Concrete and the Engineered Picturesque the (, 1867) Author(s): Ann Komara Source: Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 58, No. 1, Construction and Context (Sep., 2004), pp. 5-12 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40480519 . Accessed: 26/09/2014 11:03

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This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ANN KOMARA Concrete and the University of Colorado- Denver Engineered Picturesque The Parc des Buttes Chaumont (Paris, 1867)

Influentialdevelopments in landscape architecture paralleling those in architecture,industrial design, and engineering occurred during the French Second Empire (1851-1870). The civil engineer J.CA Alphand oversaw the design and construction of the Parc des Buttes Chaumont located in Paris's 19th arrondissement.The park opened concurrentlywith the Exposition Universelle on April 1, 1867; it is the only extant installation associated with the exposition. The park demonstrated advances in landscape design through numerous innovations in construction and materials, particularlyconcrete. Alphand's theoretical treatise and the physical presentation of the park as an engineered landscape fundamentallyshifted the practice of landscape design.

Introduction within the broader context of the urban design pro- landscape lies in its conception and construction Napoléon III and his cadre of administrators, engi- gram initiated under Napoléon III.4 As overseen by and how it influenced popular acceptance of new neers, and designers wrought dramatic changes in Haussmann, the urban design campaign during the industrial materials by demonstrating their aesthetic the appearance of Paris during the Second Empire Second Empire was enacted with dedication, focus, merits. (1851 -1870). Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand and vision. No single reason spawned the park; Alphand transformed an old refuse dump and (1817-1891) played a significant role. Trained as an rather, it arose within the constellation of ideas, quarry site in the newly annexed industrial area of engineer at the École des Ponts et Chaussées, he influences, and urges surrounding the urban design the 19th arrondissement in northeast Paris into the became Director of Parks, Bridges, and Roads under campaign. These include martial, economic, sanitary, Parc des Buttes Chaumont.7 The park shared an Prefect Eugene Haussmann.1 The conception and social, and aesthetic agendas such as Napoleon's opening day with the Exposition Universelle and construction of his projects situate Alphand's influ- desire to maintain order and a visible government remains today as evidence of many of the new ential developments in landscape design firmly presence, the incentive to clean up the slums and materials and technologies displayed in the halls within the context of nineteenth-century design bring "green lungs" producing healthy air for the and grounds of the exposition.8 In response to the theory and advances in engineering and architec- city, and the aesthetics and ¡mage of the city. No Exposition's theme of art and industry,the two sites tural design. Alphand's Pare des Buttes Chaumont scholarship focuses directly on the Pare des Buttes demonstrated the results of new or improved con- (1867) exemplifies Napoléon Ill's desire to further Chaumont, although Marceca and Meyer emphasize struction practices and improvements or innovations industry and commerce through showcasing it, and most sources mention it as one of the great in equipment and systems, as well as a broad range advances in industrial materials and innovative achievements of the era.5 Within the context of this of materials and products. The park engaged new building practices and technologies.2 (Figure 1 .) paper, Marceca is most relevant for her allusions to materials and construction practices in many ways. Literature on the Parc des Buttes Chaumont the technological associations with the 1987 Expo- This included using steam-powered machines for originates with Alphand's influential treatise, Les sition Universelle. Nicholas Green's work identifies earthwork, connecting to the extended and improved Promenades de Paris (1867-1873), in which he the transformation of the picturesque idiom from a city-wide sewer and drainage systems, the introduc- records the technological emphasis of his many proj- residential to an urban aesthetic tied into experi- tion of cast iron gaslights and macadamized roads, ects.3 No previous studies have addressed Alphand ences of visual consumption.6 Antoine Picon's hydraulic pumps installed to create water cascades, or his signature role as a chief designer in the Sec- excellent work on engineering and landscape design new tree-planting machinery and recent develop- ond Empire. Mention of the Buttes Chaumont gen- within the École des Ponts et Chaussées informs my ments in uses of hothouse and exotic plants, and erally falls into three categories: guidebooks and interpretation of the "engineered picturesque" an arrosage, or integrated irrigation system. general descriptions, overviews of the projects of within Alphand's metier. In short, the significance of Alphand's design approach at the Buttes Haussmann or Alphand, and critiques of the park the Parc des Buttes Chaumont's designed urban Chaumont commenced with earthwork and site

5 KOMARA Journalof ArchitecturalÄJucation, pp. 5-12 © 2004 Ann Komara

This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1 . Bird's-eyeview of the Parc des ButtesChaumont, fromAdolphe Alphand, Les Promenadesde París, Paris,1867-1873.

quarrysite as a dump. Based on experiencegained duringhis remedialwork at the , Alphand linedthe Buttes Chaumont'slakebed with béton, an imperviousconcrete material. As an engi- neer trainedat the École des Ponts et Chaussées, Alphand knewbéton as a highlyrefined hydraulic limeconcrete perfect for this application.11Béton was firstrecognized in the mid-eighteenthcentury for its capacityto cure and hardenin water and found its earliestapplication in bridgefoundations. Over the next century,the materialbecame more widelyused by engineersand architects.For instance,an 1866 article,"Concrete for Seaworks," in The Builderhighlighted innovative research by the Frenchengineer, M. Poirel,on physicalproper- ties and potentialuses forwater-cured lime cement.12In Second Empirebuilding projects,, béton was used forapplications with high water or mois- ture such as the sewers and reservoirs,as well as for bridgefoundations and the quays of the Seine. Alphand's use of hydraulicconcrete as a lining forthe artificiallake in the extantquarry bed at the parksolved his functionalrequirements for creating configurationsfor water features; overlaid on the featuresthree significant modes or applicationsof a water-retentive lake withinthe site conditions landform,the circulationsystem was calculated to béton (concrete): functionally,as the imperviouslin- describedearlier. Alphand thus used his engineering skillsto create the centralfocus of the directthe visitor'sexperience of the site. Planting ing forwater rillsand the lakebed; decorativelyas park's pic- The fromthe and site furnishingcompleted the picture.Conceiv- stuc ciment(stucco cement) embellishments;and turesque landscape.13 picturepostcard "Tout Paris" series at the turnof the ably,a contemporaryvisitor would have been aware structurallyas béton armée (reinforcedconcrete) for centuryclearly shows the lakebed's liningin an area partially of the fabricatedelements of this picturesqueland- numerousfeatures and design elements. drainedto allow for maintenancework.14 (Figure 2.) scape; this qualitywas especiallypresent in the Also significantis the concretesill or curb with variousapplications of concrete.Concrete is, in fact Functional Applications whichAlphand detailed the edge of the lake; integralto the entirepark; it is presentin every of Concrete throughthe artificeof the hard-edgedcurb he aspect of the designed landscape that Alphand Alphand's initialstudies of the geology and physical places the fabricatedcondition of the ButtesChau- inscribedonto the formerquarry. capacities at the ButtesChaumont site made it clear mont'slake directlyinto view. The lake is not sup- Concretewas not a new buildingmaterial, but that waterfeatures such as the lakes so any popular posed to be understoodas a naturallyoccurring the mid-nineteenth led to in the idiomwould extensive developmentsby century picturesque require body of waterso integralto the formulaof the pic- the of a consistent of A production fairly quality adaptations.10 waterfeature could not simplybe turesque, but ratheras a constructed,pleasurable cement,and "fromabout 1850 onwards,for nearly dug and filledbecause of the extremelyporous amendmentof the site. The delineated edge distin- all purposes,Portland cement came to be preferred limestonesubstrata. Site drainage and construction guishes the lake fromwater features with softened to otherartificial cements, natural cements, and of the lakebed were furthercomplicated by an over- and screened edges describedin Britishpicturesque hydrauliclimes."9 The Pare des Buttes Chaumont lay of muck resultingfrom the city'suse of the treatisesof the eighteenthcentury and aligned it

Concrete and the Engineered Picturesque: 6 The Parc des Buttes Chaumont (Paris, 1867)

This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2. Lake of the Parc des ButtesChaumont. (ToutParis seriesphotographic postcard.) withthe Frenchnineteenth-century jardin irrégulier }S describedby Alphand in Les Promenades. As a constructedfeature, the lake reinforcedthe mes- sage embodied in Alphand's investigationsof mate- rialsand artificialnature and demonstratedthe Exposition'stheme of artarid industry.16 Alphand's aestheticand practicaltreatment of the lakebed and edge found commonacceptance in practicethrough the nineteenthand earlytwentieth centuries.In his 1879 treatiseL'Art des Jardins, Edouard Andrédiscusses the shape or outlineof waterfeatures, then devotes several pages to bétonnage and the design and constructionof vari- ous edge types.17The numberof hard-edged lakes in urban parksrose significantlyby the end of the nineteenthcentury. Thomas Mawson (1861-1933), an Englishlandscape architectand town planner, employedit in manyof the urban parkshe designed, includinga particularlywell definedhard edge forthe lake in WilliamsonPark in Lancaster.

Decorative Applications of Concrete 1850.20The use variantsof the in situ conditionsto thus Visitorsto the parkwould also have been very popularityexpanded by evolving geologic and value of this materialis evidentin conveyan impressionof authentic,natural materials. aware of the numerousexamples of stuc ciment,a landscape treatises the Second and after. At the Parc des Buttes Chaumont,the crafts- relativelyloose or wet mixof cement,sand, and design during Empire For in L'Artdes JardinsAndré refers to man HilaireMuzard (1841-1893) created many limethat was artisticallyapplied over a foundation example, stuc cimentin the sections racailles beautifulworks of art usingstuc cimentto achieve of masonry,rock, or concrete. Its originsare lost in detailing grot- or rockwork and for effectsof naturalnessor rusticity.23The parkcon- antiquity;versions of stucco materialwere applied tes, grottos, creatingrochers, tains manyexamples of stuc cimentin conjunction to exteriorwall as a or describedas ornamentalrock created froma mixture façades rendering protective withcast or molded as to of limestoneand hand and laid or concrete, applied merge coating and forarchitectural features in lieu of clay, sculpted new "rockwork"surfacing with the existingin situ stone. More in the formulaarrived with artisticallymolded.21 Simulated rockwork spread to consistency rockand as installationsof rocaillesand rochers. (Wark'sin 1765 and Liardet'sin the United States foruse on estates and in public Englishpatents Numerousrochers installations in the parkare linked both of whichwere the Adam parks.Jacob Weidenman(1829-1893) includesa 1773), acquired by to waterfeatures, such as a viewingterrace at the brothersand used in theirarchitectural section in his BeautifyingCountry Homes in which extensively westernwater source. Stuc cimentthroughout the he describes"artificial rock-work . . . laid in projectsof the late eighteenthcentury.18 up parkresulted in, What is significantfor Alphand's oeuvre is the cement in a naturalform . . . [with]its surfacecov- translationof this materialinto landscape applica- ered by a wash of cement [to which]some coloring an imitationof natureaccomplished first of all tions.19Stuc cimentin the formseen at both the may be added."22The general intentionfound in all by the simulationof stone in all its different ExpositionUniverselle and the Parc des Buttes treatisesdiscussing rockworks is that the materials shapes and formsand accordingto its various Chaumontappeared in France around 1824, and its chosen should as best as possible simulaterocks or uses: flagstonepaving, fallen rock to forma

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This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 3. Belvédèredes Buttes-Chaumontseen situatedatop the centralisland. (Postcard Collection Petit Journal.)

creviceor to hold a torrentof water,an under- Otherdetails throughoutthe park marrynatu- ground passage adorned withrocks, [and] ral rockwith man-made, artistically applied concrete rockworkon the edges of the abutmentsto and cement-based mixesto achieve the desired nat- the suspension bridge.24 ural picturesqueeffect. Stuc cimentwas used to create the cascade, a featurethat was unnatural On the centralisland, the "foundationsof given the soil and hydrologicalconditions of the roughstone bedding were composed of limestone site. Despite the fabricationof the feature,the illu- found on the site, groutedwith cement and occa- sion of the cascade grottofascinated visitors who sionallywater-colored with a mixtureof yellow discoveredit "in the valley . . . [within]a delightful ochre,smoke black and green."25The artisticeffect grotto,the interiorof whichsparkles with stalactites produced imitationstonework that simulatedthe and stalagmites."29The stuc cimentwork of the existingrock, although Britishlandscape gardener grottoand cascade replicatesat a grand scale the WilliamRobinson that it too implied was not skill- imitationstalactites and stalagmitesin the Aquaria done when he noted that "the chieffea- fully acidly of the Exposition'sJardin Français whichwere ren- ture of the is the and place great cliff, unhappily dered foran ¡mage in Andre'streatise.30 Robinson the chieffeature of the rockis 3 plaster."26(Figures deemed the grottoand its geologic imitations and In Andréstates that the imitation 4.) contrast, ". . . well formedand striking,though hardlythe rockwork". . . so well [imitated]the coarse lime- kindof thingto be recommendedfor a public gar- stone and whichformed the soil and plastergypsum den."31Alphand obviously disagreed; he included subsoil of the old quarries"as to seem completely similarfeatures in most of his large parkswhere natural.27 theirpresence contributedto his transformationof Today it is possible to discernthe fake from picturesquegarden imagery.Furthermore, such fea- the originalrock, especially near the suspension tures placed into the public realmthe associated bridge.The pair of abutmentsfor the suspension experienceand heightenedimpressions of the bridgethat connects paths to the island shows not grottoas an elementof geologic historicwithin the onlythe cementaceous surfacingon the rockbut quarrysite. These examples of stuc cimentin its also the joint wherethe new materialmeets the varioustechniques and applicationsremain as per- existinglimestone face of the quarryremnant. (Fig- manentinstallations similar to those showcased in ure 4.) Though theirappearance echoes those of the and of the the in situ formation,the textureand surfacetreat- Aquaria gardens Exposition. ment identifiesthe abutmentsas imitationsof the Structural calcareous rock,and theirfabrication and position- Applications of Concrete ing relateto requirementsfor the bridge.Alphand In additionto this kindof concrete both the hid the necessarystructural deadmen boltingthe work, and the includedelements cables into the existingrock face withinthe abut- Exposition park produced in reinforcedconcrete. In the ments.28Their obviously artificial nature highlights 1855 UniversalExpo- the suspension bridge's point of attachmentto the sition,François Coignet (1814-1888) won bronze alleviatedthe intrusionof moistureinto the hard- quarriedcliffs of the Buttes Chaumont.Alphand's medals for his newlypatented material,béton pisé, ened pours of concrete,thus mitigatingfreeze/thaw choice to treatthis connectionas an artisticallyren- a versionof a monolithicreinforced structural con- crackingand rustingof the ironthat had previously dered visual momentin the visitor'sexperience of crete.32Subsequent workby Coignet revealedthe contributedto the failureof the construction.In the park reflectshis conscious marriageof an engi- structuralcapabilities of béton as a systemof iron- additionto its impermeability,the abilityof Portland neered technologicalsolution with an artisticrefer- reinforcedconcrete construction.33 Using ironas a cementto cure in a wet situationled to its accep- ence to the site's geologic history,a gesturecom- structuralreinforcement in masonrycountered con- tance and popularityfor manyuses in the burgeon- monplace in picturesquegardens. crete's inherenttensile stresses.34Portland cement ing buildingcampaigns of the Second Empire.

Concrete and the Engineered Picturesque: 8 The Parc des Buttes Chaumont (Paris, 1867)

This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 4. Viewof the suspensionbridge showing the fabricatedconcrete rockwork at the abutmentwith the island.(Photograph by author.)

materials such as wood or gnarled roots; however, by the nineteenth century designers and manufac- turers were experimenting and creating them out of new materials such as cast iron and concrete.37 In this light, the confident rendition of the park details in béton armée embraced a "cutting edge" process for manufacturing them out of a newly interesting contemporary material. The most - prominent of these details the handrails imitating - logs and branches are sophisticated examples of iron-reinforced, molded concrete. The railings, typi- cally posts supporting two cross-rails running paral- lel to the ground, were constructed in sections and skillfullyjoined. The architect Louis-Auguste Boileau (1812-1896) addressed the usefulness of molding methods when he wrote

With regard to forms and decorative appear- ances . . . the true economy of concrete is in the manufacture of accessory decorative ele- ments which have to be repeated a large num- ber of times, and in which costly handcarving [sic] is replaced by factory-made molding.38

The use of béton armée as a building material reinforced concrete in a variety of structures such as Many of these railing details were produced gained great favor through the interest and support the architect Davioud's Tempietto atop the island with a "repeat molding" technique, perhaps in situ of the Emperor, thus promoting its acceptance, use, and the massive retaining walls lining the railroad rather than in the factory.39The difficultyin finding and ultimate popularity. George Collins writes that embankment. (Figure 3.) The engineer Coignet the joints between the molded parts shows the high - - worked on numerous projects for the city during the caliber of technical craftsmanship or artistry The Emperor's interest seems to have con- Second Empire, and the railroad embankment employed in producing these rails. Visitors would ferred a new dignity on concrete, for at the reflects his involvement at the park.36What is more have been familiar with the railing detail, an identi- beginning of the 1870s we find a marked rise significant, however, is that Alphand moves beyond fiable "Alphand trademark," appearing in the Tro- in its social status. Whereas formerlyit was using reinforced concrete merely for structures: he cadéro grounds across from the exposition, in many regarded by noble landowners as suitable only integrated reinforced concrete directly into the of the smaller squares such as Batignolles, and in for their animals and more humble tenants, it realm of landscape. virtually all of Alphand's Parisian parks, including was now adopted by the gentry as worthy to Alphand created and installed throughout the Boulogne (1854-1858), Vincennes (1860-1865), be used in the construction of their own man- park stair risers and hand railings in reinforced con- Monceau (1860-1861), Buttes Chaumont, and sions, and was specified without more than a crete that imitate wood logs or tree limbs. Rustic Montsouris (1867-1878). Railing details in Mont- passing shudder by the fashionable architects details and furnishings were common in picturesque souris display great skill and inventiveness; some of the day.35 gardens beginning in the eighteenth century, so it is particularly stunning three-dimensional forms reflect not unexpected to find them in the Buttes Chau- the evolving skill and sophistication in the concep- Supporting this climate of experimentation and mont or other Paris parks of the period. Originally, tion and molding and installation procedures for this acceptance, the Parc des Buttes Chaumont features designers fabricated rustic elements out of natural detail.

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This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 5. Viewof an integratedcast-in-place concrete stair and cast concretehandrail at the Parc des ButtesChaumont. (Photographby author.)

First, industry was expressed through the utili- allied technologies were showcased in two key ways. zation of contemporary industrial materials and Visitors to the Parc des Buttes Chaumont in 1867 innovative techniques employed to create and found a landscape that epitomized the French maintain the park and its picturesque illusions, transformation of the picturesque from a private which are effectively enhanced by the many appli- residential style into the richlyconceived public cations of concrete throughout the park. Within the park. Look again at Deroy's bird's-eye view of the nineteenth-century discourse on materials and pro- park. (Figure 1.) Moving along the promenades and duction practices, the craftsmanship evident in sig- footways within the Buttes Chaumont, a visitor nificant elements of the park situates its presence would see carefully sculpted grounds accented by within a cultural response to industrialization that beautifully planted beds and groves and punctuated versus machine stressed manual craftsmanship with small structures and water features. Upon even as embraced reproduction Alphand efficiency reaching a panoramic viewpoint, the visitor could Other typical imitatio details in Alphand's parks in certain construction methods. In the balance, then see an industrial landscape of train yards, fac- are stair treads, and especially stair risers, fabricated state-of-the-art and installation machinery practices . tories, and slaughterhouses beyond the borders of to look like logs and stone. (Figure 5.) At the used to create the - with new indus- park coupled the park that stood in direct contrast to the park's Buttes Chaumont this style of molded edge finish trial found its - sit- products throughout landscape tightly orchestrated picturesque experience. This was used on concrete stair risers for smaller-scale uate the at the forefront of a cultural move- park industrialized physical context became a counter- pedestrian footways often sited to wend upward ment to reconcile industrialization and seeking point to Alphand's representation of nature and areas of trees and shrubs through fully planted up progress within the experience of nature.41 The heightened the visitor's understanding of the dia- to one of the four or overlooks. The rus- highpoints duality present in the park's appearance where logue between the two realms. Both modes of ticity of the detail was in keeping with the woodsy, found in nature look artificial but what's new things and of the area and trail. Another showcasing contemporary industry technology rambling feeling looks organic reinforces this and aligns it with the reinforced aspects of the national identity associ- instance of fabricated cast-in-place reinforced con- broader cultural debates embedded within the ated with the art and industry of the Exposition crete is an ingenious trough for water in the eastern theme of art and Exposition's industry. Universelle. demonstrate the ini- rill the stairs. Concrete is formed to imi- Furthermore, they alongside Julie Wosk notes that, at mid-century, critics tiative of a design team that embraced nineteenth- tate a natural stone channel and a fabricated tree and constituents affiliated with the Art-Union Jour- technical and industrial at the of the rillwhich emanates from a century sophistication stump edge nal saw the "possibility of reconciliation [of art and exuberance to create a hidden source to run the and into picturesque landscaped park alongside path industry]. Artists, it was hoped, would help assimi- the lake. replete with illusions of nature requisite to Alphand's late the new manufactured wares by lending them a interpretation of the jardin irrégulier. look of taste and elegance . . . [and] lend their tal- The Parc des Buttes Chaumont can thus be Industrial Presence in the ents to industrial design and form 'more intimate understood as a key monument in Napoléon Ill's Picturesque relations' with manufacturing."42 The Exposition building campaign. It served multiple purposes, not As derived from the theme of the Exposition Uni- theme succinctly engaged this discourse with the the least an to demonstrate the verselle, industry meant progress for the work of the intent to showcase relationships and interfaces being opportunity and of his Parisian people and the products and innovations of an between the two realms. Alphand's design for the design technological prowess of and The Buttes Chau- increasingly technical, mechanized economy. For Buttes Chaumont placed the debate into the public corps designers engineers. mont and its the Univer- Alphand, industry meant the application of science realm via his interpretation of showing art (the pic- counterpart, Exposition to the needs of the city; through the creation of the turesque image and experience) as built and sus- selle, not only celebrated new materials and con- parks, he applied "the conquests of science and art tained by industry (the means and materials of its struction techniques and practices; they also to the conditions and health" of the city.40"Industry" production and maintenance). catalyzed a broader public acceptance of such enabled the production of the park and heightened This message was reinforced in the visitor's materials as stuc ciment and béton armée for subse- the picturesque image and experience for visitors. experiences within the park, where industry and its quent use in public buildings and landscapes.

Concrete and the Engineered Picturesque: 10 The Parc des Buttes Chaumont (Paris, 1867)

This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Notes 8. In additionto the ButtesChaumont, Alphand was in chargeof the de naturechez les ingénieursdes Ponts-et-Chaussées,"A. Corvol,ed., 1. Alphand'stechnical training began in 1834 at the LycéeCharlemagne designfor the Expositiongrounds on the Champsde Mars and the Tro- La Natureen Révolution1750-1850 (Paris: L'Harmattan,1993), 117- (Paris). He enteredthe École Polytechniquein 1835. In 1838, he cadéro groundsdirectly across the Seine fromthe exposition.He stated 25,216-18. enteredthe École des Ponts et Chaussées (est. 1744) to pursuespecial- that,"Cet enterpriseconsidérable [the Parc] futcommencée en 1864 et 17. EdouardFrançois André, L'Art des Jardins:Traité Général de la com- ized trainingfor civil and structuralengineering. Alphand's curriculum terminéeau commencementde 1867: on volutque l'ouverturedu parc positionsdes Parcs et Jardins(Paris: G. Masson, 1879), 450-71. André engaged the mostcurrent technology and designtheory, especially for coïncidâtavec celle de l'Expositionuniverselle." Les Promenades,203. dedicatedhis treatiseto Alphand,whom he succeeded as Directorof bridges.The head of the school duringAlphand's time was Gaspard Additionalinformation on the expositioncan be foundin Ann Komara, Parks. FrançoisProny (1755-1839). Anotherinfluential faculty member was "Artand Industry"at the Parc des ButtesChaumont, MA thesis- Uni- 18. For a summaryof naturaland artificialcements, see Tom F. Peters, the authorof Leçons sur L'applicationde la Mechanique(1826), C.L.M. versityof Virginia(May 2002), 13-29. Buildingthe NineteenthCentury (London, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Navier.Alphand rose quidclythrough the ranksof the civiladministrative 9. CharlesSinger et al., eds., A Historyof Technology,The Late Nine- Press,1996), 61-63. service,eventually becoming the Directorof Parksafter the fallof the teenthCentury, c. 1850-c. 1900, vol. V (London: OxfordUniversity 19. Peters,Building the NineteenthCentury, 106. Petersmakes an Second Empire.The relevanceof the École des Ponts et Chaussées for Press,1 958), 488. Béton was also called Portlandcement or hydraulic importantdistinction between transformation, "when information is Alphand'surban design projects cart be extrapolatedfrom scholarship cementfor its abilityto cure underwater. In 1824, EnglishmanJoseph alteredor remoldedwhile remaining within the bordersof a fieldand such as AntoinePicon, French Architects and Engineersin theAge of Aspdinpatented "an improvementin the Modes of Producingan Artifi- appliedto the same object . . . [versus]translated by applyingit across a Enlightenment,Martin Thorn, trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University cial Stone," a materialwhich he regardedprimarily as a stucco material border,moving it fromone fieldor object to another.In the processof Press,1992) and AntoinePicon and MichelYvon, L'inégnieur Artiste: to simulatePortland Stone. translationthe trainof developmentalthought continues while the focus shiftsto a new DessinsAnciens de l'École des Pontset Chaussées (Paris: Pressesde 10. In the eighteenthcentury, water features played a key role in the object." 20. Jean-Marie Le XIXeArrondissement- Une Cité Nouvelle l'École des Ponts et Chaussées,1989). picturesqueideal. Britishtheorist Uvedale Priceclaimed that "the last Jenn, " c. 68. Author'stranslation: "Rocaille et stuc ciment 2. Alphand'stheoretical position not onlyreflected his understandingof finishingto places and picturesis water,"with the caveat thatthe site (■Paris: 1988), grotte . . . sont l'occaisiond'aborder un métier vers 1824, s'est the lineageof gardenhistory and picturesquedesign treatises but also be worthyof the effect.See JohnDixon Hunt,The Geniusof the Place: apparu qui à de 1850, et dontles nom- his strongtechnical background. As "the principalengineer by whose The EnglishLandscape Garden1620-1820 (Cambridge,MA: The MIT dévelopé partir ouvragesparticulièrment breuxet de dans le des Buttes-Chaumont,celui de 'stuca- designthese happyresults have been achieved,"he adapted picturesque Press,1988), 352. qualité parc teurciment' pour reprendrel'expression de l'un d'entreeux, Hilaire ideals to his renditionof the Parcdes ButtesChaumont as a jardinsirrég- 1 1 . Alphandwas chargedwith fixing the problemof the lakes at Bou- Muzard (1841-1893)." uliers."Bradshaw's Guide ThroughParis and Its Environs(London: WJ. logne,which had been poorlyengineered by the landscapegardener, 21. André,L'art des jardins,486-520. See also CharlesSinger et al., Adams& Sons, 1882), p. 85. Louis-SulpiceVaré. Because of site soil and geologic conditions,water at eds., A Historyof Technology,The IndustrialRevolution, c. 1750-1850, 3. J.C.A.(Jean-Charles Adolphe) Alphand, Les Promenadesde Paris the Bois de Boulognewould have simplyseeped intothe watertable. See vol. IV (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1958). (Princeton:Princeton Architectural Press, 1984). Facsimilereprint of Les GeorgesEugene Haussmann, Mémoires (Paris: V. Havarrd,1890-1893). 22. Jacob Weidenman,Beautifying Country Homes -A Handbookof Promenadesde Paris (Paris: ÉditionsJ. Rothschild,1867-1873). In this 12. The Builder:An IllustratedMagazine forthe DrawingRoom, the Landscape GardeningIllustrated by Plans of Places alreadyImproved two-volumecatalog raisonnéof workshe accomplishedduring Hauss- Studio,the Office,the Workshopand the Cottage(London), "Concrete (New York:Orange Judd and Company,1870), 31-32. Weidenmann,a mann'sadministration, Alphand celebrates design solutions arrived at forSea Works"XXIV (June 23, 1866): 469. See also M. Poirel'stext- graduateof the MunichPolytechnic School, designedand executedthe throughengineering and designinvention. He discussesconstruction book forengineers in whichhe describedhis studiesand applications,as constructionof numerouspublic parks after emmigrating to the United practicesand innovationsemployed to installand maintainthe works,he well as the formulasand for what he called processes making hydraulic States. enumeratesand tabulatesdesign materials and elements,and he calcu- concrete:Mémoire sur la Travauxà la Mer,comprenant l'Historique des 23. Jenn,Le XIXeArrondissement, 68. lates costs attachedto his extensivecivic improvements. Ouvragesexécutés au Portd'Alger, et l'Exposé completet détailléd'un 24. Idem.Author's translation: "Un mélangede chaux et d'argilesculpté 4. For a succinctliterature review of Second urban de Fondationà la Mer au de Blocs de Béton Empire design proj- Système Moyen (Paris, et dessinéà la mainou moulé ortisanelement.L'imitation de la nature ects, see Heath Massey Schenker,"Parks and PoliticsDuring the Second 1841). se traduittout d'abord par la simulationde la pierresous ses différentes Empirein Paris,"Landscape Journal14/2 (Fall 1995): 201-19. 13. Alphand'sinterpretation of the picturesquebuilds on a lineageof formeset selon ses usages divers:dallages, éboulisen vue du formerune 5. MariaLuisa Marceca,"Reservoir, Circulation, Residue: J.C.A. Alphand, French theoristsfrom Claude-Henri Watelet (1718-1786), landscape rocailleou de conduireun torreat,passage souterraingarni de roches and the Green Lotus30 (1981): 57-63; and Jean-MarieMorel and PierreBoitard (17897-1859) to Gabriel TechnologicalBeauty City," (n.d.) rochersaux abords des culées du pont suspendu." ElizabethK. "The PublicPark as Avante-Garde Thouin whose work formal Meyer, (Landscape) (1747-1829), directlypredicates Alphand's 25. Exhibitionon the Pare des ButtesChaumont, City of Paris:2000. Architecture:A ComparativeInterpretation of Two ParisianParks, Pare approachto the park'sdesign. For moredetailed distinctions in French Author'stranslation: "Les enrochementssont constituésde rochescal- de la Villette(1983-1990) and Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (1864- see Nicholas The of Nature: picturesqueattitudes, Green, Spectacle caire trouvéessur place, jointoyées au cimentet parfoispeintes à l'eau Journal 16-26. and in France 1867)," Landscape 10/1 (Spring1991): Landscape BourgeoisCulture Nineteenth-Century (New avec un mélanged'ocre jaune, de noirde fuméeet des vert." 6. NicholasGreen, The Spectacle of Nature:Landscape and Bourgeois York:Manchester University Press, 1990). 26. WilliamRobinson, The Parks,Promenades and Gardensof Paris, Culturein Nineteenth-CenturyFrance (New York:Manchester University 14. Laborerswith equipment can be seen in the lowerleft of the dry describedand consideredin relationto the wantsof our own cities(Lon- Press,1990). lakebed of thisperiod postcard view. don: JohnMurray, 1869), 62. 7. The 19th arrondissementwas annexedby decree on June16, 1859. 15. Les Promenades,XXVII-LXV. Alphand distinguishes thejardins irrég- 27. André,L'Art des Jardins,447. Author'stranslation: "Le parc des The annexationencompassed the outlyingsuburbs between the wall of uliersand jardins anglais fromthe jardins pittoresque by virtueof fluid Buttes-Chaumont,où les rochersreproduisant bien la formationdu cal- the FermiersGénéraux and the wall of 1850; it increasedthe area of the line,restraint, and degree of visualinterest. caire grossieret du gypseparisien qui constituéle sol et le sou-sol de cityof Parisby morethan 150 percentand added nearlyfour hundred 16. A discussionof the idea of artificewithin Alphand's realm of engi- ces anciennescarrières." thousandto the population.See RogerKain, "Urban Planning and neeringis informedby AntoinePicon, "Le naturelet l'efficaceArt des 28. Alphanddidn't detail this bridgein Les Promenades,but he Design in Second EmpireFrance," Connoisseur 199/802 (December jardinset culturetechnologique," in M. Mosser,ed., Le jardin,art et lieu includeda comparabledetail for the "Pont de L'île de Reuilly"suspen- 1978): 236-46. de mémoire(Paris: Les éditionsde l'imprimeur,1995), 367-96. "L'idée sion bridgeand its rockabutments located in the .

11 KOMARA

This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 26 Sep 2014 11:03:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 29. Galignani'sNew Paris Guide (Paris: A. and W. Calignani& Co., materialin 1855 and continuedto develop his techniquesfor industrial 38. Collins,Concrete, 34. QuotingMoniteur des Architectes(December 1868), 452. See also André,L'Art des Jardins,486-521 . Andréprovided production.Vying with Coignet, Frederick Ransome opened a largefac- 1867), n.p. Collinsreferred to Viollet-le-Duc,who favoredgreatly Coig- a "recipe"and tipsfor application and coloringfor the stuc cimentin his toryworks for his "New PatentConcrete Stone" in 1867. JosephTall net's work:"In perfectingthis material,M. Coignethas not onlygiven it - sectionon "Travauxd'Execution Rochers." was the firstEnglish building contractor to expand on Coignet'smeth- the principalrole in masonrybut, as a resultof progressiveexperiments, 30. Andréfeatured a full-pageimage of the grottoand alludedto the ods. His standardizedform works, called "Tail'sPatent Shuttering," has renderedit fitto replacethe materialsemployed in our buildings: featuresas "wildnature." L'artdes 507. geologic André, jardins, receiveda gold medal at the 1867 ExpositionUniverselle. stone, brick,iron and wood." 31 . Parksand 67. Robinson, Gardens, 34. Singeret al., eds., Historyof Technology. . . c. 1750-c. 1850, 39. Alphanddoesn't describethe processfor making these handrails. 32. PeterCollins, Concrete, the Visionof a New Architecture;A of Study 451 -90. Historically,the detailis linkedto JosephMonier (1823-1906) who pat- Perretand His Precursors(New York:Horizon Press, 1 959), Auguste 35. Collins,Concrete, 34, 40-41. ented tubs fororange trees made of concretewith an embeddedmesh 28-34. Collinsdescribes Coignet's role in tríevast buildingschemes of 36. I based this assertionon comparisonswith other known projects by of ironrods. I examinedand photographicallydocumented railings at the the Second Empireand notes that Coignet'swork received the "respect- Coignet.The workon the railroadwalls bears muchin commonwith Pare des ButtesChaumont, the Pare Montsouris,the , and fulattention" of the Societyof CivilEngineers. Napoléon III had also otherCoignet projects such as the PassyCemetery wall and the reservoirat the Trocadéroon the Passy side (underrepair in the summerof 2000). I become interestedin the materialand personallyordered experiments to the Pare Montsouris.Further, Coignet's finances suffered greatly when could sometimesdiscern common molds but the generalimpression is be made withvarious applications of concrete.See also Singeret al., the cityof Parisdid not pay himits debts between1867 and 1871; it one of a relativelack of repetition.In the fewcases in whichthe railings eds., A Historyof Technology. . . 1750-1850, 448; and LeonardoBene- thus seems likelythat his company,the Société Centraledes Bétons were in need of repair,the ironreinforcing rods were evident. volo, Historyof ModernArchitecture, vol. 1 (Cambridge,MA: The MIT in had contractswith the 40. Les LIX. Press,1977). Agglomérés(founded 1861), significant city. Alphand, Promenades, 37. Robinsonmentions detailedoutdoor in his 41 . See Nicholas The of Nature. 33. Collins,Concrete, 36. Collinsdetails developments shifting between rustically furnishings again Green, Spectacle - Franceand GreatBritain, with each countryoffering patents and counter- book and particularlynotes a cast ironseat fromthe 1867 Exposition 42. JulieWosk, Breaking the Frame Technologyand the VisualArts in patentsaddressing various capabilities and applications.Following Asp- withfeet- and armrestsrendered as tree branches.Alphand frequently the NineteenthCentury (New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press, din's 1824 patent,J.C. Johnson manufactured the first"modern" Port- used a versionof this bench in the city'sparks, including the Buttes 1992), 107, in referenceto "The MutualInterests of Artistsand Manu- land Cementin 1844. Coignettook out a Britishpatent for a similar Chaumont.Robinson, Parks, Promenades, 564. facturers,"Art-Union 10 (March1, 1848): 69-70.

Concrete and the Engineered Picturesque: 12 The Parc des Buttes Chaumont (Paris, 1867)

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