A DIFFERENT PATH: THE MINORITY MUSLIM EXPERIENCE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Submitted by John Goodman to the University of Exeter As a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Arab and Islamic Studies, January 2020. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no Quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature…………………… ……………………… 1 Table of Contents. Abstract 5 Acknowledgements 7 Names of Places and People – Usage and Spelling 9 Reference Maps 11 Chapter 1. Introduction and historical context. 13 • The Cham migration to and settlement in Cambodia. • The Malay states and their relationship to Siamese power and British colonial ambitions along the Malay and Burmese borders in the 19th Century. • Cham and Chvea in the French colonial era and post French withdrawal as Vietnam and Cambodia develop their national identities. Chapter 2. Literature Review. 33 • Approaches to Muslims in Thailand and the Mekong Delta. • Themes of nation abuilding and Multiculturalism. Chapter 3. The trauma of new state development. 52 • Life for the Cham under the Khmer Rouge – 1975-79 – systematic genocide or class enemies? • War in Vietnam and the new Communist society – where did this leave the Cham, compared to other national ethnic minorities? • After the absolute monarchy – the emergence of Thai nationalism – from tolerance to Thai mono-culturalism and back again. Chapter 4. How state and minority relations evolve up to the present day. 76 • Rebirth of resilient and autonomous communities. • The link between Buddhism and the state – a religion and a dominating philosophy. • The alienation of Thai Malay Muslims from the modern Thai state. • Economic development in the region – how are the minorities affected? 2 Chapter 5. Congruence between Islam and Malay/Cham minority status. 98 • The role of education as a determinant of identity development. • The role of the clergy and the mosQue in providing legal and family advice and mediation. • Mutual perspectives of morality and social interaction. • Perceptions of Islam as being synonymous with separatism, lack of allegiance to the state and violent behaviour. Chapter 6. Global change – and how it affects Muslims in SE Asia. 128 • The changing media landscape and how it covers Muslims. • Patterns of work, roles and opportunities. • Migration trends, and how they differ for Muslims in this region. • Gender-specific differences in the communities. • The growth of populism in politics. Chapter 7. Form, practice and connectivity of religion. 157 • Old versus New Islam – the Kaum Nua, Kaum Muda, Tablighi Jamaat and Wahhabi movements in Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. • Traditional regional Islam and the interaction with new trends and currents. • Religious structure within the region. • The influence of outside organisations from the Muslim world. Chapter 8. Involvement in politics and civil society. 186 • Specific political movements among the Muslim population. • Structure, motivation and effectiveness of armed separatists. • The role of Muslims within mainstream political parties. • Local NGO activity and effectiveness. • Involvement of outside bodies – countries, ASEAN, OIC, UN, etc. Chapter 9. The interface with Buddhism (and other regional religions). 215 • The official Buddhist structure – development and impact on Muslim society. 3 • The practice of Buddhism in society – both as an organised religion and lay practice and attitudes. • Religious freedom in Vietnam in theory and practice. Chapter 10. Minorities in a monocultural society. 243 • Monoculturalism versus Multiculturalism – definitions. • M versus M characteristics of SEA countries – again in theory and practice • How do SEA countries compare with ostensibly multicultural societies in the West, on this axis? Chapter 11. Conclusions. 270 • The future – repression, growth, separatism, participation? How does this compare to the situation of Muslim minorities in the West? • How will this affect the Thai Malays? • Whither the Cham in Cambodia and in Vietnam? • What can East and West learn from each other? Appendix 1 – Data from the Quantitative online survey undertaken in Thailand in 2018. 280 Appendix 2 – Sample discussion guides from Cambodia, Thailand (Pattani/Narathiwat and Satun) and Vietnam. 283 Bibliography. 285 4 A DIFFERENT PATH: THE MINORITY MUSLIM EXPERIENCE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA. ABSTRACT. This thesis looks at the three significant Muslim minority communities in Vietnam, Cambodia and Southern Thailand from the perspective of living in a predominantly monocultural, non-Muslim society, and how they function economically, socially, religiously and politically in this context. It particularly focuses on the time period from 1945 to the present day, from the end of the Second World War and the post-colonial era as this is a significant break-point and begins the recent era of local societies. The end of the Second World War brought about significant change in all three countries. All three had been occupied by the Japanese. (Thailand had joined an alliance with the Japanese, but this was a face-saving accommodation, leading to de facto Japanese government and rule.) After the Japanese defeat, the French colonial power attempted to reassert itself in Indo-China, followed by a similar American exercise of influence. In Thailand, a return to independence saw Thailand become a close ally and client state of the USA, a bulwark against Communist insurgency in the rest of Southeast Asia. By 1975 all three states were free of foreign control, and pursued policies of self-determination and independent development, albeit in dramatically different ways. I examine this situation from Muslim perspectives, from the governing policies of the states themselves and from the viewpoint of the non-Muslim majority citizens of the states. I endeavour to identify common themes and strategies and divergent reactions to their lived environment. I seek to answer the Question: how have long-existing Muslim minorities come to terms with their environment in the societies of Southeast Asia that have a dominant, if not monocultural ethos, what will this mean for their future in the region, and what is its impact on the Muslim and global community? There are two distinct and clearly identifiable ethnic groups – the lowland Cham of Vietnam and Cambodia’s Mekong Delta and the Malay Muslims of the Southern border provinces of Thailand. The first group are ethnically homogenous, although split 5 in two by a political border that can be rigid but is also a fluid means of communication and economic activity. The second are also ethnically homogenous, but exist within the borders of modern Thailand, where they vary from the majority population in language, economic status, allegiance to and treatment by the Thai state. By understanding the way in which these groups exist, survive, accommodate (or resist) their non-Muslim state and government structures, I draw conclusions about the success and future development of these societies – and of course, their failures. There are also interesting lessons to learn for multicultural societies coming to terms with Muslim minorities, and other Muslims working to develop in a non-Muslim environment. Although these groups are relatively small and have a low profile in the Muslim world, they are also deeply rooted, having been resident in their areas for significantly longer than the modern states that now surround them. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. First I would like to thank my supervisor at the University of Exeter, Professor Sajjad Rizvi for his invaluable guidance and constructive suggestions. As a result of his comments my research and reading took many different and fascinating paths that would otherwise have been left unexamined. I would also like to thank Dr. Philipp Bruckmayr of the University of Vienna, the leading authority on the Cham of Cambodia, for his insights and help in looking at this neglected corner of the Islamic world. Dr. Ross Porter of Exeter was also most helpful in suggesting an anthropological approach to the Question. My fieldwork would have been Quite impossible without the help of my local assistants who acted as recruiters, translators and logistical managers. They were Ly Hanafy in Cambodia, Nguyen Ho Phong in Vietnam and Medina Adulyarat in Thailand. Khun Medina in particular was an endless source of help, information, suggestions and companionship during our visits to Pattani, Satun and Narathiwat provinces. In all I interviewed around 150 local people in the three countries. Although they cannot be named, I would like to put on record my gratitude for their openness, honesty and thoughtfulness in their interviews. I was fortunate to interview and obtain guidance from local academics and experts in both Cambodia and Thailand. In Bangkok they were Dr. Phansasiri Kularb of Chulalongkorn University, Dr. Phrae Sirisakdamkoeng of Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, her graduate student Thitimat Kamwong, and Professor Suwilai Premsrirat of Mahidol University. In Pattani I benefited greatly from the comments and insights of Dr. Srisompob Jitpriromsri, Dr. Samatcha Nilaphatama, Dr. Walakkamol Changkamol and Dr. Soraya Jamjuree, all of whom are associated with Prince of Songkla University and who are 7 also