulated, the Naira moved from N10 to N18 to a dollar. In late 1997, the exchange rate was around N80 to a US dollar; by early 1999, this had reduced to N98 to a dollar. The Naira hovered just above N100 to a dollar for much of 1999 to July, 2000, at which time it lost ground yet again, with the exchange rate dropping to N110 and higher to the dollar. 3. See, e.g., Up Against Foucault, edited by Caroline Ramazanoglu, for a range of contributions from grudging to positive, in relation to Foucault's relevance for feminist theory and action. See also, pari passu, Hekman (1996), Diamond and Quinby (1988), and McNay (1992).

406 Notes 407

4. Relevant here also is Kandiyoti's concept of the 'patriarchal bargain', based on the idea that 'women strategise within a set of concrete constraints', with variation according to class, caste and ethnicity. The concept recognises the historic specificity of such 'bargaining', and its effects on women's subjectivity and on gender ideology (1988:275). 5. This was the import, for example, of the pioneering work of Edwin and Shirley Ardener in the early 1970s (1972 & 1975; 1975), viewing women as a 'muted group'. This concept also relates to much of the excellent work concerning women, and latterly particular categories of women, as marginalised groups. 6. The work on gendered identity and geographies reflects some of these issues. Thus, for example, the notion of territory assumes imposition of control, yet that control is never guaranteed, and there is always 'space' for resistance (Blunt and Rose, 1994:15). 7. Throughout this work, 'non-married' refers to persons formerly but no longer married, and is distinguishable thereby from 'unmarried', referring only to persons who have not yet married.

Chapter 2

1. Local residents spoke of insufficient rain for the seven years preceding and including 1973, a serious drought year. 2. Soils are easily cultivable, and the land can support greater numbers of people. Hill recorded a population density of 1400 persons per square mile in Dorayi, in the Kano close settled zone (1977:77). 3. In both these censuses, urban areas were 'compact units of 5000 persons or more'. Data from the 1991 census other than gross population figures based on Local Government Areas have not been published in widely available fora. 4. It should be noted that Y.B. Usman presents Korau and Muhammadu Korau as the same individual, and places his reign at 1445-1495 AD. He rejects Barth's and subsequent writers' contention of a new dynasty, the Habe, and suggests that the ruling group were rather the diverse but related jikokin Korau, the 'grand children' of Korau (1981:63). 408 Notes

5. Katsina king lists are included, among other sources, in Palmer (1927 and 1928) and in Hogben and Kirk-Greene (1966:181-3). The latter source includes additional information and incorporates corrections advanced by H.F.C. Smith (1961a and b). 6. The political and economic benefits of statehood are described in detail in, e.g., Graf, 1988. With the increase in the number of states, proportional funding from the federal government of course greatly decreased. The 'new' states (all those created after Katsina and Akwa Ibom) received much more limited support from federal funds; some have been very vocal about what they see as inequity of treatment. 7. These include Magajin Gari District, Batagarawa, Batsari, Kaita, Kaura, Dutsi, Mashi, Mani, Bindawa, Tsagero, and Jibiya. 8. In the early 1970s, this area comprised about 40 per cent of the District population. 9. These issues are examined in detail in Pittin (1982, 1983, and 1984a). 10. Results were estimated by the Government Statistician as +/-1% (1931 Census:6), and by the more disinterested Kuczynski as +/- 5% (1948:567). 11. The results were acceptable to some (e.g., Prothero, 1956:181), while others considered them an underestimate (e.g., Olusanya, 1966; R. Cohen, 1971:24-5; Hill, 1977:19) or an overestimate (e.g., Aluko, 1965). 12. Using population projections, the UN estimated Nigeria's population in 1998 to be 115 million. 13. My thanks to Malam Umar Madugu Saude, of the National Population Commission, Katsina, who provided these statistics. 14. A Census Tribunal met in Abuja to hear challenges and disputes concerning the procedures and results of the 1991 census. Given the importance of numbers for revenue allocation, education, development, etc., all cases brought have involved charges of wmfercounting. Some of the cases won at the Tribunal came from Katsina State, although not from Katsina City and environs. 15. Some pronouncements in the 90s sought to ban women selling sexual services from plying their trade within the city gates: these edicts gave impetus to some new neighbourhoods rising outside the walls, but most of the population still remained within the city Notes 409

proper. The new morality laws, pogroms, and destruction associated with the emphasis on Sharia under civilian rule are drastically and dramatically affecting the demographic composition and population of Katsina. This is discussed further in Chapter Three. 16. In order to defray tensions and improve responsiveness and support for the 1991 census process, and to reduce friction and subsequent political fallout, questions concerning ethnicity and religion were not included in the census. 17. 'House Fulani' - settled Fulani, often the scribes and intelligentsia in the Habe states, and the ruling class in most of the post-Jihad emirate. 18. See, e.g., Norval (1996). 19. Many rural roads, on the other hand, are in very poor condition; areas often become inaccessible during the rainy season as roads are washed out or flooded, and repair is slow and frequently inadequate if and when it is carried out. 20. This has remained a source of frustration to business people and shippers; calls for extension of the railway continue to be made {Guardian, 3 May 2000). 21. The term marina can mean either dye pits or dyers, the distinction being dependent on tone. 22. Unfortunately, I was unable to find recent work-related quantitative data comparable to that of the early Tax Assessment lists. 23. A salary increase for civil servants, proposed in September 1998 and subsequently reduced to 3000 Naira/month, was the first formal upward salary revision since the 1992 minimum wage increase to 250 Naira per month. According to the Katsina State Governor, Alhaji Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, payment of the wage and allowances would represent 95% of government revenue. In May, 2000, President Olusegun Obasanjo declared a new minimum wage of 7500 Naira for federal workers, and 5500 Naira for state workers. The minimum for state workers is being contested in many states, including Katsina (Vanguard, 18 June 2000). 24. Women's occupations are discussed in considerable detail in subsequent chapters, and so are excluded here. 25. The Katsina aristocracy is composed primarily of persons whose status is ascribed by birth, and predicated upon genealogical ties 410 Notes

with the Emir (sarki) and/or certain of the District Heads (hakimai). As there is considerable intermarriage within the ruling class, most persons in the aristocracy trace multiple links with other members of this socio-political class. 26. See, e.g., Hill (1972:71-5, 1977:119-21); M.G. Smith (1959:248); andYeld(1960:117-18). 27. Only two were listed as wealthy men (tajirai) in the tax lists, however. Men in this category are subject to personal income tax. 28. Besides pressures of limited time, resources, and assistance, there were several reasons that not all compounds were included. In some compounds, results were contradictory, conflicted with other received information, or data were known to be incorrect on other grounds. Even the boundaries of the wards ebbed and flowed, depending upon the source of information, or upon the tax list utilized. 29. Using composite figures (from Federal Government and World Bank sources) for seven states, including Katsina State, Bala Usman notes that infant and child mortality, and under-nutrition, are higher in this area than in the rest of Nigeria (Usman, 1994:12- 13). The Katsina medical system is now in dire straits. A specialist hospital started in 1990 is yet to be completed due to lack of funds, and patients generally are suffering from the lack of drugs and diagnostic and therapeutic equipment in government hospitals. Doctors in Katsina went on strike in 1996 and threatened mass resignation if they did not receive promised better conditions of service, and if hospital facilities were not improved and subventions for patients and maintenance of ambulances, etc., increased. At the time of the strike, it was reported that there was, for example, not a single incubator in any of the state hospitals (Guardian, 24 June 1996). In 1998, the General Manager of the Katsina State Hospital Management Board admitted that only 85 out of the 6000 doctors required for the state's medical institutions were in state service (Guardian, 29 January 1998). 30. The terms 'adult' and 'child' are often fairly carelessly bandied about. Given the different meanings and implications of these terms in different cultures and contexts in relation, e.g., to welfare provisions, labour law, schooling, and marriage, it Notes 411

is important to include some explanatory comment concerning what age or what criteria connote adulthood for females and males. 31. See, e.g., for rural Zaria, Norman (1974:6); the Kano close-settled zone: Mortimore and Wilson, (1965:31); the Sokoto close-settled zone: Goddard, Fine and Norman (1971:9). 32. This was demonstrated also by Wallace in her study of part of the population affected by a large-scale Kano irrigation project: 40 per cent of the married men in the study had more than one wife (Wallace, 1978:28). 33. The figures established by Hill, for example, for Batagarawa and the Kano close-settled zone, are closer to the Marina results (1972:23,1977:114). 34. Distinct from, e.g., processing of farm produce, which may be carried out by family members in the compound. 35. Hill points out that in Dorayi in the Kano close settled zone, no compounds were headed by women (personal communication). 36. Windows cannot overlook the inside of another compound, as this would violate the privacy of the residents. And in ground-floor rooms, the compound wall is generally one wall of each room: cross-ventilation is not a priority in traditional housing. 37. At that time, tap water was available only about two hours in the morning and afternoon. 38. In only two of the 359 compounds in Marina and Yarinci was a granary evident. Hill suggests that the presence or absence of the granary may provide a useful distinction between rural and urban settlement (1972:xii). 39. The expression uwar gida (mother of the compound) does not mean female compound head, but rather defines a woman in relation to her husband, as senior wife or sole wife. It is also a polite form of address for any woman. 40. Excluding rather arbitrarily thereby all compounds with foster children, and with non-married daughters who had returned from their husband's house either temporarily or permanently. Inclusion of these would swell the number of families under discussion considerably. 41. More detailed tables for women are included particularly in Chapter Four. 412 Notes

Chapter 3

1. There is a growing literature in this area. One assiduously researched and analysed work is that of J. Kimble (1983), bringing out the ways in which customary law in Southern Africa was modified by colonial intervention, thereby reducing women's mobility, yet how women moved through the interstices of the contradictory legal context. The relations between husbands, kin, local chiefs and colonial authority are meticulously examined and exposed, with the 'dilemma' of female control being passed to the colonial authorities for restrictive legislation, which coincided with colonial interest in increasing men's mobility as migrants. Justified in relation to immorality and the inviolability of the marriage tie, the colonial authorities themselves noted that 'this sort of law [should be kept from] Mrs. Pankhurst [or else] she may break the truce' (cited in Kimble, 1983:16). See also, e.g. L. White (1988 & 1990). 2. H.R. Palmer (1928, vol. 3:133-4), but included also in Hogben and Kirk-Greene, (1972:145-6). This version is from a chronicle of kings (girgam) of Daura. The legend is included in other sources, with variations. Some of these are noted in Hogben and Kirk- Greene (1972:147-51). 3. I have no information regarding the history of Rano. The Biram version of the Bayajida legend maintains that Biram is the 'Father of the Hausa People' through marriage between Diggera and Biram, whose offspring include Daura, the eldest of six children and therefore the senior of the Hausa Seven after Biram (see Hogben and Kirk-Greene, 1966:118 and 484). 4. As, for example, Hogben and Kirk-Greene (1966:217; Heath, 1952:5; E.J. Arnett, 1920), reprinted in Kirk-Greene, 1972:8; Denham and Clapperton (1826:162). The original English translation of Infak al Maisuri by E.J. Arnett, entitled The Rise of the Sokoto Fulani, is difficult to obtain. It is said to be from a Hausa version of the original Arabic manuscript, rather than directly from the Arabic (Whitting, 1951). 5. The quotation by Emir Bello noted above, for example, includes a phrase regarding Amina which has been translated into English variously as 'daughter of the ruler of Zazzau' (Hogben and Kirk- Greene, 1966; Heath, 1952), 'daughter of Sarkin Zakzak [connotes Notes 413

male ruler] (Arnett, op. cit), 'daughter of the Prince of Zag-Zag' (Denham and Clapperton, 1826). The Hausa version from which Heath (1952), at least, takes his translation, actually reads ' 'yar sarauniyar Zazzau' (M. Hassan and M. Shaibu Na'ibi, 1946a:5), which should be translated as 'daughter of the queen of Zazzau'. I am grateful to Mr. A. Kani, then of the Northern History Research Scheme, Ahmadu Bello University, who translated the passage for me in two of the Arabic texts (Whitting, 1951, and Gumi, Cairo Edition, 1964). In both, the Arabic translates as 'daughter of the EmirofZekzek'. 6. The name of Tawa, for example, does not appear in any of the extant king-lists of Gobir. 7. Noted also in Everett, Staudt and Charlton (1989) 8. Bori is generally described as the 'Hausa spirit-possession cult'. I use the term religion rather than cult to retain the authority and strength of the original belief system, and to avoid the pejorative tone and marginalisation often associated with a cult. 9. Bori is an adaptable and accommodating religion. Bori was equally effective in many other states and locales in providing the justification and validation of the ruling group. The pantheon in different areas of Hausa culture varied with local heroes, rulers, etc., while sharing also a core of widely recognised spirits. 10. See M. Hassan and M. Sha'ibu (1946b:20-l) for the spirited defence organised by the royal women of Habe Abuja. Cited also in Heath (1952:63). 11. A kwarya is any calabash. The calabash is turned upside down and drummed; it may be set in water to increase the resonance. A garaya is a stringed instrument which is plucked or strummed. It is topped with a metal strip edged with rings to produce a jingling sound. Other instruments played by men include the goge, also a stringed instrument, and drums. " 'YarC\ meaning children of ..., is a term commonly used to signify 'the people associated with, or who practise (some named activity or thing)'. 12.. In his Ibadan study, Abner Cohen noted also that the majority of the female initiates and supporters of bori were not karuwai, but rather 'respectable' women (1969:58). 13. The patron and prime mover of the 'yan garaya is a man well- known, or perhaps notorious, in Katsina. His actions are often in 414 Notes

conflict with the custom or indeed law of the area, but with his contingent of followers, he commands too much support to be treated high-handedly by the authorities. 14. Support and/or participation in bori is evident in all echelons of Hausa society, among differing classes and in relation to different backgrounds, although the more wealthy and educated are more likely to patronise than participate in bori, if they are involved at all. 15. The benefit derived through ritual by the socially deprived is one of the points stressed in I.M. Lewis, 1971, Chapter Four: 'Strategies of Mystical Attack; Protest and its Containment'. 16. Other politically marginal or marginalised categories of persons active in bori besides women include, for example, transvestites and homosexuals. The participation of karuwai in bori is discussed further in Chapter Six. 17. Perhaps the most evocative description and discussion of the bori spirits is that of A.J.N. Tremearne, writing in 1914. Using the medical analogy, he describes bori performances as 'comparable to innoculation', renderingth e adepts safe from the otherwise evil and dangerous effects of the 'demons' (p. 20). 18. The certificates are said to be signed by the Emir, the District Head of Katsina, and one of the hospital doctors. 19. Usually a verse from the Koran, wrapped in cotton or leather. 20. Katsina has a long-standing reputation in the North as a place where the inhabitants are exceptionally well-versed in the use of charms and magani ('medicine'). For the outsider, this reputation pervades all of kasar Katsina (Katsina Emirate). For the inhabitants, the most feared area is Katsina City, and more especially Haben Birni. 21. 'Panopticon' is a place/structure, which provides an all- encompassing view to the 'overseer'. 22.. The vast majority of Hausa women in Niger remained unsecluded longer than their Nigerian counterparts. However, by the mid- 1970s, seclusion was becoming prevalent particularly in towns and large villages (G. Nicolas, 1975:181). 23. As seclusion is the ideal, the verbal reporting of seclusion by both men and women often far exceeds its practice. In the late 1970s, for example, 87 per cent of male respondents in a rural development project in the neighbouring Kano State reported to a male Notes 415

researcher that their wives were fully secluded. A female researcher working with women in the same project reported that some kinds of on-site farm labour continued to be carried out by the majority of women (J.M. Baba, 1980:1008-9; S. Jackson, 1978:30-32). 24. See Ogunbiyi (1969), for a general discussion of the position of women as propounded by Usman dan Fodio. 25. The excellent work and dossiers of Women Living under Muslim Laws have been providing ongoing access to information and actions affecting women around the world. The organisation has also provided the space for debate and discussion about the meaning and consequences for women, of Muslim precept and law. Other scholarly works provide point and counterpoint of text, interpretation, and effects in relation to particular countries or sects of Islam. Afshar (1995), for example, demonstrated ideology- and gender-differentiated, and sometimes shared, interpretations of responses to Shi'a fundamentalism in Iran. According to one of its members, reconsideration of received religious knowledge is among the intentions of the Nigerian organisation, the Federation of Muslim Women's Associations of Nigeria (FOMWAN), 'to put an end to a situation where Qur'anic verses are misinterpreted by ignorant scholars to legitimize the oppression and humiliation of women' (Yusuf, 1991:102). 26. Smith could not ascertain whether seclusion had any effect upon marital stability, because of the tendency of husbands to declare their wives secluded whether they were or not. In Katsina City, where virtually all women are secluded, there is also no means of measuring the relationship between seclusion and stability of marriage. Helen Abell, working in an area of rural Zaria with both seclusion and non-seclusion, noted that 'The practice of kulle [seclusion] ... was not found to be significantly associated with divorce ...' (1962:25), although it is unclear from her presentation whether the frequently divorcing women had been secluded or unsecluded in their former marriages. 27. Mashi Native Court Case No. 513/507/1964, cited in D.J. Hill (n.d.:318). 28. An expatriate teacher in the Katsina Women's Teachers College once set the girls an assignment which involved going to the city market. The immediate uproar from the girls and from their horrified parents resulted in the hasty withdrawal of the topic. 416 Notes

29. As the aristocracy has had more access to education than others, educated men who do not insist on full seclusion are also often from the same class. Changes in attitudes related to educated women's entry into the modern wage-earning sector are discussed in Chapter Ten. 30. In Pakistan, the members of the Women's Action Forum (WAF), trundling about Karachi in their cars, have become known as the 'Suzuki Sirens' (personal communication, Amrita Chhachhi). 31. This situation strikingly demonstrates how women respond to new initiatives in relation to their own interests, and may use dominant discourse for their particular benefit. 32. The first woman to be given a traditional title in this manner in the North was Hajiya Laila Dogonyaro, 'turbanned' as the Garkuwar Garki in Ringim Emirate in Jigawa State in January, 1994. Hajiya Laila was at that time President of the National Council of Women's Societies. Her husband, Ambassador M.B.G. Dogonyaro, stated at the time that the turbanning 'posed a challenge to other emirates', and that 'it also served as an incentive for other women in the north to work harder' (New Nigerian, 17 January 1994). 33. A formula was worked out so that Northern men would have appropriate voting power in relation to the universal suffrage in the West and the East. 34. The more progressive NEPU (Northern Elements Progressive Union) included women among its members, and political rights for women in its platform, although also couched in terms of religious precept (Imam, 1993). 35. Personal communication, then Senator Alhaji Abba Ali. 36. Unlike some subsequent elections, this was a secret ballot election. 37. Nigeria is a member of the OIC. Originally participating with observer status, Nigeria became a full member in 1986 during the Babangida regime. The country withdrew from full membership following continuing strong protest and objection primarily but not solely from non-Muslim politicians, groups, and organisations. The debate was rekindled in 1997, with Nigeria's participation in preliminary meetings in Istanbul of the 'D-8', a group of Muslim developing countries, and reported formalisation of Nigerian membership in June (Tell, 3 February 1997; Guardian, 9 July 1997). The Sultan of Sokoto publicly confirmed Nigeria's renewed Notes 417

membership in the OIC at a meeting in Nigeria with Pope John Paul II, 22 March, 1998. 38. See especially J. Ibrahim (1991) for a detailed and excellent account of the disturbances, of the questions raised by the selective nature of the activities carried out, and of religious manipulation in the politics of Nigeria. 39. Even the term 'local' needs some modification: there are now many links with sects and schools of Islam (and, for that matter, Christianity) elsewhere, through Nigerians being educated overseas, travelling for religious training, through the presence of foreign clerics in Nigeria, through a barrage of religious treatises and information being sent in, and through funding for particular sects being provided from outside Nigeria. 'Local' relates to the spatial and cultural base through which religious ideology is filtered and reconstructed. 40. All Nigerian organisations are supposed to be registered. The application for registration for Women in Nigeria was not processed for more than a decade, and registration possibly has yet to be completed and the organisation formally recognised (Imam, 1994:138; personal communication, September 1997). 41. Sharia has been used for Muslim personal law for generations, and the Northern penal code was formulated with reference to Muslim law and Muslim sensibilities. However, the state adoption of Sharia extends Sharia to criminal law, and reorients the state in terms of its overarching judicial and ideological framework. 42. The laws to approve and withdraw liquor licenses have been on the books for decades, as have specific provisos concerning licensing in predominantly Muslim areas. What is significant here is the timing of the edict, the virulence of the response to non- compliance, and the extra-judicial and destructive nature of the actions subsequently taken. 43. Throughout the Federation, the fight for and against the Sharia has hinged at least in part on the constitutionality of the adoption of Sharia, and whether or not Sharia violates the spirit and provisions of the Constitution. The most important provision is Section 38: 'The Government of the Federation or of a State shall not adopt any religion as State religion.' Briefly, some of the basic arguments frequently raised are as follows. Those objecting to the introduction of Sharia have stated that: 418 Notes

• Nigeria is a secular state, and no state should support or favour any religion • Adoption of Sharia contravenes Section 38. Sharia becomes a state religion, and the state an Islamic state • The state's legislative, executive and judicial powers cannot be used to enact or codify the criminal aspects of Sharia. To do so is to use state machinery to aid and sponsor Islam in preference to other religions. Even to restrict such laws to Muslims demonstrates the religious nature of the law, and such state-sponsored law is unconstitutional (paraphrased from Guardian, 3 July 2000) • It is illegal to punish Nigerians based on unwritten and uncodified law • Even if such law were codified, it would contravene Section 10 of the Constitution • Cruel and unusual punishment (stoning, lashing, amputation, etc.) is forbidden by the Constitution • The Constitution grants freedom of religion, worship, association and movement to all Nigerians. Sharia will constrain both association and movement, and is thus unconstitutional. Proponents of Sharia make the following claims: • Nigeria is a multi-religious, and not a secular state • No state is being declared an Islamic state, nor is Islam being adopted as a state religion • The Sharia is applicable only to Muslims • No non-Muslim will be tried in a Sharia court, unless that is her/his express choice and decision • Section 38 provides for freedom of religion • Section 6, Subsection 5 of the Constitution authorises each state to establish courts, and does not specify the type of courts that may be established 44. So much was this the case, that the election of a Catholic priest as governor in one state caused major chagrin: who would head Better Life? This was resolved only when the governor coopted for the position the wife of one of his relatives. Notes 419

45. How that authority is used, and how such wives have become administrators and business women in their own right, and often very wealthy indeed, is a topic which needs far more time and space to relate. 46. It should be noted that the meaning of 'support' in these times of austerity is double-edged. Financial support is sought also from sources beyond the federal government, but not excluding other parts of government. At the initial launching, it was reported that the 'Family Support Trust Fund bagfged] 250 million Naira' (New Nigerian, 6 November 1994); this is a massive amount. The Family Support Trust Fund was subsequently formally launched in every Nigerian State and in the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja, with large donations conspicuously pledged not only by business people, but also, inter alia, by parastatals and consortia of local governments. Gani Fawehinmi attempted to call the government to account through legal action for this seeming recycling of public funds. He prayed the court to declare this rerouting of public funds to the FSP 'serious fiscal and financial indiscipline' (Tell, 19 May 1997). 47. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Women Affairs has tried to rein in the NGOs, ostensibly 'to cut down on [the NGOs'] excesses' New Nigerian, 27 September 1997). Many NGO activists see these efforts as government attempts to reduce NGO effectiveness. 48. See Imam (1993) for discussion of the changing situation for women in Kano State. 49. Hussaina Abdullah describes national FOMWAN as the Muslim equivalent of and strongly critical counterpoint to the National Council of Women's Societies (NCWS), with FOMWAN using 'religion to carve a niche for itself in the female space and to compete for power and resources from the state' (1996:2). 50. See, for example, Moore (1988, Chapter Five). 51. The 10th Anniversary FOMWAN national celebration at Abuja, for example, included Maryam Abacha as Guest of Honour, the Minister of the Federal Capital Territory as host, and the Grand Khadi of Abuja as chairman. An appeal fund for the construction of the FOMWAN national headquarters at Abuja realised about 1.5 million Naira on the day (New Nigerian, 16 & 19 August 1995). 52. One of the founding members of WIN in Katsina said that she had known of WIN since she was in secondary school, and had heard of 420 Notes

WIN on the radio and television. She said that the WIN women were so savaged by the government media, that she figured the women 'must be doing something good!' (personal communication).

Chapter 4

1. Following upon the work of decades by linguists and anthropologists, Hall (1966) coined the term 'proxemics' for the interrelated observations and theories of the use of space as a specialised elaboration of culture. While Hall's work is largely devoted to the use of the physical senses in perceiving and responding to spatial contexts, it is nevertheless path-breaking in its recognition of the culturally specific nature of spatial comprehension and use. 2. E. Goffinan, 1979, Gender Advertisements, Macmillan, London, cited in S. Ardener (1993:2). 3. The more common terms are bazawaralzawarawa. The substitution of j for z represents a Katsina dialectical difference. 4. There are few observances required of a bereaved husband. 5. A cowry is a traditional form of currency. 6. For example, the residential choice of a woman who joins her mother in the mother's brother's compound is more clearly understood through pointing out the maternal tie, than by stating that the non-married woman is sister's daughter to tiie male compound head. 7. Information was obtained in 1988 on fourteen of the seventeen still non-married women in the Marina sample. 8. A husband should provide his wife, children, and other dependants with new clothing at this time. 9. This is the same type of marriage described by M.G. Smith (1955:50) for Zaria as auren dauki sandanka, auren dauki kwarenka, or auren takalmi ('marriage of pick-up-your-stick', or 'marriage of sandals'). 10. Includes only women whose ages were ascertained. 11. Excluding 'other women': the category is too disparate in relation to its numbers to make a table worthwhile. Notes All

Chapter 5

1. Marriage has been described as an 'unavoidable correlate' of migration (R.J. Pryor, 'The Migrant to the City in South East Asia - Can, and Should We Generalize?' Paper presented to IUSSP General Conference, Mexico City, 1977, cited in Thadani and Todaro, 1979:17). 2. The word karuwa may refer to a male or a female. In the masculine sense, according to Abraham, it signifies either a thief or a profligate man. However, the Katsina data suggests that there were positive characteristics associated with the term karuwa when applied to a man, as there are when applied to a woman in certain contexts. This underscores the ambivalence felt towards the individual who opts for an alternative life-style, and succeeds in it. Thus, the term may be derogatory or complimentary. In its positive aspects, it signifies a person who is smart, or clever, and is successful in his milieu. Or it may signify a lady's man, a man who is able to converse with women, make them comfortable, and who enjoys the company of women, although not necessarily to the exclusion of that of men. Thus, a man who has a 'way with women' is also a karuwa, and is accorded perhaps a grudging respect by his peers. 3. Bovin and Holtedahl, working in Niger, found that women could begin working as karuwai in their own village (n.d.:20). The Katsina women consider such behaviour shameful. 4. For example, 'A courtesan from Sokoto ... may be found in Funtua or Zaria or Kano, but not near home' (Barkow, 1971:11). 5. Hill mentions that Batagarawa, six miles from Katsina City, with a population of 1,160, had one 'visiting' karuwa, not permanently resident. There were no karuwai working in Dorayi, an area of dispersed settlement with a population of about 3500, outside Kano City (personal communication). 6. Binta was her mother's second child, but the firstborn died before being weaned, and the shame and avoidance (kunya) of the first child partially devolved upon her. This, and the fact that she did not grow up with her mother, made their relationship rather formal. 7. AIDS was not an issue at the time of the original field research. UN guesstimates suggest that between 2.5 and 4.5 million Nigerians are HIV-positive (Guardian, 23 April 1999). A 1999 Nigerian Federal 422 Notes

Ministry of Health report indicated that 5.4 per cent of the sexually active population in Nigeria is HIV-positive, and the percentage is increasing (Guardian, 31 July 2000). 8. This is discussed further in Chapter Seven.

Chapter 6

1. See especially Mary Smith (1954:63-4, 136, 229-30); also A. Cohen (1969:63), M. Bovin and L. Holtedahl (n.d.:21-2), E. Yeld (1960:127). An exception is J. Barkow (1971:7-8), whose description of rural karuwanci in Zaria also shows a limited degree of authoritarianism. 2. A term of address given also to the senior of co-wives, used both by junior wives and by the children of the house, including the senior wife's own. 3. One researcher waxed eloquent about what he was convinced to be women's common, although concealed, feelings about karuwanci: It should be noticed that almost every Hausa woman has a secret dream of herself as a great and successful prostitute, and seems to believe that it is only ttie uncertainty of the profession and the loss of social status involved which prevents her from immediately realising the delectable prospect of unlimited men, money, liberty and cigarettes which such a life offers. (Dry, 1953:151) 4. A relatively recent exception, with the creation of Katsina State, is the presence at official functions of senior women civil servants and political figures, and a few of their friends. 5. The reasoning here is partly that men should seek women for themselves, if they are seeking them at all, not for others. Partly too, the low status of the work is in the association of the individual with the world of karuwanci itself, and with the other categories of procurers. The Hausa term for seeking women for sexual purposes is neman mata. 6. Goro, kola nut, is a widespread symbol of amity in West Africa. In Hausa culture the term is used generically for any small gift to express thanks or to show good will. 7. Thus, for example, one kawali, a shopkeeper who spends much of the evening organising assignations while his shop assistant minds the store, boasted that he had discovered the new address of one of Notes 423

his customers' favourite karuwai, who had just returned to Katsina. He swore he would not divulge the information until he was certain he would be liberally recompensed for it. 8. After one of the pogroms against the karuwai, it is reported that a senior Local Authority official stated, 'You've killed the snake, but you haven't cut off its head.' In other words, the 'yan daudu had been spared, and thus the 'cleansing' of the town was both incomplete and temporary. 9. This situation is the obverse of the depressing, yet seemingly accurate, picture painted by Jules Feiffer: 'Whatever ground woman manages to establish for herself, man abandons, denying its importance' (R. Morgan, 1970:565). 10. Some organisations are not associated with the coercion noted here, and indeed are beneficial in their effects, and are community- focused. The Red Crescent (formerly the Red Cross) is a popular choice for women; it not only teaches useful skills but, more important, sometimes provides entree into the coveted junior-grade permanent government jobs at the Katsina Hospital and clinics. 11. One must not ignore the vulnerability of all women in relation to individual and domestic violence. One could well argue that married women are even more defenceless than karuwai, trapped as they are in the privacy of the marital home. It is the case also that Islam condones limited physical chastisement of a wife. (A maltreated wife could sue for divorce, but would be unlikely to secure her husband's conviction for assault, assuming she were knowledgeable enough to pursue the matter. A parallel situation existed until recently in the West.) In the case of the karuwai, the additional factor is the group-led and group-associated violence. 12. During a civilian regime, the Nigerien political party, the PPN- RDA, had attempted to minimise the stigma accruing to the independent women by discouraging the use of the term karuwa and replacing it with the neutral zarawa, non-married woman (Monfouga-Nicolas, 1972:165). The Niger women were a mainstay of any celebration or holiday, and would form a contingent, identically dressed, in the parades which constituted a part of the activities marking national holidays and festive occasions. Indeed, the government was so deeply involved in the activities of the independent women that, at least in some areas, even the election from among the women of a Magajiya had to be approved by the 424 Notes

local party committee (Bovin and Holtedahl, n.d.:22). Thus, in Niger the women were given a clear role to play, and legitimacy with equally clear lines of authority, minimising the difficulties inherent in ttienebulou s Katsina socio-political structure. 13. The processions to the prayer ground are supposed to be continued until the rains come. It is no coincidence that these procedures are followed only at the beginning of the rainy season, and not if the rainy season is too short. 14. Perhaps no category of women engaged in rokon ruwa is as fervent in their prayer, given the disastrous consequences visited upon this group in particular, in the event of continued drought. 15. A specifically Katsina-based and Katsina-limited victimisation of karuwai occurred in 1969, during which many of the women fled, or sought refuge with married women. The incident was of a few days duration only. 16. Roberts (1984:179) notes that in Ghana in the 1930s:... the loss of [migrant] women's labour to the cocoa economy [led] the omanhene to proclaim that all such 'free women' were to be arrested and confined until their husbands reclaimed them or until a man took one as a wife for the sum of 7/6, an amount constituting both a bride price for a 'second hand woman' and a fee for their release. See also Roberts (1987). 17. Gwanjo - second-hand goods or clothing, especially the used clothing shipped in bales from the USA and Europe for resale in Africa. 18. There were a few letters to the Editor in the New Nigerian, ranging from perplexed to irate, pointing out the inequity of singling out only one of two consenting parties for calumny and punishment. 19. Estimate made by the Katsina Social Welfare Officer. He thought that of the remaining karuwai, about half had left town, and the other half (one quarter of the former total population of karuwai) were in hiding in the homes of other women in the town. These figures are at best educated guesses; the mood of the time and the fear of the women permitted no formal survey. 20. Writing about later events, in 1991, Barkindo notes en passant that in Kano City, as 'previous measures adopted to control urban social problems had failed, ... the only remaining option was to employ Islamic solutions. This attitude may have influenced the current police crackdown on prostitutes and pimps who are now being Notes 425

driven away from their locations [surrounding the city]' (Barkindo, 1993:105). 21. In 1986, it was in part the possibility of drought which acted as an additional catalyst or additional impetus in the expulsion of the karuwai. One respondent mentioned that 'it rained the day that the karuwai were driven out'

22. There is, however, no longer the same silence or seeming general acquiescence to the scapegoating of karuwai. The organisation Women in Nigeria, for example, has condemned the unlawful arrest and harassment of unmarried women (see, e.g., New Nigerian, 20 April 1994). 23. Lecture at the Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic, Katsina, 13 July 1996. 24. It is not uncommon for men to send ttieir girl-friends on pilgrimage. The irony and the humour of this - the fulfilment of one of the five obligations in Islam as a by-product of an illicit liaison - is not lost on the Hausa. Thus, one hajj joke being circulated: A karuwa sent by her lover to Saudi Arabia for the pilgrimage was conducted to the area where pilgrims hurl stones at the representation of Satan. 'Ah,' she said, 'why would I stone him? It was Satan who brought me here.' One of the allegations brought against the governor of Zamfara State is that he 'spent N200 million to sponsor prostitutes, social misfits and other persons on holy pilgrimage' (Comet News, 26 June 2000). His response was said to be that 'they were born-again Muslims who repented for their past misdeeds' (Vanguard, 25 June 2000). 25. See also, among others, Mary Smith (1954, passim), M. Onwuejeogwu (1969:291), J. Barkow (1973:71). 26. Bori is discussed in detail in Chapter Three. 27. Both bori adepts and malams can provide not only protection, but also more 'aggressive' aid; one can take the supernatural offensive against an enemy. However, in discussing charms, amulets, and supernatural 'medicine', rarely would an informant admit to this. Protection is socially acceptable; overt aggression is not. 426 Notes

Chapter 7

1. An example is Luise White's discussion (1988, 1990) of colonial Nairobi, whereby prostitution is linked to capital, state policy, and patriarchal ideology and practice, with a focus on relations between wages, housing, and increased prostitution. 2. In order to obtain the most comprehensive picture possible of the karuwai in Katsina, we attempted to identify and visit each house of women, and indeed every house when even one karuwa was resident. Every effort was made to establish the population of the house and the number of karuwai resident, and to obtain at least minimal census data from the karuwai present. Finding the houses of women which outside the Sabon Layi area tended to be scattered and multi-purpose, would have been considerably more difficult without the active assistance of the karuwai already interviewed, who directed the research to other houses and other women not yet included in the survey. 3. This phenomenon has been observed in other parts of Africa also. Thus, Little noted that: Paradoxically,... it is the...extra-marital relationship rather than the conjugal one that comes nearest to the egalitarian ideal regarded by the Euro-North Americans and increasing numbers of Africans as the proper basis of marriage. (1973:117) 4. See Chapter Five for data concerning children born out of wedlock to karuwai. 5. This karuwa left Katsina two months after the initial interview, and married someone else three months later in Kaduna. She had broken with her dadiro lover after a series of fights over his infidelity; he had been seeking other women while she considered herself his steady girlfriend. 6. See, e.g., Parpart (1988) and Parpart and Staudt (1989) for opposing views. 7. In one hotel, the hours were 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. daily, with a salary of £3 per month (1973 figures). In another hotel, the day shift worked from 8:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. every day except Sunday, when the hours were 8 to 12 a.m. and 5 to 8 p.m.; the pay was 4 pounds 10 shillings a month. Notes Ml

8. An example of this form of conspicuous expenditure was the room of a young woman from Borno, who was dadiro with a very well- to-do businessman who she later married, becoming his third wife. The floor was covered with linoleum (a recent status symbol in Katsina in the early 1970s), and upon the linoleum were two of the largest, most ornate, and most expensive four-poster beds available in the town. Both beds were decorated with matching yellow linens, including valances and testers, as well as sheets and pillowcases; a curtain of the same material hung over the door. Two large cupboards also stood in the room: each cupboard was full of expensive African prints and 'lace', and each was decorated with glittering antimony cases from Mecca. Lining the bottom were the woman's eight pairs of shoes. She had her own short-wave/cassette recorder combination, and the surroundings proclaimed wealth, comfort, and ease; she had been in Katsina one year. 9. Polly Hill (1972, Chs. IV & V) gives considerable detail concerning the procedure for establishing and utilising local economic indicators. 10. Not included were the wealthiest women in the area, the owners of houses, hotels, etc. The purpose of this survey was more to make distinctions, insofar as possible, among the mass of karuwai whose economic standing was less obvious. 11. Again, see Hill (1972:58-9). Hill's categorisation was then checked against a plethora of statistics, and was measured against other criteria. Such a cross-check was not possible in the case of the karuwai. With a mobile and changing population, and the limitations in that context of gathering data from third-party respondents, no quantitative data is set out here measuring economic success, or numbers of women at a given economic level. One can point out, however, the sheer range of economic difference, from utter poverty to wealth, the evidence of the particular economic situation of individual women, and the shared perceptions, recognition and response to that situation from among the local community, particularly from among the karuwai themselves. 12. Four of these houses were in Marina, reflecting both the density and length of settlement in the area, and also the distinctive character of karuwanci in the residential area. It is less overt, more hidden: one or two women live in a family 428 Notes

house with some of the family members and practice their profession from that base, but meet their lovers elsewhere for sexual intercourse. 13. Nineteen of these 71 women had performed the pilgrimage to Mecca; many had paid their own way. One woman had gone three times, buying and selling real estate to finance the cost of travel. 14. This number comprises only gidajen mata. The owner of the five gidajen mata, for example, also owns the house she lives in, with no rooms for rent, and at least one other house with only male tenants. 15. Includes two of the meal-sellers in Table 7.1. 16. The economic power which these women wield, the control they exert and the independence of action they require are caught in the Hausa proverb, 'Mijin mai tuwo mijin banza ne' 'The husband of a meal-seller is a useless husband.' (i.e., the wife supports the family, and the husband is content to leave her in control of their sustenance, neither secluding nor supporting her, and behaving thereby in a manner altogether contrary to ideological expectations of male behaviour.) 17. A.S. Mohammed's study (1975:13) suggested that up to forty per cent of the karuwai in his Sokoto example were 'at the mercy of their'matrons' ...' 18. Even here, however, some of the women have managed to hide part of their earnings through the agency of women friends, in order to provide for their futures. 19. Four were working outside Katsina City, and were therefore not occupying their houses in the town. 20. The Hausa expression is similar: Ta taba duniya. 'She has tasted, or tried out, the world.' 21. In the villages, a house with rooms for rent (gidan haya) is invariably a gidan mata. There are few male strangers in such places, and those who are there tend to return home for the farming season. Karuwai are more valuable tenants, for they stay throughout the year. 22. A girl is usually weaned by a year and five months, but Rahila's husband's kin wanted their child as quickly as possible. The girl was brought up by the husband's junior sister. 23. All of which are included together in Nigeria under the general sobriquet of'lace'. Notes 429

24. While in the west and certainly in present-day Nigeria, these amounts may not seem generous, it should be kept in mind that at that time, salaries for labourers, clerks, primary school teachers and low-ranking soldiers rarely exceeded £20 per month. 25. Tables are based on marital histories as of the initial interview; additional information and clarification were obtained in subsequent interviews. 26. In one gidan mata, the babba attempted to persuade the prospective husband of any woman in her house to meet the woman's family before the marriage.

Chapter 8

1. I encountered only one case in Katsina, in another ward. 2. The effects upon women of the spread of primary education, and of the growing interest in post-primary education for women, are noted particularly in Chapters Nine and Ten. 3. For example, just outside Katsina, at Babbar Ruga, is one of the relatively few hospitals for women with Vesico-vaginal Fistulae (WF), an all-too-common complication of childbirth when women in labour are insufficiently developed, usually through being too young, to produce the child. The fistulae are a result of pressure on the urinary tract, or surgery intended to make the birth passage wider for the child to emerge. Without an operation to repair the damage, such women continually leak urine, and are often abandoned by their husbands and immediate family. It is indicative that at an international conference on WF held in Abuja in 1998, there was a suggestion raised that religion and culture not be discussed in relation to incidence of WF. This suggestion was dismissed in no uncertain terms by a number of the conference participants (Guardian on Sunday, 29 March 1998). See Hajara Usman (1997) for a general overview of health and human rights issues with regard to women in Northern Nigeria. 4. See Mary Smith (1954:102-3) for an excellent description of such a first marriage. 5. This authority is extended to the father's close kin, particularly his senior brothers. 430 Notes

6. Some countries which have tried to counter parental coercion through legal mechanisms have met with little success. In Morocco, for example, according to law a bride must appear before the notaries to give her personal consent before the marriage may be recorded. However, many women are unaware of this law (and are not asked for their consent), and 'it is not at all unusual for the bride to be constrained to accede to the wishes of her marital guardian, whatever her own feelings about the union may be' (Rosen, 1978:573-4). The Moroccan legal code regarding marriage, family and inheritance has been in effect since 1958, with (marginal) modifications in 1993 (Eikelman & Piscatori, 1996:94). 7. After idda, Sueba remarried, this time a middle-aged trader related to her through her mother. The marriage lasted only three months, Sueba again not settling in her husband's house. She had not married again more than a year later. Sueba did subsequently marry, several times. That independent and self-sufficient streak which she exhibited even as a young girl never left her, and she found it hard to stay with any of her husbands, even when she had children. She was able to buy land to build a house, with the help of her kin and profits from her trading, and was planning to build when we spoke with her in 1992. She subsequently built her house. 8. The term used in contradistinction to this for any non-kin marriage is auren so, marriage of liking/love, i.e., based on definite choice. 9. Abraham (1962) defines zumunci as (a) relationship by blood or marriage, or (b) clan feeling. 10. Named for the basket used by women in spinning, which traditionally held their few marriage gifts, by the 1970s, the lefe was brought in one or more suitcases, or in very large enamelled containers. It resembles the gifts given during the Id festivals (toshin Sallah), but exceeds them in value and content. 11. The problem of high marriage costs applies primarily to a woman's first marriage. 12. See Hill (1972:293-5) for a descriptive list of marriage expenses incurred in Batagarawa, and for a useful compilation of sources of comparative data. 13. Sam Jackson, working outside Kano at the Kadawa irrigation scheme, reported that Hausa women there also tended to keep their daughters (personal communication). Notes 431

14. In the 1995 Women and Law Project organised by Baobab, in association with the International Network of Women Living under Muslim Laws, the Katsina Co-ordinator, Sadiya S. Daura, reported that 85 per cent of the study respondents, men and women, stated that on remarriage, children should be returned to the father or the child's kin. Even the women said that it was more peaceful not to take the children to the new husband's house. 15. Children of a divorced wife being raised in their father's house, are specifically excluded according to this definition. 16. Short-term care (Hausa: renu), corresponding more to baby sitting than fostering, is a limited feature of child-care. Renu, looking after a child before it can walk or be left on its own, used to be the preserve of old women, but it is now more commonly undertaken by young women or girls. 17. Where husband and wife are related, a foster child will of course be related to both spouses. The primary kin link only has been used throughout this exposition. 18. Fostering appears to be, or to have been, a more common phenomenon among Hausa elsewhere. Thus, M.G. Smith records that in the two rural communities he studied, compounds in which foster children were living comprised 40 per cent and 29 per cent respectively of the total number of compounds in the villages (1955:21,24). 19. In this case, marriages of two years' duration or more. Some time has to elapse to begin to consider, or establish, (infertility. 20. Table 7.2 shows the relationship of age to number of marriages among karuwai, while Table 7.3 provides a comparison of the three categories of women, with respect to age and number of marriages contracted. 21. In many Muslim countries, law reform has curtailed the husband's non-accountability in divorce, or increased women's options. In some countries, a woman divorced without reasonable cause may sue for compensation. In Morocco, Singapore, and parts of Malaysia, a woman divorced against her will may claim a consolatory gift through the courts. A planned government reform in Morocco, announced in 1999, would ban polygamy, raise the legal age for marriage from 14 to 18, and allow women half their husbands' wealth in case of death or divorce. It also would put the right of divorce into the hands of a judge rather than a husband 432 Notes

(BBC News Online, 12 March 2000). For decades in Tunisia, it has been the law that 'no divorce pronounced outside a court of law will have any legal validity whatever' (Anderson, 1976:126). Iran's Family Protection Act, introduced by the Shah, was suspended by the regime of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979, but some of the reforms have been reintroduced since 1991, including prenuptial contracts which give women the right to initiate divorce proceedings (Eickelman and Piscatori, 1996:93). In Egypt, personal status reform (including expansion of women's ability to initiate divorce, and added protection for women with divorce) was instituted in 1979, with strong support from Jihan Sadat, the wife of Anwar Sadat (the new law became known as Jihan's law). It was cancelled in 1985, but largely reinstituted two months later following collective representations from Egyptian women, prior to the UN Forum in Nairobi (Badran, 1991:224-5). In Nigeria, a possible reform which has been put forward is the use of conciliation services via the courts. At a virtually all-male discussion of divorce and related issues at the Centre for Islamic Legal Studies at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, this issue was raised by one of the two women permitted to speak to the group (New Nigerian Weekly, 31 October 1998). 22. Katsina District Courts granted 430 divorces in 1919. In 1913 and 1914, for which records are available, the comparable numbers were 336 and 293 divorces respectively. (Letter from D.O. i/c Katsina Division to Resident, Kano Province, 13 October 1920 [Item No. 95/120, File 1674]). 23. Letter from Resident Kano to District Officer Katsina, 22 September 1920 (File 1674). 24. For the years 1913, 1914, and 1919, divorces given by the husband account for 16.7 per cent, 18.8 per cent, and 30.9 per cent respectively, of all court adjudicated divorces in Katsina District. At the time, no court fees were charged and divorce through the colonial courts probably seemed more 'official' than divorce at home. 25. Letter from S. Macdonald Smith, A.D.O. Katsina, 17 July 1940 (File 1674). 26. Minutes of meeting 6 June 1940. Resident (of Katsina Province) R.L. Payne, Emirs of Katsina and Daura, et al. (File 1674). Notes 433

27. Under Muslim law, a fee is payable in divorce cases only in the event that one party benefits economically from the judgement. As this most often occurs when the husband is awarded the return of marriage expenses, he is most commonly liable for court fees. 28. From notes by S. Macdonald Smith (File 1674). 29. Area Court no. 2 charged only 5/- for the certificate until mid- October, 1971, when the cost was increased to £1. 30. These fees were at the discretion of the judge. Those sent to call witnesses ('yan kira) are often not government employees; the assessed fees are their only remuneration. (Personal communication from Malam Abubakar Atiku Yusufu, Inspector for Area Courts, Katsina.) 31. Only the Maliki school of law recognises cruelty as grounds for judicial divorce (Phillips and Morris, 1971:130, fii. 1). 32. (One pound at the time of these cases). This fee is variously called in the court records kudin shaida (money of witness), kudin takarda (money of [the divorce] paper), or kudin Ushira (Muslim court fees). 33. The husband uses the phrase, 'Ina biko\ to express his desire to persuade his wife to continue the marriage. Bargery defines biko as 'efforts to conciliate (a) a runaway wife (by a husband or his deputy), (b) an enemy, (c) a refractory subject' The categories (a), (b), and (c) seem not altogether disparate, and in some aspects possibly synonymous. 34. According to J.N.D. Anderson, most Northern Nigerian jurists he spoke to admitted that if protracted efforts at reconciliation, or agreement over khul', failed, they 'order a suitable refund of marriage payments and dissolve the union' (1954:209-10). This is consistent with decisions in the Katsina courts. 35. The question of what costs should constitute compensation has long been unresolved, as is evident in the replies from throughout the North to a formal government enquiry into the question in 1926 (Memo No. K.1571/76 8 April 1927 submitted by G.J. Lethem, Acting Secretary, Northern Provinces [File 1488]). No consensus has been reached, and the matter is left to the discretion of the court. 36. Reading of the court records suggests that some formal divorce cases were originally brought by the female plaintiff as simple 434 Notes

confirmation of divorce, but became full-fledged divorce suits upon the husband's denial of divorce.

Chapter 9

1. This problem has been the subject of Pittin, 1982, 1983 and 1984a. The 1983 article was written specifically for a government- sponsored conference during the Second Republic intended to examine and improve census process and content prior to that government initiating its own census, a task it ultimately never took on. 2. In shops, all sales workers, market traders, and all clerical workers engaged in commerce. 3. The only gloss on the masses of statistical data was included in Lagos, vol. 1 (of the 10 volumes of the 1963 Census at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London): 'The Statistical Tables are put out without any comment; this practice is considered necessary at this time.' 4. The International Labour Organization in particular, but also other UN agencies, have worked for many years to pinpoint and set out solutions for the problems in perceptions, in choice of questions and respondents, timing of research, etc., which could distort (and minimise) data concerning women's economic input. 5. Another source of funds is the small gifts from the girl's suitors and friends, which, through modesty and/or self-interest, she would not usually mention to her mother. 6. See Chapter Six for the expression of this dyadic bond within karuwanci. 7. This perhaps can be seen in terms of the transfer of sexual and procreative rights in the girl by her agnatic kin. The bed is the focal point of the (usually small) room, but may be more decorative than otherwise utilised. 8. In Kano, the bride's mother and other relatives count and recount the dishes when taking them for washing, to make sure that none have been sold (Bashir, 1972:73). 9. A wedding, with its days of ceremony, is the occasion par excellence for feasting. Thus the Hausa couplet: Notes 435

Lashe-lashe shi ne biki Amarya ta ango ce Translation: Savouring and tasting are the essence of a wedding, The bride is only for the groom! 10. The variation in urban and rural practice was pointed out by an informant born and raised in Katsina City, who later spent ten years in a village a few miles away.

11. The corresponding western situation is outlined in Veblen, 1957, Chapter Three. 12. Women's conspicuous leisure may fulfil different functions in other contexts. Thus, in one non-Hausa area in which women had traditionally helped to support the family, and where Islam was relatively recent, Muslim women were purposely turning from trade: ... in order to show that they are 'goodMuslims' ... [in this area] a 'good Muslim woman' is defined as a woman who is totally dependent on her husband. (Drew, 1975:197, fh. 1) 13. See Chapter Four for a discussion of occupations among non- married and older women. The small numbers included in the higher age categories in the tables in the present chapter reflect the small proportion of older married women compared to the large number of widows and divorced women. 14. See Abner Cohen (1969:67) for a similar situation in Sabon Gari, Ibadan. 15. About two-thirds of the women without occupations (14 out of 23) were nineteen or younger, but not all were recently married. 16. Mai'adua Case No. 220/133 24/2/68 cited in D.J. Hill (n.d.:181). 17. This was very popular also among the young karuwai, who would weave colourful little fans while sitting outside their rooms chatting with neighbours and friends. 18. The speed with which fashions in clothing change is quite incredible, fashions rapidly radiating from the largest cities (Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Kaduna), into the smaller cities and towns. Cloth gains and loses popularity quickly; brocades used for men's and women's outfits are described in terms of incidents occurring at the 436 Notes

time of their popularity, or recalling their first major public appearance. 19. It is notoriously difficult to estimate profits for women's craftwork, commodity production and trade. Income-earning work is sandwiched between domestic labour, child rearing, and other activities; materials are bought at different times and used for different purposes; and generally no records are kept. Focusing particularly on Kano, Frishman (1991) has attempted to marshall together some of the disparate data concerning profit and utilisation of profit from women's informal sector activities. 20. In this study, the majority of women with this occupation are the independent women discussed in Chapter Seven. The women have the necessary freedom of movement, and their houses are conveniently located for the clientele. 21. Some of the wealthiest men in the city, particularly among the aristocracy, give hand-embroidered garments (especially the men's three-piece outfit, the babbar riga), to their loyal (and also eminent) supporters for Sallah. This is considered the most elegant of gifts - as elsewhere, the originality, uniqueness and labour expenditure of handwork give it added cachet. Other supporters and clients may receive machine-made garments. 22. A similar analysis done by Hill for Batagarawa did not show a close relationship between scale or type of trade and husband's occupation (1972:334). 23. Only forty-nine court cases concerning inheritance were brought before the Area Courts in Katsina City over a one-year period, with another fifteen cases, involving large sums, being heard in the Upper Area Court during the same period. It is generally only inheritance disputes which reach the courts. 24. Dangiwa states that a woman does not then inherit, since 'she had been adequately provided for when she married, by her father, who provided the provisions with which she began her married hfe' (1971:25). 25. Yeld suggests a status ranking of women on the basis of occupation, but the categories she uses are too broad to be meaningful here (Yeld, 1960:128). The relative status of women is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Notes 437

26. One reason given by women for not using the local bank is that the savings book showing their balance might fall into their husband's hands. 27. The wife of one wealthy man, for example, had three four-poster beds, each impeccably decorated, and eight easy chairs. 28. In this case Emir Muhammadu Dikko (d. 1944), grandfather of the present ruler. 29. The 'yan izala have been the main proponents of this move away from what they consider excessive and impious consumption and display, to what non-izala often consider selfishness, lack of filial feeling, or greed. These issues are also a focus in neighbouring Niger (see, e.g. Gregoire, 1993, and Masqvielier, 1996). 30. More accurately, the money is pressed on the women's foreheads or their garments. The paper money adheres to the perspiring face or body of the dancers, and the Hausa term reflects this: a yi musu liko, literally, to 'paste' them. The Nigerian English term for this is 'spraying'. 31. Costs of goods have varied enormously over tiie time frame of the research, as has people's ability to pay. Thus, for example, whereas in the 1970s, a biki partner might provide (and be expected to provide) a set of casserole dishes or their equivalent, by the 1990s the costs of housewares had gone up so much, that a woman might provide money towards the cost of dishes, but would be unlikely to give a set herself. 32. Where women are close and long-term friends, there is often a more easy-going approach to biki; differences in value of biki gifts are less serious. 33. See Mary Smith (1954, passim) for a lively account of the kinds of criteria governing women's dyadic relationships, based on the experiences of Baba of Karo. 34. Sexual relations are forbidden for forty days after childbirth. 35. The status of senior wife is based on more than length of continuous marriage to the husband. A senior wife who is divorced and then remarries her former husband, loses her seniority to wives who remained, or who married into his house during her absence. 36. Katsina Area Court No. 2, Civ. No. 91,4/4/72. 37. The ultimate signal is the seeking of divorce. 38. It is only women from more financially secure families who can gain their families' consent to refusal of bridewealth. Bridewealth 438 Notes

here does not include the sadaki (dower), a sum which can be a nominal amount and which is a required legal component in Muslim marriage. 39. M. Castells & A. Portes, 'World Underneath: The Origins, Dynamics, and Effects of the Informal Economy', in A. Portes, M. Castells, and L.A. Benton (eds.), The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less Developed Countries, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1989, cited in A.R. Mustapha (1992). 40. The major exception is the gathering of young men during the night, or nights, before the first marriage of one of their number.

Chapter 10

1. Formal, or western, education refers to the system and content of education introduced by the colonial state, and reflecting, though not necessarily copying, the curriculum of the British colonisers. Purpose and content of curriculum differed for females and males. 2. Along these lines, Muslim women scholars noted among the Fulani of Adamawa were wives or daughters of scholars or princes (R. Santerre, Pedagogie Musulmane d'Afrique Noire, Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal, 1973, pp. 53-4; and R. Santerre and C. Mercier-Trembley, 1985, La Quete du Savoir, Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal, 1982, p. 364, cited in Boyd and Last, 1985:297fii); and learned women in scholarly Dyula lineages also acted as teachers (L. Quimby, 'Islam, Sex Roles and Modernization in Bobo-Dioulasso', in B. Jules Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Tropical Africa, Ablex Publishing Co., Norwood, 1979, p. 208, cited in Boyd and Last, 1985:297fii). 3. This policy was formally protested by the Christian church in Nigeria in, for example, 'Report of the Proceedings of the First Synod of the Diocese of Lagos', May 1922, pp. 58-60, cited in Fafunwa (1991:117-18). 4. The British held contradictory and even individually inconsistent views concerning the value, purpose, utility and effects of expanded Muslim education, resulting, according to J.P. Hubbard (1975), in numerous discussions but relatively limited action in initiating, completing or continuing Islamic projects. Hubbard's examples and discussions relate only to the education of males. Notes 439

5. Koranic education varies from rote learning of Koranic verses, to exegesis and interpretation of texts in a variety of areas of scholarship, such as law, history, and philosophy. For most Muslim children, education in traditional Koranic schools is limited to learning some Koranic verses, some ritual, and a small amount of Arabic. For girls, the process has usually been interrupted - or ended - with marriage. Traditionally, Koranic education was carried out in mixed co-educational age groups, with all students reciting and learning at different levels at the same time. 6. This emphasis on obedience is evident even in the opening address in 1922 given at Katsina College, the firstteache r training college in the North (cited in Bello, 1962:28-9), and is noted as a misdirection of education in later analysis of Nigerianisation policies (See, for example, the editorial of Alh. Dr. Abubakar Imam, then editor of Gaskiya Ta Fi Kwabo, 15 December 1948, cited in H. Adamu, 1971:47-8). 7. As late as 1965, figures for school attendance remained grossly unbalanced, with less than a half million primary school students in the North, compared to almost two and a half million in the South (with total population ratio of about 1 to 2). At the secondary school level, 77 northern schools catered to about 15,000 pupils, while 1,305 southern schools had an enrolment of about 181,000 students (Adamu, 1971:51). Within these contexts, education was further differentially available, with the far North (including Katsina Province) having far fewer literates than the more southerly provinces and states. These imbalances have never been resolved, and remain a source of great concern, a subject of periodic commissions and high-level meetings, and a focus of many suggested solutions. These have been either not taken up (lack of staff, funding, etc.), or insufficiently implemented. 8. Official file on Women's Education, Northern Provinces, Kaduna, discussed in Trevor (1975:255). 9. Jean Boyd (1997) has noted the lack of a clear understanding of Hausa culture among the expatriate teachers and school administrators; this situation was not redressed for decades. 10. In contrast, in Sokoto a few of the earliest women students were permitted to teach; resistance to women's education grew as their schooling expanded (Trevor, 1975:257). 440 Notes

11. The research of Schildkrout in Kano (1978) included two wards with somewhat similar socio-economic characteristics to Yarinci and Marina. Here also, western education was more prevalent in the ward composed predominantly of wage-earners; there was more emphasis on the education of boys there than in the Yarinci context. 12. This was relevant particularly in the North; UPE schemes had been introduced in the other parts of Nigeria as early as 1955 (Western Region) and 1957 (Eastern Region). 13. The need for a coherent national education policy and practice is evident in available statistics: it is estimated that 61 per cent of Nigerian women, and 52 per cent of Nigerian men, are illiterate (New Nigerian Weekly, 2 October 1999). 14. An example of the level to which education in Katsina has sunk: In a familiarisation visit to Local Government Areas, Colonel Bature Chamah, the then Katsina State Administrator, found that a Senior Secondary School II student could not even spell his own name correctly ... (Guardian, 13 March 1997). 15. In 1996, a law to make the withdrawal of girls illegal from schools in Katsina was, according to the then Administrator, Navy Captain Emmanuel Acholonu, to be enacted 'soon' (Guardian, 2 August 1996). It is doubtful that any such law has been passed. 16. Nigeria entered into an agreement with the World Bank in 1991 for a $120 million Universal Primary Education project loan. The loan was set for cancellation in 1997 due to 'less than satisfactory ... implementation]...', reportedly linked to large-scale fraud in the National Primary Education Commission. However, following discussion, the implementation period was extended until 1999 (Guardian, 21 February, 23 February, and 7 July 1997). 17. These funds have not been particularly successfiil in other states. At a meeting in 1996 of Commissioners of Education of the sixteen northern states, called to discuss how to redress the educational disparity between North and South, the Kaduna State Administrator noted 'the apathy [of corporate bodies and members of the public] to the education endowment fund launched by some of the states' (Guardian, 19 April 1996). 18. 'Izala' is derived from Jama'atu Izalat al-Bid'a wa Iqamat al- Sunna, the name being taken from the work of the reformer Shehu Usman dan Fodio, 'Against Innovations, and in favour of Sunna' (Paden, 1986:566fh). Notes 441

19. This is the case also in Niger. In Maradi, directly across the border from Katsina, the 'yan izala 'have set up [schools] for modern education in Arabic. ... [the] leader of the Izala in Maradi ... insisted on the need to develop education 'which must be at the base of Islam" (Gregoire, 1993:112). 20. The complementary nature of the Islamiyya schools is reflected in statements from its benefactors. The non-state-owned Katsina State Development Fund (Gidauniyar Jihar Katsina) has constructed and donated Islamiyya schools in the state, and has also supported state schools through massive donations of books and other material. The Chairman of the Education Committee of Gidauniya has noted that Katsina State 'was the cradle for both western and Islamic education in the northern part of the country, ... [and] Gidauniya would do everything possible to ensure that education was brought back to its past glory in the state ...' (New Nigerian, 29 March 1994). 21. Much of the writing concerning women's education in the North has consisted of reassertions by Muslims (often citing appropriate texts), that Islam is not against women's education, while concurrent texts discuss the reality of low literacy, non-attendance, and the evils of early marriage, seclusion, etc. 22. Statistics Unit, Research, Planning and Development Division of the Katsina State Ministry of Education. 23. Form 1 is not included, as: (a) the women had all been transferred to boarding schools; and (b) the enrolment figures, especially for JSS I had not stabilised. A sixth year of secondary school was introduced only in 1988. Women's schools in the Katsina Administrative Zone included Women's Teachers College, Katsina; Girls' Government Secondary School, Jibia; and the now defunct Kofar Sauri Girls' Day School, Katsina. 24. For girls in the urban areas, this problem of accommodation does not arise, but the fact that they must travel to and from school remains, and is a constraint to continued attendance. 25. The ideology is expressed in no uncertain terms. In the move to single-sex education in Kaduna State (January 1989), one PTA Chairman stated, It's no good hiring houses for girls under nobody's care. A grown up girl, who lives alone, is more or less like a harlot ... (Newswatch, 3 April 1989) Notes

In her analysis of Muslim male/female relations, Mernissi does not disagree with Murdock's description of societies as either demonstrating a 'strong internalization of sexual prohibition during the socialization process' or alternatively taking 'external precautionary safeguards' [such as seclusion, veiling or constant surveillance] (G.P. Murdock, Social Structure, Macmillan & Co., Free Press, NY, 1965, p. 273, cited in Mernissi, 1975:3), but suggests that the distinction resides more in the ideology of passive and active sexuality inherent in the two formations, with the latter evident and emphasised in Muslim thought. Tuition costs at that time ran from N40-120 per student per session. The associated costs of accommodation, books, stationery, and basic necessities (e.g. mattresses, uniforms, etc.) were much higher, running between N300-700 per session (mid- 1988 costs). In some states (e.g. Bauchi and Sokoto), tuition for women in post-primary school was free, but the entire gamut of other expenses remained. (Bauchi later pledged to provide free education for women at all levels [New Nigerian, February 1994]). Moving in a wholly different direction, the Government of Kaduna State had begun charging tuition even for day school, on the basis that '[p]arents should be made to contribute to the costs of education to make them pay attention' [!] (Newsweek, 3 April 1989). It must be noted that education (and other) costs have rocketed upward in the past few years, as revenue has not. But neither had salaries or income generally, until the recent minimum wage increases. Parents therefore have been removing their children from school. The federal government presented contradictory policy statements. For example, while verbally assuring the people of its commitment to making education free and compulsory to junior secondary school level (President LB. Babangida, at the launching of the Primary Education Commission, [Newswatch, 15 May 1989]), the state, via the Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) deleted the constitutional provision guaranteeing all Nigerians the rightt o free compulsory and universal primary and secondary education. Katsina subsequently waived tuition fees for women, although the other fees and costs (e.g., food, accommodation and travel) still had to be paid. Notes 443

27. Interview with Hajiya Lami Abba, Principal Education Officer, Women's Education Unit, Katsina State Ministry of Education, July 1988. 28. Interview with Hajiya Hassu Nko, Chief Education Officer, Women's Education Unit, Katsina State Ministry of Education, June 1988. 29. Interview with Hajiya Fatsuma Ahmed, Katsina State Ministry of Education, April 1992. 30. Neighbouring Kano State government turned to rfe-boarding, following some of the same difficulties which faced Katsina State (massive overcrowding in the boarding schools; limited places for qualified female students). Another issue has been the huge cost for the state of boarding. Girls' day secondary schools were opened en masse in Kano in 1993, and three of the main boarding schools were de-boarded in 1995. While it is not denied that boarding is preferable to day schools (see Shekarau, 1995; Indabawa, 1995), funding and logistics rendered that a non-viable long-term solution. In Kano, girls were already only about a third of the secondary school population, and the boarding bottleneck reduced greatly the numbers of girls who could be admitted. It is doubtful whether the school population and educational quality could be maintained with day schools and the results sustained over time; this was certainly not possible in Katsina. In Borno State in the far north-east of Nigeria, deboarding was also tried, but was stopped particularly because of the withdrawal of girls from what was seen by parents as an unacceptable and impractical system (Kachalla, 1997). 31. The 'Muslim-style' uniforms are obligatory for all students in the Katsina women's boarding schools, although not all students are Muslim. In neighbouring Kaduna State, Christians and Muslims had different school uniforms, even within the same school (Newswatch, 3 April 1989). The prioritising of religion in the latter situation (rather than grade/school identification, as was formerly the case), was significant in terms of the increasing manipulation of religion in Nigeria and its divisive use. 32. Since the establishment of the Islamic University in Katsina was announced, the creation of two new Islamic universities has been declared, for Zamfara and Kano States. As the latter is said to be heavily funded by Libya through its World Islamic Call Society, it 444 Notes

will very likely be the first of the Muslim universities to be completed. 33. However, the right to emerge from seclusion is specifically linked to education, and not to a broader recognition of women's right to decide and control their lives, actions and movement. 34. An example of this opposition: The clamour for an all female university is completely irrelevant and against the tenets of the Family Support Programme (FSP), [the] Executive-Secretary of Plateau State Women Commission ... has said. She [said] ... that an all female university was undemocratic and not in the best interest of the womenfolk. ... 'God has given men that natural dominance over us, as such, there is no need to separate ourselves in the quest for an unseen freedom ...' (Daily Times, 11 January 1996) 35. That this was more of a justification to keep the women's university from being created than a solid reason, became evident when the Federal government approved the establishment of four private universities in 1999. Suddenly, the extant universities were not 'under-utilised' but rather 'unable to satisfy the demand' of importunate applicants (Guardian, 29 April 1999). 36. This 'peak' was reached in 1992. Generally the percentage for that decade hovered between 22 per cent and 25.8 per cent. Statistics are from the Federal Ministry of Information, cited in Guardian, 3 December 1995.

Chapter 11

1. Much of a relatively recent volume about Nigerian women and development (Sesay and Odebiyi, 1998) is devoted to the relationships between Nigeria and the many agencies (UN, EEC, World Bank, etc.) with which it must work. Bibliography

Abba, Y. 1971. 'Labour Migrants in Katsina: Perspectives on Labour Migrants in a Hausa Traditional City', B.Sc. thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Abdullah, H. 1995. 'Wifeism and Activism: The Nigerian Womenfs Movement' in A. Basu (ed.), The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective, Boulder, San Francisco & Oxford, Westview Press, pp. 209-25. Abdullah, H.J. 1996. 'Nigerian Muslim Women: Organizing for Change', paper presented at the Workshop on Women and Sufism in Africa, The Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, September. Abell, H.C. 1962. 'The Role of Rural Women in Farm and Home Life', Report to the Government of Nigeria (Northern Region) on the Home Economics Aspects of the F.A.O. Socio-Economic Survey of Peasant Agriculture in Northern Nigeria, Rome, F.A.O. (mimeo). Abraham, R.C. 1962. Dictionary of the Hausa Language, London, University of London Press Ltd. Adamu, H. al-R. 1971. The North and Nigerian Unity: Some Reflections on the Political, Social and Educational Problems of Northern Nigeria, Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation. Adamu, L.S. 1997. 'Discrimination against Girls' Education in Northern Nigeria', New Nigerian July 4. Afolayan, A.A. 1988. 'Immigration and Expulsion of ECOWAS Aliens in Nigeria', International Migration Review Vol. 22(1) Spring, pp. 4- 27. Africanus, L. 1896. The History and Description of Africa, translated into English in 1600 by John Pory, and now edited by Dr. Robert Brown, 3 vols., London, Hakluyt Society. Afshar, H. 1995. 'Why Fundamentalism? Iranian Women and their Support for Islam', Women: A Cultural Review, Vol. 6(1) Summer, pp. 18-33.

445 446 Bibliography

Ahmed, K.N. 1972. The Muslim Law of Divorce, Islamabad, The Islamic Research Institute. Aluko, S.A. 1965. 'How Many Nigerians? An Analysis of Nigeria's Census Problems, 1901-1963', Journal of Modern African Studies Vol. 3(3) pp. 371-92. Amin, S. 1974. 'Introduction' in S. Amin (ed.) Modern Migrations in Western Africa: Studies Presented and Discussed at the Eleventh International African Seminar, Dakar, 1972, published in London for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press, pp. 65-124. Anderson, J.N.D. 1954. Islamic Law in Africa, H.M.S.O., Colonial Research Publication No. 16. Anderson, N. (see also J.N.D.). 1976. Law Reform in the Muslim World, University of London Legal Series XI, London, The Athlone Press. Anthias, F. andN. Yuval-Davis. 1989. 'Introduction' inN. Yuval-Davis and F. Anthias (eds.) Woman - Nation - State, Basingstoke and London, The Macmillan Press Ltd., pp. 1-15. Antoun, R.T. 1968. 'On the Modesty of Women in Arab Muslim Villages: A Study in the Accommodation of Traditions', American Anthropologist Vol. 70(4) August, pp. 671-97. Arberry, A.J. 1964. The Koran Interpreted, London, Oxford University Press. Ardener, E. 1972. 'Belief and the Problem of Women' in J.S. La Fontaine (ed.) The Interpretation of Ritual: Essays in Honour of A.I. Richards, London, Tavistock Publications Ltd., pp. 135-58. Ardener, E. 1975. 'The 'Problem' Revisited' in S. Ardener (ed.) Perceiving Women, New York, Halstead Press, pp. 19-27. Ardener, S. 1975. 'Introduction' in S. Ardener (ed.) Perceiving Women, New York, Halstead Press, pp. vii-xxiii. Ardener, S. 1993. 'Ground Rules and Social Maps for Women: An Introduction' in S. Ardener (ed.) Women and Space: Ground Rules and Social Maps, Oxford and Providence, RI, Berg Publishers Ltd., pp. 1-30. Atsenuwa, A.V. (ed.) 1995. Women's Rights as Human Rights: The Nigerian Experience, Lagos, Legal Research and Resource Development Centre. Baba, J.M. 1980. 'Large Scale Irrigation Development and Women's Farm Labour Participation in Hausaland: The Case of the Kano River Irrigation Bibliography 447

Project' in F.I.A. Omu, P.K. Makinwa & A.O. Ozo (eds.) Proceedings of the National Conference on Integrated Rural Development and Women in Development, vol. II, Benin City, University of Benin, pp. 1001-16. Bach, R.L. and L.A. Schraml. 1982. 'Migration, Crisis and Theoretical Conflict', International Migration Review Vol. 16(2) pp. 320-41. Badran, M. 1991. 'Competing Agenda: Feminists, Islam and the State in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Egypt' in D. Kandiyoti (ed.) Women, Islam and the State, Basingstoke and London, Macmillan Press Ltd., pp. 201-36. Bargery, G.P. 1934. A Hausa-English Dictionary and English-Hausa Vocabulary, London, Oxford University Press. Barkindo, B.M. 1993. 'Growing Islamism in Kano City since 1970' in L. Brenner (ed.) Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, pp. 91-105. Barkow, J.H. 1971. 'The Institution of Courtesanship in the Northern States of Nigeria', Geneve-Afiique Vol. X (1) pp. 1-16. Barkow, J.H. 1972. 'Hausa Women and Islam', The Canadian Journal of African Studies Vol. VI(ii) pp. 317-28. Barkow, J.H. 1973. 'Muslims and Maguzawa in North Central State, Nigeria: An Ethnographic Comparison', The Canadian Journal of African Studies Vol. VII(l) pp. 59-76. Barnes, J.A. 1967. 'The Frequency of Divorce' in A.L. Epstein (ed.) The Craft of Social Anthropology, London, Tavistock Publications, pp. 47-99. Barth, H. 1857-58. Travels of Discovery in North and Central Africa, 5 vols., London, Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts. Bashir, M.K. 1972. 'The Economic Activities of Secluded Married Women in Kurawa and Lallokin Lemu, Kano City', B.Sc. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Bello, A. 1962. My Life, London, Cambridge University Press. Bemus, S. 1969. 'Particularismes ethniques en milieu urbain: l'exemple de Niamey', Universite de Paris, Memoires de I'Institut d'ethnologie - I, Institut d'ethnologie, Musee de l'Homme, Paris. 'Blueprint of the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP)'. 1997. Prepared by the Office of the First Lady, Mrs. Maryam Sani Abacha, State House, Abuja. 448 Bibliography

Blunt, A. and G. Rose. 1994. 'Introduction: Women's Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies' in A. Blunt and G. Rose (eds.) Writing Women and Space: Colonial and Postcolonial Geographies, New York and London, The Guilford Press, pp. 1-25. Boissevain, J. 1974. Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Bordo, S. 1993. 'Feminism, Foucault and the Politics of the Body' in C. Ramazanoglu (ed.) Up against Foucault: Explorations of some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, London, Routledge, pp. 179-202. Bovin, M. and L. Holtedahl. n.d. 'The Karuwa Institution: Women's Alternative to Marriage in Eastern Niger' (unpublished manuscript). Boyd, J. and M. Last. 1985. 'The Role of Women as 'Agents Religieux' in Sokoto', Canadian Journal of African Studies Vol. 19(2) pp. 283-300. Boyd, J. 1997. 'We Teach Girls That It Is Wrong To Carry Babies on their Backs! Or How Inappropriate Policies Damaged Girls' Education in Colonial Era' in LA. Tsiga and A.U. Adamu (eds.) Islam and the History of Learning in Katsina, Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd., pp. 105-17. Brettell, C.B. and R.J. Simon. 1986. 'Immigrant Women: An Introduction' in R.J. Simon and C.B. Brettell (eds.) International Migration: The Female Experience, Totowa NJ, Rowman and Allenheld, pp. 3- 20. Brown, W. 1992. 'Finding the Man in the State', Feminist Studies Vol. 18(1) Spring, pp. 7-34. Bujra, J.M. 1975. 'Women 'Entrepreneurs' of Early Nairobi', Canadian Journal of African Studies Vol. DC(2) pp. 213-34. Bujra, J.M. 1978. 'Introductory: Female Solidarity and the Sexual Division of Labour' in P. Caplan and J.M. Bujra (eds.) Women United, Women Divided, London, Tavistock Publications Ltd., pp. 13-45. Bujra, J. 1982. 'Postscript: Prostitution, Class and the State' in C. Sumner (ed.) Crime, Justice and Underdevelopment, London, Heinemann, pp. 145-61. Chazan, N. 1989. 'Gender Perspectives on African States' in J.L. Parpart and K.A. Staudt (eds.) Women and the State in Africa, Boulder, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 185-201. Bibliography 449

Chhachhi, A. 1989. 'The State, Religious Fundamentalism and Women: Trends in South Asia', Economic and Political Weekly March 18, pp. 567-78. Chhachhi, A. and R. Pittin. 1996. 'Multiple Identities, Multiple Strategies' in A. Chhachhi and R. Pittin (eds.) Confronting State Capital and Patriarchy: Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Basingstoke and London, Macmillan Press Ltd., and New York, St. Martin's Press, Inc., pp. 93-130. Clignet, R. 1970. Many Wives, Many Powers, Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern University Press,. Cohen, A. 1969. Custom and Politics in Urban Africa, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Cohen R. 1971. 'Dominance and Defiance', Anthropological Studies No. 6, American Anthropological Association. Coleman, J.S. 1963. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press. Cooper, B.M. 1995. 'The Politics of Difference and Women's Associations in Niger: Of 'Prostitutes,' the Public, and Polities', Signs Vol. 20(41) pp. 851-82. Dangiwa, A.M. 1971. 'The Changing Role and Status of the Hausa Woman of Northern Nigeria', Diploma in Development Studies thesis, Ruskin College, Oxford, de Lauretis, T. 1990. 'Eccentric Subjects: Feminist Theory and Historical Consciousness', Feminist Studies Vol. 16(1) Spring, pp. 115-50. del Rosario, V.O. 1989. 'Introductions through Mail: The Philippines Case', paper presented at a Research Seminar, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague (mimeo). Denham, Major D. and Capt. H. Clapperton. 1826. Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the Years 1822, 1823, and 1824, London, John Murray. Dennis, C. 1987. 'Women and the State in Nigeria: The Case of the Federal Military Government 1984-85' in H. Afshar (ed.) Women, State and Ideology, Basingstoke and London, The Macmillan Press Ltd., pp. 13-27. Diamond, I. and L. Quinby (eds.). 1988. Feminism and Foucault: Reflections on Resistance, Boston, Northeastern University Press. 450 Bibliography

Drew, C.F. 1975. 'Economic Roles of Women in an Expanding Market Town: A Case Study in Mangu, Benue-Plateau State, Nigeria', M.Sc. thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Dreyfus, H.L. and P. Rabinow. 1983. Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, Second Edition, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press. Dry, D.P.L. 1950. 'The Family Organisation of the Hausa of Northern Nigeria', unpublished B.Sc. thesis, Oxford University. Dry, D.P.L. 1953. 'The Place of Islam in Hausa Society', unpublished D.Phil, thesis, Oxford University. Eickelman, D.F. and J. Piscatori. 1996. Muslim Politics, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press. El-Imairi, M.T. 1977. 'Marriage in Islam: Its Basic Rules and Regulations', Al-Ilm, No. 2, January, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. El-Solh, C.F. and J. Mabro. 1994. 'Introduction: Islam and Muslim Women' in C. Fawzi El-Solh and J. Mabro (eds.) Muslim Women's Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality, Providence, RJ and Oxford, Berg Publishers Ltd., pp. 1-32. Elson, D. 1991a. 'Male Bias in the Development Process: An Overview' in D. Elson (ed.) Male Bias in the Development Process, Manchester, Manchester University Press, pp. 1-28. Elson, D. 1991b. 'Male Bias in Macro-economics: The Case of Structural Adjustment' in D. Elson (ed.) Male Bias in the Development Process, Manchester, Manchester University Press, pp. 164-90. Epstein, A.L. 1969. 'The Network and Urban Social Organization' in J. Clyde Mitchell (ed.) Social Networks in Urban Situations, Manchester, Manchester University Press, pp. 77-116. Everett, J., K. Staudt and E.M. Charlton. 1989. 'Women, the State, and Development' in S.E.M. Charlton, J. Everett, and K. Staudt (eds.) Women, the State, and Development, Albany, State University of New York Press, pp. 1-19. Eziuloh, F. 1995. 'From Maryam to Maryam', New Nigerian 9 April. Fafunwa, A. B. 1991. History of Education in Nigeria, New Edition, Ibadan, NPS Educational Publishers Ltd. Bibliography 451

Fatton, R. Jr. 1989. 'Gender, Class and State in Africa' in J.L. Parpart and K.A. Staudt (eds.) Women and the State in Africa, Boulder, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 47-66. Foucault, M. 1978. The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1: An Introduction, New York, Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. 1980a. 'The Eye of Power' in C. Gordon (ed.) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977 by Michel Foucault, New York, Pantheon Books, pp. 146-65. Foucault, M. 1980b. 'Prison Talk' in C. Gordon (ed.) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977 by Michel Foucault, New York, Pantheon Books, pp. 37-54. Foucault, M. 1980c. 'Two Lectures' in C. Gordon (ed.) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977 by Michel Foucault, New York, Pantheon Books, pp. 78-108. Foucault, M. 1983. 'Afterword: The Subject and Power' in H.L. Dreyfus and P. Rabinow (eds.) Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, Second Edition, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 208-26. Foucault, M. 1996. Foucault Live: Selected Interviews, 1961-1984. Edited by S. Lotringer, New York, Semiotext(e). Frishman, A. 1991. 'Hausa Women in the Urban Economy of Kano' in C. Coles and B. Mack (eds.) Hausa Women in the Twentieth Century, Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 192-203. Galadanci, S.A. 1971. 'Education of Women in Islam with Reference to Nigeria', Nigerian Journal of Islam Vol. 1(2), pp. 5-10. Gaudio R.P. 1996. 'Men Who Talk like Women: Language, Gender and Sexuality in Hausa Muslim Society', Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, California. Giroux, H.A. and P. Freire. 1988. 'Introduction' in K. Weiler, Women Teaching for Change: Gender, Class and Power, South HadleyMass., Bergin and Garvey Publishers Inc., pp. ix-xiv. Goddard, A.D. 1973. 'Changing Family Structures Among the Rural Hausa', Africa Vol. XLffl(3) July, pp. 207-18. Goddard, A.D., J.C. Fine and D.W. Norman. 1971. A Socio-economic Study of Three Villages in the Sokoto Close-settled Zone, 1. Land and People, 452 Bibliography

Samaru Miscellaneous Paper 33, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Goody, E.N. 1971. 'Forms of Pro-Parenthood: The Sharing and Substitution of Parent Roles' in J. Goody (ed.) Kinship, Hammondsworth, Penguin Books, pp. 331-345. Goody, J. and E. Goody. 1967. 'The Circulation of Women and Children in Northern Ghana', Man, N.S. Vol. 2(2) June, pp. 226-48. Gordon, C. 1980. 'Afterword' in C. Gordon (ed.) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977 by Michel Foucault, New York, Pantheon Books, pp. 229-59. Graf, William D. 1988. The Nigerian State: Political Economy, State, Class and Political System in the Post-colonial Era, London and Portsmouth, NH, James Currey and Heinemann. Gregoire, E. 1993. 'Islam and the Identity of Merchants in Maradi (Niger)' in L. Brenner (ed.) Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, pp. 106- 15. Grove, A.T. 1952. Land and Population in Katsina Province, Kaduna, Government Printer. Gumi, A. (ed.). 1964. al-Infaq al-maysur, by Muhammad Bello, Cairo Edition. Hall, Edward T. 1966. The Hidden Dimension, Garden City, NY, Anchor Books, Doubleday & Co., Inc. Halpenny, P. 1975. 'Three Styles of Ethnic Migration in Kisenyi, Kampala' in D. Parkin (ed.) Town and Country in Central and Eastern Africa, International African Institute, London, Oxford University Press, pp. 276-87. Hansen, K.T. 1989. 'The Black Market and Women Traders in Lusaka' in J.L. Parpart and K.A. Staudt (eds.) Women and the State in Africa, Boulder and London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 143- 60. Hassan, M., and M. Sha'ibu. 1946a. Makau, Sarkin Zazzau na Habe, Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation. Hassan, M., and M. Sha'ibu. 1946b. Tarihi da Al'adun Habe na Abuja, Zaria, Gaskiya Press. Bibliography 453

Heath, F. 1952. A Chronicle of Abuja: The English Translation ofM. Hassan andM. Sha'ibu, Makau, Sarkin Zazzau na Habe and Tarihi da Al'adun Habe na Abuja, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press. Hekman, S.J. (ed). 1996. Feminist Interpretations of Michel Foucault, The University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University Press. Hill, D.J. (ed.) n.d. Select Cases from the Area Courts of the Province of Katsina, Northern Nigeria, vol. Ill 1953-1968, Zaria, Center for Islamic Legal Studies, Faculty of Law, Ahmadu Bello University. Hill, P. 1969. 'Hidden Trade in Hausaland', Man Vol. 4(3) September, pp. 392-409. Hill, P. 1972. Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting, London, Cambridge University Press. Hill. P. 1974. 'Big Houses in Kano Emirate', Africa Vol. XLIV(2) April, pp. 117-35. Hill, P. 1977. Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano 1900 and 1970, London, Cambridge University Press. Hiskett, M. 1960. 'Kitab al-Farq: A Work on the Habe Kingdoms attributed to 'Uthman Dan Fodio', Bulletin of the S.O.A.S., University of London, Vol. XXIII: Part 3, pp. 558-79. Hiskett, M. 1963. Translation of Tazyin al-Waraqat, by 'Abdullah Ibn Muhammad, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press. Hiskett, M. 1975. A History of Hausa Islamic Verse, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, University of London. Hodgkin, T. 1960. Nigerian Perspectives, London Oxford University Press. Hogben, S.J., and A.H.M. Kirk-Greene. 1966. The Emirates of Northern Nigeria, London, Oxford University Press. Hubbard, J.P. 1975. 'Government and Islamic Education in Northern Nigeria (1900-1940)' in G.N. Brown and M. Hiskett (eds.) Conflict and Harmony in Education in Tropical Africa, London, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., pp. 247-70. Hunwick, J.O. 1971. 'Songhay, Bornu, and Hausaland in the Sixteenth Century' in J.F. Ade Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.) History of West Africa, vol. 1, London, Longman Group Ltd., pp. 202-39. Ibrahim, J. 1991. 'Religion and Political Turbulence in Nigeria', The Journal of Modern African Studies Vol. 29(1) pp. 115-36. 454 Bibliography

Ighodalo, F.M. 1976. 'Barriers to Participation of Nigerian Women in Modern Labour Force', paper presented at the National Conference on Nigerian Women and Development in Relation to Changing Family Structure, University of Ibadan, Nigeria (mimeo). ILO. 1991. 'The Dilemma of the Informal Sector', Geneva. Imam, A.M. 1990. 'Female Seclusion and Islam in Northern Nigeria', paper presented as part of the Women and Development Seminar Series, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague. Imam, A.M. 1993. "If You Won't Do These Things for Me, I Won't Do Seclusion for You': Local and Regional Constructions of Seclusion Ideologies and Practices in Kano, Northern Nigeria'. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Sussex. Imam, A.M. 1994. 'Politics, Islam, and Women in Kano, Northern Nigeria' in V.M. Moghadam (ed.) Identity Politics and Women: Cultural Reassertions and Feminisms in International Perspective, Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford, Westview Press, pp. 123-44. Imam, A.M. 1997. 'The Muslim Religious Right ('Fundamentalists') and Sexuality', Women Living Under Muslim Laws Dossier 17, June, pp. 7- 25. Indabawa, S.A. 1995. 'Access, Equity in Female Education - Kano Deboarding Example', New Nigerian on Sunday 17 & 24September. Indabawa, S.A. 1997. 'The Katsina College: Inception, Growth and Impact in Northern Nigeria' in LA. Tsiga and A.U. Adamu (eds.) Islam and the History of Learning in Katsina, Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd., pp. 200- 13. Jackson, S. 1978. 'Hausa Women on Strike', Review of African Political EconomyNo. 13, pp. 21-36. Johnston, H.A.S. 1967. The Fulani Empire of Sokoto, London, Oxford University Press. Kachalla, B.G. 1997. 'Deboarding and Girl Child Education', New Nigerian 16 September. Kaita, H.I. 1973. 'Women's Education in the Northern States of Nigeria 1950-1972', paper for Diploma in Education, University of Nottingham. Kandiyoti, Deniz. 1988. 'Bargaining with Patriarchy', Gender and Society Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 274-290. Bibliography 455

Keay, E.A. and S.S. Richardson. 1966. The Native and Customary Courts in Nigeria, Law in Africa No. 18, London, Sweet & Maxwell Ltd., and Lagos, African Universities Press Ltd. Kimble, J. 1983. "Runaway Wives': Basotho Women, Chiefs, and the Colonial State, c. 1890-1920', seminar paper, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London (mimeo). Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. 1972. Gazetteers of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria: 1, The Hausa Emirates (Bauchi, Sokoto, Zaria, Kano), London, Frank Cass and Co. Ltd. Konan, M.M. 1975. Occupations and Family Patterns among the Hausa in Northern Nigeria, Samaru Miscellaneous Paper 52, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Kuczynski, R.R. 1948. Demographic Survey of the British Colonial Empire, vol. 1, West Africa. London, Oxford University Press. Lewis, I.M. 1971. Ecstatic Religion, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Ltd. Little, K. 1973. African Women in Towns, London, Cambridge University Press. Lovett, M. 1989. 'Gender Relations, Class Formation, and the Colonial State in Africa' in J.L. Parpart and K.A. Staudt (eds.) Women and the State in Africa, Boulder and London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 23-46. Mabogunje, A.L. 1968. Urbanization in Nigeria, London, University of London Press Ltd. MacCannell, D. and J.F. MacCannell. 1993. ' Violence, Power and Pleasure: A Revisionist Reading of Foucault from the Victim Perspective' in C. Ramazanoglu (ed.) Up against Foucault: Explorations of some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, London, Routledge, pp. 203-38. Masquelier, A. 1996. 'Identity, Alterity and Ambiguity in a Nigerian Community: Competing Definitions of 'True' Islam' in R. Werbner and T. Ranger (eds.) Postcolonial Identities in Africa, London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Zed Books Ltd., pp. 222-44. Mayer, A.C. 1966. 'The Significance of Quasi-Groups in the Study of Complex Societies' in M. Banton (ed.) The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies, ASA Monograph 4, London, Tavistock Publications Ltd., pp. 97-122. 456 Bibliography

McNay, L. 1992. Foucault and Feminism: Power, Gender and the Self, Cambridge, Polity Press. Meek, C.K. 1925. The Northern Tribes of Nigeria, London, Oxford University Press. Mernissi, F. 1975. Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Modern Muslim Society, Cambridge, Mass., Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc. Mernissi, Fatima 1996. Women's Rebellion & Islamic Memory, London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Zed Books Ltd. Mies, M., V. Bennholdt-Thomsen, and C. von Werlhof (eds.). 1988. Women: The Last Colony, London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Zed Books Ltd. Milstead, B. 1986. 'Feminist Theology and Women in the Muslim World: An Interview with Riffat Hassan', Reproduced from the Committee on South Asian Women (ed.) Bulletin Vol. 4(4) pp. 16-20, in Women Living under Muslim Laws Dossier 4,1988, pp. 31-3. Ministere des Colonies. 1911. Documents scientifiques de la Mission Tilho (1906-1909) Emile Larose, Paris, 4 vols. Mohammed, A.S. 1975. 'Prostitution as a Social Problem in the North western State - Sabon Garin Sokoto Case Study', B.Sc. thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Molyneux, M. 1985. 'Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, The State, and Revolution in Nicaragua', Femininst Studies Vol 11(2) pp. 227-53. Monfouga-Nicolas, J. (see also Nicolas, J.). 1972. Ambivalence et culte de possession, Paris, Editions Anthropos. Moore, H.L. 1988. Feminism and Anthropology, Cambridge, Polity Press. Morgan, R. (ed.). 1970. Sisterhood is Powerful, New York, Vintage Books. Morokvasic, M. 1984. 'Birds of Passage Are Also Women', International Migration Review Vol. 18, Winter, pp. 886-907. Mortimore, M.J., and J. Wilson. 1965. Land and People in the Kano Close- settled Zone, Department of Geography Occasional Paper No. 1, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Mustapha, A.R. 1992. 'Structural Adjustment and Multiple Modes of Social Livelihood in Nigeria' in P. Gibbon, Y. Bangura and A. Ofstad (eds.) Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Adjustment: The Politics of Economic Bibliography 457

Reform in Africa, Seminar Proceedings No. 26, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, pp. 188-216. Nadel, S.F. 1942. A Black Byzantium: the Kingdom of Nupe in Nigeria, International African Institute, London, Oxford University Press. Nelson, N. 1977. 'Dependence and Independence: Female Household Heads in Mathare Valley, a Squatter Community', Ph.D. thesis, University of London. Nicolas, G. 1969. 'Fondements magico-religieux du pouvoir politique dans la Principaute du Gobir', Journal de la Societe des Africanistes, t. XXXIX, fasc. 2, pp. 199-231. Nicolas, G. 1970. 'Circulation des biens et echanges monetaires en pays haoussa (Niger)', Cahiers Vilfredo Pareto, Revue europeenne des sciences sociales, 21, pp. 111-120. Nicolas, G. 1975. Dynamique Sociale et Apprehension du Monde au sein d'une Societe Hausa, Institut d'Ethnologie, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Nicolas, J. 1967. 'Les juments des dieux': Rites de possession et condition feminine en pays Hausa, Etudes Nigeriennes No. 21, IFAN-CNRS. Nigeria Women and Law Project 1995 (mimeo). Norman, D.W. 1967; Reprinted 1974. An Economic Study of Three Villages in Zaria Province: 1. Land and Labour Relationships, Samaru Miscellaneous Paper No. 19, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. North-Central State of Nigeria. Classes, Enrolments, and Teachers in Schools and Colleges of North-Central State in 1971. Planning Division, Ministry of Education, Kaduna. Norval, A.J. 1996. 'Thinking Identities: Against a Theory of Ethnicity' in E.N. Wilmsen and P. McAllister (eds.) The Politics of Difference: Ethnic Premises in a World of Power, Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 59-70. Obbo, C. 1975. 'Women's Careers in Low Income Areas as Indicators of Country and Town Dynamics' in D. Parkin (ed.) Town and Country in Central and Eastern Africa, International African Institute, London, Oxford University Press, pp. 288-93. 458 Bibliography

Ogunbiyi, LA. 1969. 'The Position of Muslim Women as Stated by 'Uthman b. Fudi', Odu, N.S. Vol. 2, October, pp. 43-60. Olusanya, P.O. 1966. 'Adequacy of Existing Census and Vital Statistics for Demographic Research and Planning', Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies, Vol. Vffl(l) March, pp. 141-50. Onwuejeogwu, M. 1969. 'The Cult of Bori Spirits among the Hausa' in M. Douglas and P.M. Kaberry (eds.) Man in Africa, London, Tavistock Publications, pp. 279-305. Paden, J. 1986. Ahmadu Bello: Sardauna of Sokoto, London, Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd. Palmer, H.R. 1912-13. 'The Bomu Girgam', Journal of the African Society Vol. XII, pp. 71-83. Palmer, H.R. 1927. 'History of Katsina', Journal of the African Society Vol. XXVI(CIII) April, pp. 216-36. Palmer, H.R. 1928. Sudanese Memoirs, 3 vols., Lagos. Palmer, H.R. 1950. 'Review of Y. Urvoy, Histoire de I'Empire du Bornu\ Africa Vol. XX(2) April, pp. 161-63. Parpart, J.L. 1988. 'Women and the State' in D. Rottichild and N. Chazan (eds.) The Precarious Balance: State and the Society in Africa, Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford, Westview Press. Parpart, J.L. and K.A. Staudt. 1989. 'Women and the State in Africa' in J.L. Parpart and K.A. Staudt (eds.) Women and the State in Africa, Boulder, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 1-19. Perham, M. 1960. Lugard: The Years of Authority 1898-1945, London, Collins. Peters, EX. 1978. 'The Status of Women in Four Middle East Communities' in L. Beck and N. Keddi (eds.) Women in the Muslim World, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, pp. 311-50. Phillips, A. and H.F. Morris. 1971. Marriage Laws in Africa, International African Institute, London, Oxford University Press,. Phizacklea, A. 1983. 'Introduction' in in A. Phizacklea (ed.) One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour, London, Boston, Melbourne and Henley, Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 1-11. Bibliography 459

Pittin, R. 1982. 'Documentation of Women's Work in Nigeria: Problems and Solutions', Population and Labour Policies Programme Working Paper No. 125, International Labour Office, Geneva. Pittin, R. 1983. 'Measuring the Invisible Work of Invisible Women: Considerations for Census Planning', paper presented at the National Conference on the Philosophy of Population Census, University of Ibadan, February, 1982. Published in O.O. Arowolo and O. Daramola (eds.) Philosophy of Population Census in Nigeria, National Population Commission, Lagos, Nigeria. Pittin, R. 1984a. 'Documentation and Analysis of the Invisible Work of Invisible Women: A Nigerian Case Study', International Labour Review Vol. 123(4) pp. 473-90. Pittin, R. 1984b. 'Migration of Women in Nigeria: The Hausa Case', International Migration Review Vol. 18, Winter, pp. 1293-314. Population Census of Nigeria. 1931. Vol. I-Nigeria, by S.M. Jacob, 1933; Vol. II- Census of the Northern Provinces, by N.J. Brooke, 1933; Vol. V - Medical Census, Northern Provinces, by Dr. R.C. Jones, 1932. London, Crown Agents for the Colonies. Population Census of Nigeria. 1952. Population Census of the Northern Region of Nigeria, 1952, Lagos, Department of Statistics, 1953. Population Census of Nigeria. 1963. Population Census of Nigeria, Lagos, Federal Office of Statistics, 10 vols. Pringle, R. and S. Watson. 1992. ' "Women's Interests" and the Post- Structuralist State' in M. Barrett and A. Phillips (eds.) Destabilizing Theory: Contemporary Feminist Debates, Cambridge, Polity Press, pp. 53-73. Prothero, R.M. 1956. 'The Population Census of Northern Nigeria 1952: Problems and Results', Population Studies Vol. X(2) November, pp. 166- 83. Ramazanoglu, C. (ed.). 1993. Up Against Foucault: Explorations of some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, London, Routledge. Ramazanoglu, C. and J. Holland. 1993. 'Women's Sexuality and Men's Appropriation of Desire' in C. Ramazanoglu (ed.) Up against Foucault: Explorations of some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, London, Routledge, pp. 239-64. 460 Bibliography

Ransom, J. 1993. 'Feminism, Difference and Discourse: The Limits of Discursive Analysis for Feminism' in C. Ramazanoglu (ed.) Up against Foucault: Explorations of some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, London, Routledge, pp. 123-46. Reiter, R.R. 1975. 'Introduction' in R.R. Reiter (ed.) Toward an Anthropology of Women, New York, Monthly Review Press, pp. 11-19. Roberts, P. 1984. 'Feminism in Africa; Feminism and Africa', Review of African Political Economy, Nos. 27/28, pp. 175-84. Roberts, P. 1987. 'The State and the Regulation of Marriage: Sefwi Wiawso (Ghana) 1900-40' in H. Afshar, Women, State and Ideology: Studies from Africa and Asia, Basingstoke and London, The Macmillan Press Ltd., pp. 48-69. Robertson, C. 1986. 'Women's Education and Class Formation in Africa' in C. Robertson and I. Berger (eds.) Women and Class in Africa, Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., pp. 92-113. Robinson, C.R. 1896. Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Soudan, London, Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Rosaldo, M.Z. 1974. 'Woman, Culture and Society: A Theoretical Overview' in M.Z. Rosaldo and L. Lamphere (eds.) Woman, Culture, and Society, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press. Rosen, L. 1978. 'The Negotiation of Reality: Male-Female Relations in Sefrou, Morocco' in L. Beck and N. Keddie, Women in the Muslim World, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, pp. 561-84. Sacks, K. 1974. 'Engels Revisited: Women, the Organization of Production, and Private Property' in M.Z. Rosaldo and L. Lamphere (eds.) Woman, Culture and Society, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press. Sawicki, J. 1991. 'Foucault and Feminism: Toward a Politics of Difference' in M.L. Shanley and C. Pateman (eds.) Feminist Interpretations and Political Theory, University Park, The Pennsylvania University Press, pp. 217-31. Originally published in Hypatia, 1986. Schacht, J. 1957. 'Islam in Northern Nigeria', Studia Islamica VIII, pp. 123- 46. Schildkrout, E. 1978. 'Age and Gender in Hausa Society: Socio-economic Roles of Children in Urban Kano' in J.S. LaFontaine (ed.) Sex and Age Bibliography 461

as Principles of Social Differentiation, ASA Monograph 17, London, Academic Press, pp. 109-37. Scott, J.C. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven and London, Yale University Press. Scott, J.C. 1990. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, New Haven and London, Yale University Press. Scott, J.W. 1988. 'Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis' in J.W. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, New York, Columbia University Press, pp. 28-50. Sesay, A. and A. Odebiyi (eds.). 1998. Nigerian Women in Society and Development, Lagos, Dokun Publishing House. Shani, M.I. n.d. [a]. Digest of Maliki Family Law, Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation. Shani, M.I. n.d. [b]. 'The Impact of Custom on the Islamic Law of Divorce in the Northern States of Nigeria', Centre for Islamic Legal Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (typescript). Shekarau, I. 1995. 'Boarding and Deboarding in Kano: Which Way Forward?', New Nigerian Sept. 21 & 23. Simmons, E.B. 1973. 'The Economics of Consumer-oriented Food Procession Technology in Northern Nigeria', Samaru Agricultural Newsletter Vol. 15(2) pp. 56-72. Simmons, E.B. 1975. 'The Small-scale Rural Food-processing Industry in Northern Nigeria', Food Research Institute Studies Vol. XIV(2) pp. 147- 61. Simmons, E.B. 1976. 'Calorie and Protein Intakes in Three Villages of Zaria Province, May 1970-July 1971', Samaru Miscellaneous Paper 55, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Smith, H.F.C. (Abdullahi). 1961a. 'A Fragment on 18th Century Katsina' in Bulletin of News, The Historical Society of Nigeria, Vol. V(4) March, pp. 4-6. Smith, H.F.C. (Abdullahi). 1961b. 'A Further Adventure in the Chronology of Katsina', Bulletin of News, The Historical Society of Nigeria, Vol. VI(l)June,pp.5-7. 462 Bibliography

Smith, H.F.C. (Abdullahi). 1971. 'The Early States of the Central Sudan' in J.F. Ade Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds.) History of West Africa, vol. 1, London, Longman Group Ltd., pp. 158-201. Smith, M. 1954. Baba ofKaro: A Woman of the Muslim Hausa, London, Faber&FaberLtd. Smith, M.G. 1954. 'Introduction' in M. Smith, Baba ofKaro: A Woman of the Muslim Hausa, London, Faber & Faber Ltd. Smith, M.G. 1955. The Economy of Hausa Communities of Zaria, Colonial Research Series No. 16, London, HMSO. Smitti, M.G. 1959. 'The Hausa System of Social Status', Africa Vol. XXIX, pp. 239-52. Smitti, M.G. 1960. Government in Zazzau 1800-1950, London, Oxford University Press. Sotade, N. 1995. 'Setting an Agenda for the Women's Ministry', The Guardian, Lagos, November 23. Staudinger, P. 1990. In the Heart of the Hausa States, translated by Johanna E. Moody, Ohio University Monographs in International Studies, Africa Series No. 56, Athens, Ohio. Stichter, S.B. and J.L. Parpart. 1988. 'Introduction: Towards a Materialist Perspective on African Women' in S.B. Stichter and J.L. Parpart (eds.) Patriarchy and Class, Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford, Westview Press, Inc., pp. 1-26. Sulaiman, M.D. 1997. 'Islamic Fundamentalism: The Shi'a in Katsina' in LA. Tsiga and A.U. Adamu (eds.) Islam and the History of Learning in Katsina, Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd., pp. 53-66. Thadani, V.N. and M.P. Todaro. 1979. 'Female Migration in Developing Countries: A Framework for Analysis', Center for Policy Studies Working Paper No. 47, The Population Council, New York. Todaro, M.P. 1976. Internal Migration in Developing Countries: A Review of Theory. Geneva ILO. Tremearne, A.J.N. 1914. The Ban of the Bori: Demons and Demon-Dancing in West and North Africa. Reprinted by Frank Cass & Co., Ltd., 1968. Trevor, J. 1975. 'Western Education and Muslim Fulani/Hausa Women in Sokoto, Northern Nigeria' in G.N. Brown and M. Hiskett (eds.) Conflict Bibliography 463

and Harmony in Education in Tropical Africa, London, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., pp. 247-70. Umar, Muhammad Sani. 1993. 'Changing Islamic Identity in Nigeria from the 1960s to the 1980s : From Sufism to Anti-Sufism' in L. Brenner (ed.) Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, pp. 154- 78. Usman, H. 1997. 'Reproductive Health and Rights: The Case of Northern Nigerian Hausa Women', Africa Development Vol. XXII(l) pp. 79-94. Usman, Y.B. 1972. 'Some Aspects of the External Relations of Katsina before 1804', Savannah Vol. 1(2) December, pp. 175-97. Usman, Y.B. 1974. 'The Transformation of Katsina: c. 1796-1903. The Overthrow of the Sarauta System and the Establishment and Evolution of the Emirate'. Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Usman, Y.B. 1981. The Transformation of Katsina: 1400-1883, Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd. Usman, Y.B. 1994. Katsina State in the Nigerian Federation: The Basic Realities, Kaduna, Dansa Publications Ltd. Veblen, T. 1957. The Theory of the Leisure Class, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Walby, S. 1992. 'Woman and Nation', International Journal of Comparative Sociology XXXIII(l-2) pp. 81-100. Walby, S. 1994. 'Is Citizenship Gendered?', Sociology Vol. 28(2) pp. 379- 95. Wallace, T. 1978. 'Rural Development through Irrigation: Studies in a Town on the Kano River Project', Center for Social and Economic Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (mimeo). Weedon, C. 1987. Feminist Practice and Poststructuralist Theory, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Weiler, K. 1988. Women Teaching for Change: Gender, Class and Power, South Hadley, Mass., Bergin and Garvey Publishers., Inc. Weisman, L.K. 1981. 'Women's Environmental Rights: A Manifesto', Heresies 5(3) pp. 6-8. 464 Bibliography

White, L. 1988. 'Domestic Labor in a Colonial City: Prostitution in Nairobi 1900-1952' in S.B. Stichter and J.L. Parpart, Patriarchy and Class: African Women in the Home and the Workforce, Boulder and London, Westview Press, pp. 139-60. White, L. 1990. The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi, Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press. Whitting, C.E.J. (ed.). 1951. Infaku'l Maisuri, by Muhammad Bello, London, Luzac & Co., Ltd. Wolf, E.R. 1966. 'Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies' in M. Banton (ed.) The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies, ASA Monograph 4, Tavistock Publications Ltd., London, pp. 1-22. Yeld, E.R. 1960. 'Islam and Social Stratification in Northern Nigeria', British Journal of Sociology No. 11, pp. 112-28. Yusuf, B. 1991. 'Hausa-Fulani Women: The State of the Struggle' in C. Coles and B. Mack (eds.) Hausa Women in the Twentieth Century, Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 90-106. Zlotnik, H. 1990. 'Conference Report: International Migration Policies and the Status of Female Migrants', International Migration Review, Vol. 24 Summer, pp. 372-81.

Court Records

Katsina Area, Court No. 1. Civil Record Books, Nos. 3, 4, and 5. 27 July 1971-25 September 1972. Katsina Area, Court No. 2. Civil Record Books, Nos. 5 and 6. 15 April 1971 -9 September 1972. Upper Area Court, Katsina. Civil First Instance Record Book, vol. V. 13 January 1971 - 28 June 1973. Upper Area Court, Katsina. Civil Appeal Record Book, 1971-72. Bibliography 465

Archival Sources (from the National Archives Kaduna)

'Katsina Division Quarterly Reports, 1915', Katprof I, Ace. No. 1279. 'Katsina Province Annual Report -1938', S.N.P. 17/4, Agency Mark 30876, Ace. No. 4785. 'Katsina Province Annual Report, 1939 - Returns', S.N.P. 17/4, Agency Mark 32072A, Ace. No. 5020. 'Annual Report - Katsina Province 1953', Katprof 1, Agency No. 4247, Ace. No. 1245. 'Marriage Custom etc. etc. Correspondence relating to 1927-36)', Katprof 1, File 1488, Ace. No. 613. 'Native Courts - Devorce [sic] in (1920-41)', Katprof 1, File 1674, Ace. No. 655. 'School for Girls - Katsina' (1929-32) Katprof 1, Agency No. 400, Ace. No. 248.

Nigerian Newspapers and Magazines Citizen Daily Champion Daily Times Guardian Katsina Focus Newswatch Newsweek New Breed New Nigerian Tell Vanguard Index

Abacha, Maryam 107-110, 367 Akwato 216-8 Family Economic Advancement alcohol, ban on 98-9, 103,104, 205-45, Programme (FEAP) 108-11 220, 417 Ministry of Women Affairs and Family Alkaliya 192, 195 Support 108 al-Maghili of Tilemsan 23 Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Aluko, S.A. 408 Development 109, 111 Amin, Samir 153 Family Support Programme 107-10, Anderson, J.N.D. 252, 268, 432 419 Anthias F. 58 women's university, proposed 367 Anyon, J. 369 Abacha, Sani 107,108,110 Arberry, A.J. 282 Abba, Y. 33 Ardener, Edwin 407 Abell,H. 415 Ardener, Shirley 118, 407, 420 Abdullah, Hussaina 106, 419 Arnett, E.J. 412, 413 Abraham, R.C. 430 Atsenuwa, A.V. 108, 252 Abubakar, Fati Women's Rights Advancement and Baba, J.M. 415 Protection Alternative (WRAPA) Babangida, Ibrahim 26, 94, 97 110-111 Babangida, Maryam 85, 105-6 Abubakar, S. 34 Better Life for Rural Women 105-8, Adamu, L.S. 252 111 Adamu, H. 82, 439 Bach, R.L. 153 Africa bachelors' houses 51-2 prostitution in 215, 221, 227, 233 Badran, M. 432 state control of women 58-9 bajawara [bazawara] (non-married African Charter on Human and People's woman), see non-marriage Rights 95,104 Baobab 431 Africanus, Leo 24 Barda, Alhaji Saidu 37, 356 Afshar, H. 415 Barkindo, B.M. 424 age Barkow, J.H. 69, 156, 189, 421, 422, 425 beginning karuwanci 171-72, 389 Barth, Heinrich 21, 24-6, 40 likelihood of remarriage (women) 238, Bashir, M.K. 334, 434 276 Bayajida legend 22,61,62 old age as achieved/ ascribed status 15, Bayart, Jean-Francois 94 121,140-41,339 Bello, Ahmadu 88,346,439 old age, preparation for 225, 248-49 Bello, Muhammad (Emir) 62 old(er) women 141-49, 172, 32, 381, Bentham, Jeremy 76, 86 382; ceremonies 288; occupations Beraus, S. 156 143-5, 383-4; residential ties, see Better Life for Rural Women 105-8,111 also compound Blunt, A. 118,407 -specific work 229-30, 297, 301 Boissevain, J. 183 Ahmed, K.N. 282 Bordo, Susan 77

466 Index 467 bori 65-74 Charlton, E.M. 413 banning of 68-9,70 Chazan, N. 228 continuity and transformation 54, Chhachhi, A. 11,91 68-71 Child Care Trust (CCT) 111 historical 23, 61, 63, 65-8 children and karuwai 211-12 child marriage 251-2 as medicine 73-4, 425 childbirth custom and ritual 287, as protection and support 73-4, 213, 311-12,318,324 425 in compound composition 51 -2 public vs. private 69-71 in divorce 267-9, 326, 334,431 ritual 66,69-71,115,188,213 economic value 132, 139-40, 269, 291, shrine of Inna or Uwa 65 304 relationship to contemporary power foster 142, 269-74, 284, 310, 395; 70-2 inheritance 272-73 titles 63,71-2 influence on marriage 128, 135,140, women's (loss of) political authority, 250, 284 post-Jihad 64-8 and karuwai, see karuwai women's political authority, pre-Jihad parental rights 267-9, 334, 431 61,63,65-7 in sororate marriage 260 'yan garaya 69-71, 73, 413-14 support of 132, 139-40, 143, 308 'yan kwarya 69-73, 413 see also education, marriage, divorce boundaries 12-13, 16-17, 214, 371 Churchill, Winston 118 moving beyond 151-77 Clapperton, Captain H. 25, 413 permeability of 118-51 class politics of location 118, 288 ceremonial attendance 314-16 Bovin, M. 421,422,423-4 differentiation of tasks 333-34 Boyd,J. 438,439 education 342, 345, 347-51, 359, Brettell, C.B. 152 362-453, 366, 369 British rule, see colonial period elite woman's organisations 112-15 see also education, Katsina City, and karuwai 181 marriage, women leisure as class indicator 293-6, 401 Brown, Wendy 58 position and occupation 307-9, 323, Bujra, J. 216, 234 336-7 ruling 36,40-42,57,61,66,70,83, CEDAW 104 86-7, 115, 145-7, 186-7, 204, 212, census data 227, 334, 378, 409; marriage 259 1931: population 31; women's servants as class indicator 293-4 occupations 289 spouses' relative status 322-323 1952: population 31; rural/urban see also ceremonies, compound, population 22; women's education, marriage, occupations, occupations 289-90 seclusion, women 1963: 434; population 31; rural/urban Clifford, Sir Hugh 346 population 22; women's Clignet, R. 332 occupations 290-1 Cohen, Abner 8, 123, 231, 245, 267-68, ceremonies 213, 309-10, 326, 338, 424, 311,413,422,435 434-435 Cohen, Ronald 80-1, 259, 408 access to 312-14 Coleman, J. S. 345 attendance at 312-15 colonial period 36, 54 among educated, elite 314-15, administration 26, 28, 33, 34 319-322 divorce, see divorce and rise in sectarianism 267, 318-19 ending of slavery 78 see also bori, gift-exchange, seclusion Government Enquiry into Forced Chamah, Samaila Bature 38, 440 Marriage 1936 254-5 468 Index colonial period - continued Diamond, I. 406 ideology of domesticity 348-350 Dikko, Muhammadu (Emir of Katsina) Indirect Rule 87-8, 341, 345, 357 26, 40, 437 industry 37 discourse 8-12,77,124-6, 335, 371 see also education, Katsina City, alternative or subaltern 10, 16, 86, marriage, women 207-8, 213, 244, 249, 332-3, 371 Comet News 206 dominant 10,13-16, 86,103,105,119, compound (gida) 46-9, 88, 152 125,130, 207-11, 213, 239, 244, composition 51-3, 380, 381 249, 332-33, 244, 249, 332-3, 339, distribution of food 48; women- 371 centered households 120, 131, and terminology 124-6, 149 133,134,138, 141, 146; among divorce karuwai 180; at marriage 292-3 and childlessness 274-5 fostering of children 271, 272 in first marriage 257-60 gender relations and control over space frequency 275-7 50-51 colonial rule 78, 278-9 head of compound (mai gida) 51, ease of 50, 122, 251, 258-9, 277-83 127-9, 140, 145, 150, 291, 380 judicial 278; history of 278-9,432; household, deconstruction of 46-49 written proof of 279, 283; non-kin-based ties 51-53 through compensation by wife of non-married women, see compound, 281-2, 400 women-centred, see also non- Katsina Area Court proceedings marriage 279-83, 327, 400 layout 49-51 loss of children 267-9, 326, 334, 431 raising of animals 297-8 under Maliki law 281 relationships among women 145-8 polygyny 326,329 ties of older women 141-3,330 procedures 277, 325, 331-2 women centred 120-1, 131-41, reconciliation 280-2, 400, 433 178-81, 189, 198, 217, 218, 234; return of marriage expenses 266-7, 293 case-study 146-7 unilateral repudiation (talaq) 211, 281, women's control of 48 283, 431-2 see also marriage, occupations, dress codes, see women, dress codes polygyny, seclusion, women Drew, C.F. 435 consumption, common, see household, Dreyfus, H.L. 8, 77 deconstruction of 46-49; see also drought 21; fear of 199-202,243 compound, food distribution Durbawa 22 Cooper, B.M. 67 Dry, D.P.L. 254, 422 Coulon, Christian 94 courtesanship, see karuwai, karuwanci economy of Katsina, see also Katsina City courtship, see marriage, courtship economic activities of men, see co-wives, see polygyny occupations, men economic activities of women, see Daily Champion 106 occupations, women (married), age, Dallaji, Umaru (Emir of Katsina) 25-26 older women, non-marriage, Danbaba, Rabi 6 karuwai, karuwanci Dan Fodio, Shehu Usman, see Jihad of... informal sector 227-8 Dangiwa, A.M. 436 wage labour 42, 58,144, 237, 287, Dan Marina 24 335-6, 352, 363 Dan Masani 24 economic crisis 197, 203, 219, 286, De Lauretis, T. 11 304-7, 318-19, 342 del Rosario, V.O. 155 disappearance of traditional crafts Denham, Major D. 25,413 304-5 Dennis, C. 203 technological change 304-7 Index 469 education purpose of education: contemporary co-educational day secondary schools 366-70; Muslim 343-4; Western 359-61, 364; withdrawal of girls 347-50, 363 360-61 pre-colonial 343-5, 438; conflicting concept of pedagogy 368-69 views 344; support of Usman deterioration of 353-6, 361, 369; dan Fodio 93, 343-4 examination results 355-56 Provincial Girls' School 350 inadequate infrastructure 354 release from total seclusion 287 Islamic university, proposed 365, removal of girls from school 347, 367 349 Islamiyya schools 354, 357-59, 367 resistance to 344,351 Katsina primary schools 350-54, 358; right to education 366 7 gender ratio 352-3 schools for married women 93, 366 Koranic education, traditional 343, support for, by educated women 366 346, 358, 439 western 342-3, 349-50, 357, 363; Koranic scholars (malams [malamai\) introduction of 346-8 256, 287, 309, 352 women, educated 344, 352, 366-8, Muslim education, state support for 374-6; display of wealth 311; 358, 365 elite 114, 366; in senior positions resuscitation efforts (Katsina) 356; 112,308,366 Education Trust Fund 354, 356 in Yarinci 352 tradition of educational excellence 25, women's university, proposed 367, 346 444 Universal Basic Education (UBE) 354 young married women 84, 287, 304 Universal Primary Education (UPE) see also Katsina Local Education Authority, 353^ Women's Teachers College, Katsina, education (men's) 18, 24,41-2,44, 83, Women's Teachers College, Kabomo 135,352 Education Trust Fund 356 colonial 345-6,357 Eickelman, D.F. 430, 432 education (women's) 14, 18, 84, 151, 336, El-Imairi, M.T. 253 340-70 El-Sohl, C.F. 368 access through sectarianism: support Elson, D. 337 through izala 93, 357 Environmental Protection Agency (1994) boarding schools 360, 362-5 21 class-associated 344, 348, 351-2, 359, Epstein, A.L. 182 362-4, 442 Everett, J. 413 colonial 341-2, 347-50; importance of Emir's support 347-50 Fafunwa, A.B. 438 denial of 342,363-64 Family Economic Advancement difficulty of access to 227, 345, 346 Programme (FEAP) 108-111 for domesticity 348-50 Family Support Programme 107-10, 419 dress codes at schools 85, 365 Fatton, R. Jr. 59, 227 economic deterrent to 342, 361 Fawehinmi, Gani 106, 419 and early marriage 360; girls' age at Federation of Muslim Women's marriage 252, 347, 349 Associations of Nigeria (FOMWAN) of foster children 271 14,113-114,366,415,419 Girls' Education Centre 347-9 feminism 8 in Marina 351 feminist theory 56, 155, 369 marriage ceremonies for educated Fine, J.C. 411 women 319 First Republic (1960-66) 88-89, 190-2 need for 375 see also karuwai, women out-migration 44 Fitilar Katsina 356 about political issues 89-90 Foucault, Michel 7-9,11, 72, 76-7, 335 470 Index

Fourth Republic (1999- ) 3,28,97, government, see state, Katsina State, 10O-5, 110,372-5 Katsina State House of Assembly, see demand for confederation 98 also, e.g., education, karuwai Frishman, A. 436 Government Residential Area (GRA) 27, Freire P. 368 33,84 Fulani Gowon, Yakubu 28 ethnic group 34-6, 409 Graf, W.D. 408 linguistic group 34 Gramsci, A. 369 Funtuwa, Hamisu Yaddudu 210 Gregoire, E. 437, 441 Grove, A.T. 21,37 Garba, Alhaji Kabir (Katsina State Guardian 21, 37, 92, 98, 99, 100, Commissioner for Education) 358 101,102,103,104,105,109,111, Gaudio, Rudy 190 206, 207, 354, 355, 367, 372, 374, gender 375 access to citizenship 57 Guardian on Saturday 110 -based government programmes Guardian on Sunday 358 105-11; in relation to NGOs Gumi, Sheikh Abubakar 357, 413 110-11 -based networks 182 Habe bias in history 65 ethnic group 34-5 class, and access to resources 226-30 states 63-7 demographic imbalance 43-5 rule 22-5,66 and discourse 9, 11,13, 14, 77, 86; see see also bori, Hausa also discourse;discourse, Hadeja, Mu'azu 209 alternative; discourse, dominant Hall, Edward 118,420 migration analysis, see migration Halpenny, P. 233-^ -restricted economic choice 220, 227-8 Hansen, K.T. 227-8 -segregated systems 113 Hassan, M. 64, 413 "separate spheres" 50 Hassan, Riffat 80 see also discourse, men, seclusion, Hausa women courtesanship, see karuwanci gidajen mata ('houses of women'), see divorce, see divorce. karuwanci as ethnic group 34-6; distinguished Gidauniyar Jihar Katsina (state from Habe 34-6, development fund) 38 distinguished from Fulani 34-6 gift-exchange 288,309,312, 338 early history (Katsina) 22-3, 60-3; change with increased sectarianism see also Katsina, women 318 fostering, see fostering equal status (biki) 317-18, 319-22; as linguistic group 34 case studies 321-322 marriage, see marriage formal friendships and alliances poetry 78,209-10 316-24, 338 see also occupations, state, women, and marriage 223, 327-28, 332 passim occasions 317-18, 338 Heath, F. 412,413 unequal status 317, 322-3; case studies Hekman, S.J. 406 322-23 Hill, D.J. 415,435 see also ceremonies, class Hill, Polly 5, 34, 78, 79, 127, 294, 300, Giroux, H.A. 368 407,408, 410, 421, 427, 430, 436 Gobirau Minaret 23 Hiskett, M 64, 78, 209, 210, 344 Goddard, A.D. 411 Hodgkin, T. 344 Goffman,E. 118,420 Hogben, J.S. 61,62,64,408,412 Goody, Jack 271 Holland, J. 9 Goody, Esther 270,271,273 Holtedahl, L. 421, 422, 423-4 Index All

House of Representatives (Federal) Journal of Education 369 Katsina representation 97 Journal of the Royal Statistical Society women members 101 152 household, see compound deconstruction of 46-49; see also Kandiyoti, D. 407 compound Kano Chronicle 23, 24, 61 Hubbard, J.P. 438 karuwa, see karuwai human rights 95, 101, 114, 372, 375 karuwai (courtesans) 6, 17, 119, 177 Hunwick, John 24 1970s 192-5; exploitation of 194-5 Hussey, E.J.R. 348-50 1980s and 1990s 195-7 access to resources 226-8 Ibrahim, J. 417 and tori 71-2,211-13 identities 10-12, 14, 103 challenge to authority of kin 198 multiple 10, 35, 336 challenge to state 198; non-validation politics of identity 155 by state 198 ILO 40 and children 168-70, 224, 232, 242-4, Imam, Ayesha 82, 92, 104-5, 416, 417, 249, 388; legitimacy of 170 419 cleaning squads 196 Indabawa, S.A. 346 colonial period 200 Institute of Agricultural Research 47 definition of 156, 421 International Federation of Women economic autonomy 198 Lawyers 95 expulsion of 200-2, 204, 206,424-5; International Women's Day 337 see also karuwai, imprisonment; Islam karuwai, violence against; karuwai, and bori, see bori. harassment of in gendered perpective (Fourth Republic) harassment of 17, 194-5, 196-7, 100-5 199-200, 375, 408-9, 424, 425; introduction of 22-3 see also karuwai, expulsion of, relation between theology and culture karuwai, imprisonment; karuwai, 74-5 violence against sectarianism 2, 91, 93, 342; increased imprisonment 206 control over women 91; space for marriage 238^4, 249, 391, 392; women 93,116-17,367-368 forced marriage 200-202, 206, see also education, karuwai, Katsina 208 State, Muslim law, seclusion, state, middleman (kawali) 186-9, 422-3; women with government 193-5 Ismaila, Hajiya Aisha (Minister of Women as migrants 155-65, 386, 387 Affairs) 101,374 Nigerian Constitution 202, 205-6, Iya (Katsina title) 63, 86-7; (Maradi) 67 417-18 occupational structure 228-30, 235, Jackson, S. 415 248-9, 390; in relation to age Jama'atu Nasril Islam (JNI [Society for the 229-30, 390 Victory of Islam]) 357 and politics 88-9; First Republic jawarci, see non-marriage 190-3; 1970s 195-45; 1980s and Jihad of Shehu Usman dan Fodio 25, 28, 1990s 195-7 34 pre-colonial period 199 women and power in relation to the Jihad Prostitution and Other Immoral Acts 60-68, 86-7; see also women, (Prohibition) Law 2000 206 power, pre-Jihad; women, power, relationships among 180-3, 212-13; post-Jihad. See also bori hierarchical 180-1; of equals women's right to education 93, 181,183; competitive 182-3 343-44; see also education relationships with married woman Johnston, H.A.S. 62 184-5,202,209,223,231 472 Index karuwai (courtesans) - continued Emirate, see Katsina Emirate relationships with men 220-26, 249; Province, see Katsina Province platonic ties 247-8 State, see Katsina State success, measures of 225, 230-32, 238, Katsina City 74, 75, 82-3,156, 160, 192, 248, 427; (lack of) success 232, 204-5, 294 248 airport 36 violence against 200-1, 203, 204-5, ecology 20-22 375; see also karuwai, expulsion economic base 38 of; karuwai, harassment; karuwai, economic structure 36-8 imprisonment economy, colonial period 21, 26, 88, 'yan good evening 217 economic decline 26 see also women, state education, see education karuwanci (courtesanship) 14-15,17, 69, ethnic composition 32-6 123, 124, 135, 151-2, 375 history of 22-6 Alkaliya 192, 195 industry 37-8; flour mill 37-8; steel attitudes and ideology 207-11 mill 37 case studies 158-9, 166-7, 167, 168, occupations, see occupations (men), 239-44 occupations (women [married]) commoditisation of sexual services population 30-32 215-16 railway, lack of 36, 409 distinction with other commoditized sex rainfall 20-21 216-8 road access 36 entry into 158-60; age at entry surveillance of women 76, 86, 102, 171-72, 389; kin pressure on entry 289; see also seclusion 157-61; marriages at entry Tax Assessment Lists 1971 38, 39, 172-3, 389 377,378 gidajen mata ('houses of women') trade, pre-colonial 24-5 218-20, 234-7, 243; cost 234-5; traditional administrative structure location 218-20, 427; ownership 29-30 234, 428; rent 234-6 vegetation 20-21 Magajiya 178-9, 192, 193,195, 422 walls 23-4,62 'mage da wurV ('cat with a cowry') ward structure 30; see also Yarinci, 126 Marina organisation of 178-82; loss of weather 20-21 structure 192-194 Katsina College 345-46 procurement process 185-9, 217, Katsina Emirate 28-30 235-6 Katsina Focus 363 reasons and rationales for entry 154, Katsina Local Authority 30 158-60, 162-75,198 wakilai (Local Authority Administrators) remarriage from 15, 230, 244-7, 249 30 as women's work 214-50 Katsina Local Education Authority 352-3 see also women Katsina Local Government Area 29 Kasar (Land of) Katsina Katsina Local Government Council 98, agriculture 22 103^, 107 centre of educational excellence 24, 25, Katsina Province 28 346 Katsina State ecology, pre-colonial 21 adoption of Sharia 97-104, 116-17, Habe rule, see under Habe 205-6, 366, 369, 373, 417-8 prosperity, pre-colonial 24-25 creation of state 2, 26-8, 32, 33, 36, trade, pre-colonial 24-6 40, 43, 90, 91, 219, 220, 302, 362, trade, trans-Saharan 24 366, 408; labour migration (male) Katsina on state creation 33, 39 education, see education economic policy 37-8 Index 473

Katsina State - continued Magajiya (head of karuwai) 178-9,192, religious identity 75 193,195, 422 religion-linked policy 94,104-5; Maliki law 253, 268, 276-7, 281, 433 resistance to 104-5; see also, e.g., Marina alcohol, karuwanci, Katsina State categories of women, see women House of Assembly; public children, see children transport compound composition, see compound medical system 410 divorce, see divorce secular vs. religious orientation 90-91, dyeing industry 42, 43, 305, dye pits 116-17,418 39,409 Katsina State Education Trust Fund 354, education, see education 356 layout 41 Katsina State House of Assembly 94, 99, marriage, see marriage 206 non-married women, see non-marriage bill on single woman in civil service occupations, see occupations (men), 94-6,104,114,116 occupations (women [married]), law (proposed) on education 355 see also age, marriage, non- Katsina Steel Rolling Mill 37 marriage Katsina Women in Development group old(er) women, see age 112 polygyny, incidence of 45-6, 379 Katsina Women's Teachers College population 43-4; by age and sex see Women's Teachers College, Katsina 43-4; origin of 41 Katsinawa 60 residential ties, see compound kawali, kawaliya (procurer/procuress) see marriage 13-16, 18, 135, 148, 375 karuwanci, procurement process age, related to 43-5, 347, 349, 392 Keay, E.A. 252 alliances 36, 63, 261-2, 283 Kimble, J. 412 'of alms' (auren sadaka) 264-7 Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. 61, 62,64,408,412 authority in 328-30, 332-6; economic Koranic education, see education authority 333 -6 Korau, Muhammadu 22-23, 407 bride's wealth 292-3, 335-36 Kuczynski, R.R. 408 as career strategy 123, 151-2, 285-339 Kumayo 22 choice 252-62, 430; among educated girls 255 labour, see occupations childlessness in 274-5 Last,M. 438 colonial period 200-1 Lewis, I.M. 72, 414 costs 264-7 Little, K. 426 courtship 262-4; gifts 262-4 Local Authority Police 237 dower 264,282,319 Local Government Areas (LGAs) 29, 32, dowry 265-6 100 duration 258, 393, 394 Local Government Councils 107,111 first 13, 253, 255-61, 267, 274, 275, Local Government Reforms 29, 39 286, 285, 304, 309, 323; age at Lovett, Margot 59, 88 251-2; duration 258,393,394; Lugard, Lord 345 ending in divorce 257-9; between Lusted, D. 368 kin 259-60 forced (by kin) 154, 252-7, 255-9, Mabogunje, A.L. 290 261, 284; case study 256-7, 430 MacCannell, Dean 77 forced (non-kin, community control), MacCannell, Juliet 77 see karuwai, marriage Magajin Gari (Katsina District Head) 29 and foster children 272 Magajin Gari District 29 frequency 276-77, 396, 397, 398, 399; Magajiya (traditional title in aristocracy) men 276-7, 398, 399; women 63,88 276-7, 396, 397 474 Index

marriage - continued control over children in divorce, see gifts 264-7, 317, 318-9,. 321, 327, divorce 328 control over administration, see Katsina kantin mata 'shop of women' 126-7 City, Katsina State, state of kin (auren zumunci) 259-62, 264, transvestites, see 'yan daudu 266, 330; levirate 261; sororate vulnerability, in relation to state control 260-1 of women 374 'of lies' (auren karya) 264—6 work, see occupations (men) means of obtaining security 142-3 see also compound, divorce, marriage, minimum age 251-2 occupations (men), polygyny, non-coresidential (auren silkiti) 121, seclusion, women 136-40, 142-3, 145, 146, 150, 381, Mernissi, Fatima 91-2, 368, 442 385; case studies 137-40 Mies, M. et al. 226 age of women, related to number of migration 152-5 marriages 276, 396, 397 associational vs. autonomous 153-4 status of wife in relation to husband economic 153-4,244 105-6, 322-3 and gender 152-55, 226 subversion of male authority 332-3 among karuwai 154-65, 386, 387; 'unmarriageable' 141 international 164-5 women's wealth spent on 310-11 of men 33,39,221 see also karuwai, seclusion, polygyny reasons for 154-65, 198 Marshall, T.H. 56-7 rural/urban 160, 162-4, 386, 387 Marx,K. 227 West African 153,159, 164-5 Masquelier, A. 437 see also karuwai, women McNay.L. 11,406 military regimes 2, 3, 89, 90, 96, 361 Meek, C.K. 31 Ministry of Social Development 112 men Ministry of Women Affairs and Social affinal relationships 330-32 Development 109,111 age of men, related to number of Mohammed, A.S. 428 marriages 276-7, 398, 399 Mohammed, Murtala 31 allowance to wives 295 Mohamoud, Doyin 111 perceptions re: division of labour 337 Monfouga-Nicolas, J. 423; see also challenges to authority of 333-4; see Nicolas, Jacqueline also discourse; discourse, Moore, H.L. 57-8, 419 alternative; discourse, dominant Morgan, R. 423 control of wives 280, 328; see also Morokvasic, M. 154 women Mortimore, M.J. 411 control over resources 237 Mukhtar, Abdullahi Sarki 362 definition of adult 44 Murabus, Ali 23 education, see education Muslim education, see education husband - wife/wives relationship, see Muslim identity, see Katsina State, adoption marriage, non-coresidential of Sharia, women marriage, polygyny, seclusion, Muslim law (Sharia) and interpretation women ban on transport 102-3 justification of seclusion through Koranic challenges to restrictions 374-5 interpretation 79-81 divorce 240, 277-82, 283; see also and karuwai 124, 151, 181, 185-90, divorce 208-10, 220-6, 231, 241, 244-7; education, see education see also karuwai, karuwanci Federal Sharia Court of Appeal 97 labourers ('yan kwadago) 3 8 Nigerian women's NGOs 101, 372-3, lack of control of karuwai 207-8; see state adoption of 97-104, 116-17, karuwai, karuwanci 205-6, 366, 369, 373, 417-8 marriage frequency 276-7, 398, 399 Mustapha, A.R. 40, 438 Index 475

Nagogo, Usman (Emir of Katsina) 68 case studies 131-6 Na'ibi, M. Shaibu 413 duration of 128-31,148 Naira meaning of 121-6, 407 value of 2, 406 occupations 143-4, 248, 383-4 National Assembly residential ties 127-30, 381 women members in 92,101 remarriage 131-33; age 129-30; National Association of Women Journalists infants hindering 128-30,140 (NAWOJ) 95 spatial component 126-7 National Council of Women's Societies women-centred households 131-6; (NCWS) 109,419 mother-daughter units 132-4 National Party of Nigeria: education policy see also compound 361 Northern People's Congress 88,190-1 National Primary Education Commission party manager 193,195 (NPEC) 354 Norval, A.J. 409 National Reconciliation Committee Nyako, Hajiya Binta (Commissioner for (NARECOM) 367 Justice) 205-6 National Women's Commission 106-8 National Youth Service Corps 98 Obasanjo, Olusegun 372, 409 New Nigerian 21, 37-8, 95, 96, 101, 107, Obasanjo, Stella 201, 265, 356, 358, 365 Child Care Trust (CCT) 111 New Nigerian Weekly 99 Obbo, C. 234 Nicolas, Guy 5, 60, 62, 67, 69, 266, 414 occupations (men) Nicolas, Jacqueline 5; see also Monfouga- city wide distribution 38-9, 377 Nicolas, J. classification through tax-assessment Niger 62 data 377 'yan izala 337, 441 embroidery of cap (kube) 300-1 recognition of karuwai 199, 423-4 ethnic distinctions 39 Nigeria historical perspective 38 changing administrative structure 28 Marina 39,42,44,45,378 Constitution 202, 205-6, 417-18 Yarinci 39,41-2,44,378 civilian rule 89, 90, 97; see also First occupations (women [married]) Republic, Second Republic, Fourth 1970s: income-earning 300-2 Republic 1980s: demise of conspicuous leisure economy 27, 196, 267, 285, 335 302-4, 337, 405 education in, see education age-related 297, 302, 306, 401, 402, membership in the Organisation of the 403, 404 Islamic Conference (OIC) 91, animal husbandry 297-8 416-7 and authority 333-6 minimum age of marriage 251-1; see class and wealth-related 307-9 also marriage comparison with husbands' occupations population 32 307-9, 401 secular and religious ideologies 74-5 comparison with men's occupations women's authority 59, 88; see also 334 women control over income 47 women's NGOs 95, 101, 109, contracting 307 110-115,372,419 domestic service 299, 302 Nigeria Annual Reports 34 economic authority and power 333-35 Nigerian Structural Adjustment Programme economic crisis and technological change 2, 27, 337 305-7, 405 Nigerian Federal Office of Statistics 47 of co-wives 308 Norman, D.W. 79,411 of non-married women, see non-marriage non-marriage (jawarci) 13-16, 119-150, of older women, see age 147, 149, 277, 371 petty commodity production 296-307 476 Index occupations (women [married]) - continued Prothero, R.M. 408 salaried employment 300, 302, 304, Pryor, R.J. 421 306 public transport sale of food 298-300, 302, 305-7 gender-linked motorbike ban 102-3 statistical limitations 47, 338; census gender-linked taxi restrictions 102, 289-91, 434; see also census 374 structure 336-7; male occupational structure 38-42; see also Quinby, L. 406 occupations, men Queen Amina of Zazzau 23, 61-2, trading 296-307; large-scale 412-13, 299-300, 306 queens in pre-colonial Savannah 61-4 traditional crafts 299, 301-2; embroidery of cap (kube) 300-1, Rabinow, P. 8, 77 305 Rajchman, John 12 see also age, economics, karuwai, Ramazanoglu, C. 9, 406 marriage, non-marriage, women Ransom, Janet 9 Odebiyi, A. 444 Ravenstein E.G. 152 Ogunbiyi, LA. 344, 415 religion, see Islam, Muslim law, bori Olusanya, P.O. 408 remarriage 13 Onwuejeogwu, M. 69, 425 research history 4-7 demographic & diachronic data 6-7 Paden, J. 357, 440 demographic surveys, Yarinci and Palmer H.R. 23, 24, 61, 62, 63, 408, 412 Marina 43-4 Parpart, J.L. 65,426 later surveys, Yarinci and Marina 303 Perham, M. 199 informal research among karuwai Peters, Emrys 266 173^4 Piscatori, J. 430, 432 residential patterns, see compound Pittin, R. 11,408,434 Richardson, S.S. 252 polygyny 45-6, 277, 379 Roberts, P. 226, 424 co-wives 50, 136, 137, 138, 223-4, Robertson, C. 363 324-28, 246, 308; senior wife Robinson, C.R. 78 326-7 Rose,G. 118,407 power Rosen, L. 430 conceptualisation of 8-11, 72, 77, 103, 335 Sacks, K. 333 negotiation of 9-12 Sarkin Mata 193 resistance to 8-9 Sawicki, J. 9 see also Foucault, discourse, boundaries Schacht, J. 312 pre-colonial period Schildkrout, E. 440 see education, Jihad of Shehu Usman Schraml, LA. 153 dan Fodio, marriage, karuwai, Scott, James. C. 7,10, 213 Katsina, Katsina City, history of; Scott, Joan 124 women seclusion Pringle, R. 59 case study (non-seclusion) 313-14 production, see occupations, household, as class indicator 78, 82, 85, 293-6, deconstruction of, compound 312-13,314-315 production unit, see household, deconstruc economic benefits 83, 336 tion of, occupations, compound among educated women 84, 287 prostitution gap between ideal and actual practice in Africa 215,221,227,233 414 see also Akwato, karuwai, karuwanci and identity 78, 81 Prostitution and Other Immoral Acts Koranic injunction and interpretation (Prohibition) Law 2000 206 79-81 Index All seclusion - continued Sulaiman, M.D. 91 limiting access to education 343, 344, 347, 348, 360-61; reinforcing Tell 106,109,367 access through boarding 364 Thadani, V.N. 154,421 and marital control 80-2 Third Republic 92, 97 in marriage 30, 78, 82-4, 119, 126, Todaro, M.P. 154, 421 133, 135, 150, 186, 225, 329, 224, transvestites, see 'yan daudu 243, 336; first marriage 287, 292 Tremearne, A.J.N. 414 negotiation 81-2, 92, 287-9, 312-4, Trevor, J. 344, 439 415 socio-economic effects 81-3 Umar, Muhammad Sani 357 and state control 83, 92 Umaru Musa Yar'Adua (Governor) 99 surveillance as control 76-78, 86 UN Conventions for Minimum Marriage value of children in trading 298, 304, Age, or Consent to Marriage 252 308 UNICEF 354 as women's right 83 United Nations Universal Declaration of Second Republic (1979-1983) 29, 89, 90, Human Rights 95 195, 196, 361 Usman, Hajara 429 Sesay, A. 444 Usman, Kabir (Emir of Katsina) 26 Sha'ibu, M. 64 Usman, Yusufu Bala 23, 34, 63, 66, 356, Shani, M.I. 253, 280 407, 410 Sheriff, Hajiya Hawa 94 uwar gida (senior or sole wife; polite form Simmons, E.B. 294, 299 of address to any woman) 411 Simon, R.J. 152 Smith, Mary 5, 34-5,178,422, 425,429, Vanguard 104 437 Veblen,T. 435 Smith, H.F.C. (Abdullahi) 23, 66-7,408 veiling, see women, dress codes Smith, M.G. 5, 30, 65, 78, 80, 123, 211, 322-3,410,415,420,431 Walby, S. 57 Sotade, N. 109 Wallace, T. 411 Soyinka, Wole 98, 102 Walwyn, A.E.V. 61 state 88, 94, 226, 227, 228, Watson, S. 59 challenge by karuwai to constituted Weedon,C. 11 authority 198 Weiler, K. 369 control over women 88, 91-2, 200, Weisman,L.K. 116 373-4; in Africa 58-9; challenged White, L. 234, 412, 426 by women 93, 374; see also Whitting, C.E.J. 412, 413 Fourth Republic, Katsina State, Wilson, J. 411 Katsina State House of Assembly Wolf, E.R. 182 control over women's mobility 58-60, women 83, 91-2 adulthood through marriage 43 control over women civil servants affinal relationships 330-32 94-6,104 categories of 120-1,124,125, 381 definition of 57-9,65 -centred compounds, see compound as 'non-unitary' 58 as co-wives, see polygyny selective harassment of karuwai 204-5 control of 360-61, 368; movement women's control of 61-5,92, 347 13, 58,125-6, 371, 374; transport see also karuwai, karuwanci, Katsina restrictions 102-3; see also State House of Assembly, women discourse, marriage, Katsina State, Staudinger, P. 78 seclusion Staudt, K.A. 65,413,426 display of wealth 292-3, 310-11 Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) dress codes and veiling 84-5, 91-2, 2, 27, 337 102, 103, 373-74 478 Index women - continued title holders (contemporary) 71-2, establishing capital 291-3, 296 86-7, 193^4, 416; see also expenditure of resources 309-311; case Alkaliya, Magajiya, study 309-10 under 15 years old 43 groups 114 see also seclusion, polygyny nouses of (gidajen mata), see karuwanci, Women in Development group (Katsina) gidajen mata 112-113 husband - wife relationship 323-30, Women Living under Muslim Laws 332; see also compound, marriage (WLUML) 415,431 independent 232-8,428; nakyey Women in Nigeria (WIN) 95, 114,417, ombekedde 233; occupations 419-20, 425 235-8; real estate ownership Women's Rights Advancement and 234-8 Protection Alternative (WRAPA) inheritance 308 110-111 Islam, see Islam, seclusion Women's Teachers College, Kabomo; men's control of labour 226-7, 363 Government Girls' Arabic Secondary as migrants 155-7 School 365 Ministries of Women's Affairs 109, Women's Teachers College, Katsina 352, 111 362-4 old(er), see age organisations 105-11, 196 Yarinci 6 other 121,142,381 categories of women, see women politics 53, 65, 92-3, 101,115, 178, children, see children 182, 212 class relations 40-41, 44 politics, First Republic (1960-66) compound composition, see compound 88-89 divorce, see divorce politics in the 70s 89-90 education, see education politics in the 80s and 90s 90-100 layout 40 politics, Fourth Republic (1999- ) marriage, see marriage 100-105 non-married women, see non-marriage power, post-Jihad 64-8, 86-7 occupations, see occupations (men), power, pre-Jihad 60-7 occupations (women [married]), power and its decline, colonial period see also age, marriage, non- 65, 87-8 marriage powerlessness 213,423 old(er) women, see age role reversal with men 199 polygyny: incidence of 45-6, 379; in 'separate but equal' ideology 366 relation to wealth 46 socio-economic resources 292, 339, population 42-3: by age and sex 363 42-3; origin of 41; out-migration state control of 58, 91-92, 102-4, 374, 44 412 residential ties, see compound strategies 56, 111, see also discourse; 'yan daudu (transvestites) 187-90, 197, discourse, alternative; discourse, 206, 218, 422; intermediate dominant economic pursuits 188-9; subjects and citizens 54-60,104,116; intermediate gendered position citizenship 56-7, 86, 116 189-90 subversion of male authority 332 Yar'Adua, Major-General Shehu Musa suffrage 88-90, 116 97 title holders (pre-colonial) 63-5; see Yar'Adua, Umaru Musa (Governor of also Queen Amina, queens Katsina State) 409 Index 479

Yeld, E.R. 123,410,422,436 adoption of Sharia 98 Yuval-Davis, N. 58 implementation of Sharia 102-4, 206-7 Yusuf, B. 415 karuwanci 375,425 Zaria 5 Zamfara State Zlotnik, H. 152