HAWAIIAN ISLANDS WILDERNESS STUDY AREA

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

CITY AND COUNTY OF HONOLULU, HAWAII

WILDERNESS STUDY REPORT

Preliminary - Subject to change

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BUREAU OF SPORT FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE PREFACE

This report summarizes a study of the Hawaiian Islands National Wild- life Refuge made pursuant to the Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964

(Public Law 88-577).

The Hawaiian Islands Reservation was established in 1909 by Executive

Order of the President as a "preserve and breeding grounds for native bii'ds" as a weans of preventing further slaughtering of birds for millinery purposes. The Reservation was renamed the Hawaiian Islands

National Wildlife Refuge in 1940.

The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge consists of a series of eight or ninei/ islands, reefs and atolls of the Leeward Islands extending more than 1,000 miles northwesterly from the principal

Hawaiian Islands. The area is understood to be within the City and

County of Honolulu and the State of Hawaii. The refuge is administered by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife of the United States

Department of the Interior as a unit of the National Wildlife Refuge

System.

French Frigate Shoal and Pearl and Hermes Reef are atolls with sub- stantially continuous outer reefs enclosing quiet water lagoons.

The Refuge has been administered as including the reef and lagoon areas. The other units of the Refuge are either rock extrusions above the ocean surface, such as Nihoa, Necker and Gardner Islands, or sand

'LJ Kure or Ocean Island was a part of the original designation for the Hawaiian Islands Reservation that has not been terminated except by implication from a subsequent Navy reservation for use and termination of that use. This subject is further discussed in the land status section of the report. Kure Island is not discussed extensively in the report but is quite similar to Pearl and Hermes Reef geologically and ecologically. islands surrounded by broken coral platforms such as Laysan and Lisianski

Islands.

The island masses themselves are a small, but vital part of the eco- system of the Leewards—an ecosystem whose scientific importance transcends national boundaries. The shallow water reefs and lagoons are an inseparable link in this chain of life.' The reefs sustain the aquatic resources that are the basic sustenance of much of the islands' wildlife.

The continued survival of the bird, mammal and reptile life of the area is chiefly dependent on future management of both the land and waters of the refuge.

The mammals, reptiles and fishery "resources have been and will continue to be managed primarily by the State of Hawaii. It is essential that management of these resources continue to be consistent with the primary mission of the refuge. It must also be recognized, however, that refuge management should not preclude the State's reasonable utilization of resources it regulates.

Since the lands and waters of the refuge are inseparable parts of the whole ecosystem, the wilderness study included the refuge in its entirety.

The study indicated that designation of the land masses above mean high tide, as wilderness, would in no way compromise the primary objectives of the Refuge. Indeed, it would probably aid in achieving these objec- tives by assuring the islands' future preservation in a natural state. Unfortunately, inclusion of the land masses as wilderness would only Jr^ • . ,f extend protection to a portion of this ecosystem. Broader protection c \ * a jI - -1"^ through Congressional actions supplemented by a cooperative agreement )6 i with such legislation by the State of Hawaii as may be agreeable to

the State, is desirable.

Because of development and disturbances, Tern Island and the surrounding

area within 500 yards plus the adjacent ship channel at French Frigate

Shoals are not suitable as wilderness. All other land masses of the

refuge above mean high tide are considered suitable for further con-

sideration as wilderness. CONTENTS

PREFACE ......

INTRODUCTION ...... /

OBJECTIVES ...... ".'.„

LOCATION ...

HISTORY ...... „ 7

LAND STATUS ...... //

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

RESOURCES

A. Wildlife

1. Mammals

a. Hawaiian Monk Seal b. Other Mammals

2. Birds

a. Marine Birds V 7 b. Shorebirds •£"£) c. Waterfowl rv> d. Small Land Birds z~ J ^J / 3. Fish

A. Reptiles

a. Green Sea Turtle

B. Water

C. Vegetation ...... -5~

D. Recreation

E. Minerals

F. Other Resources MANAGEMENT

DEVELOPMENT

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . ,

A. Summary

B. Recommendations 5 / - , f fi PHOTOGRAPHS A, of l^cU-^J

APPENDIX

A. Legal documents - Refuge Status

1. Executive Order 1019 - Refuge establishment 2. Public Law 86-3 - Hawaii statehood 3. Public. Law 83-3 - Submerged Lands Act 4. Memorandum of Understanding - University of Hawaii A . and BSF&W ~ 5. Cooperative Agreement - U.S. Coast Guard and BSF&W .... V 6. Memorandum of Understanding - AEC and BSF&W

B. Legal documents - Wilderness • / 1. Wilderness Act (P.L. 88-577) * 2. Secretarial Order 2920 - Roadless Area Review ..... 3. Code of Federal Regulations - Title 50 - Wilderness Preservation and Management 4. Code of Federal Regulations - Title 43 - Wilderness ^ A Preservation c-

C. Other information

1. Bibliography of Mineral Resources . . . 2. Comments of Bureau of Outdoor Recreation

FIGURES

1. Location of Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge C? 2. Tern Island Transportation Corridor 3. The Hawaii Chain - subdivisions A. Profile of Hawaiian Archipelago 5. Stages in geologic history of volcanic islands 6. The Refuge Units

a. Nihoa Island b. Meeker Island c. Gardner Pinnacles d. French Frigate Shoal e. Pearl and Hermes R.eef f . Laysan Island ..... g. Lisianski Island

Tables

1. Lands within the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge . . 2. Refuge lands considered suitable and nonsuitable as wilderness INTRODUCTION

The Hawaiian Islands Reservation was established in 1909 by President

Theodore Roosevelt through Executive Order 1019. The. name was changed

to the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in 1940. In the many

years between their discovery and their inclusion in the Reservation,

the islands had br>en subjected to exploitation by commercial interests

and careless human activities. This thoughtless destruction resulted

in extensive changes in many of the island communities and the ultimate

loss forever of threa endemic birds. Two others were brought to the verge of extinction.

Today, the islands are famous as a nesting area for vast numbers of sea birds that annually assemble there from the far reaches of the North and

Central Pacific. Most of the world's populations of the Laysan and black-footed albatross nest on the Refuge. It is the last major nesting area for the green sea turtle in the Nation, and is home to about 95% of the world's population of the rare Hawaiian monk seal. The entire world populations of Laysan teal as well as three other species of endemic land birds occur on its islands.

The waters of the lagoons and of the ocean adjacent to the Leewards support a fascinating array of fish life which occur in relative abundance. However, the extent of these fishery resources, and the manner and degree to which they might be harvested without adverse effects on fish populations and other wildlife that are dependent upon them has not been ascertained. Refuge waters, as outlined in the Executive Order, comprise only a small part of the potential shallow-water fishery area in the Hawaiian Archipelago, and their value as natural areas for scientific studies of plant and animal communities in a comparatively undisturbed environment are to be considered in relation to any potential value for the production of fishery resource commodities. They could serve as control areas for monitoring changes in marine flora and fauna occurring elsewhere in the Archipelago.

Protection and restoration of natural environmental qualities, as a basis for preserving wildlife abundance and diversity on the Refuge are desirable.

Too much human activity would endanger the fragile ecosystem. Public use of the islands should continue to be limited to scientific research on a closely supervised basis. Scientific literature is replete with accounts of disasters to other island ecosystems, which are far more susceptible to change than those of continental land masses. Public informational and educational "programs are planned with interpretive facilities centered in a future administrative complex planned in the Honolulu area.

The management objectivss for the Hawaiian Islands Refuge may be summarized in the following order of priority:

1. Assure the survival of native species that are threatened with

extinction.

2. Maintain native fauna and flora in a natural state at or above

minimum population recovery levels.

3. Maximize natural physical and biological qualities to the extent

compatible with fish and wildlife population management require-

ments. 4. Expand understanding and appreciation of wildlife, island ecology,

and man's role in his environment, in a manner consistent with

fish and wildlife management requirements.

5. Communicate information essential to an optimal level of public

understanding of the benefits obtained from the Hawaiian Islands

National Wildlife Refuge.

6. Establish and preserve selected areas within the Refuge in a

natural state for the purposes of environmental reference,

observation and scientific study.

7. Seek out, identify, designate, preserve and appropriately.use

historic and archeological sites and objects. OBJECTIVES

The Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964 (Public Law 88-577) requires the

Secretary of the Interior to review every roadless area of 5,000 contiguous

acres or more and every roadless island within the National Wildlife Refuge

System and, within ten years after the effective date of the Act, report to

the President of the United States his recommendations as to the suitability

or nonsuitability of each area or island as wilderness. In defining wilder-

ness, the Act requires that the area should be not less than 5,000 acres of

land or of sufficient size to make preservation and use in an unimpaired

condition practical.

As announced in the Federal Register (Vol. 35, No. 80, April 24, 1970),

the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge contains potential wilder- ness resources that meet the basic criteria contained in the Wilderness

Act for detailed study to determine suitability or nonsuitability as wilderness.

The principal objective of field investigations was to evaluate, at the

direction of the Secretary of the Interior, the suitability or nonsuitability of all or part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge for inclusion

in the National Wilderness Preservation System. In addition, field studies were designed to:

1. Clearly delineate and describe those areas within the wilderness

study area that were found to be suitable for consideration as

wilderness. 2. Clearly delineate and describe those areas within the study area

that were found to be nonsuitable as wilderness.

3. Determine whether classifying all or part of the study area as

wilderness would conflict with the purposes for which it has been

established and administered as a unit of the National Wildlife

Refuge System.

4. Determine what conflicts or benefits there might be if all or

part of the study area is classified as wilderness by the Congress

of the United States.

5. Develop wilderness boundaries, if possible, which can be (a) iden-

tified on the ground, (b) legally described, and (c) surveyed. LOCATION

The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge consists of a series of eight islands, reefs and atolls extending over 800 miles within the Hawaiian

Archipelago in the Central Pacific Ocean, about 2,700 miles southwest of

San Francisco, California (Figure 1). It is within the. City and County of Honolulu, State of Hawaii.

The refuge islands, which are part of a chain commonly referred to as the

"Leewards" or "Northwestern Islands," extend from Nihoa, the easternmost refuge island, to Pearl and Hermes Reef, the westernmost segment of the

Refuge.]J Nihoa is about 250 miles west-northwest of Honolulu, and about

150 miles in the same direction from Nihoa, the last of the main inhabited

Hawaiian Islands. Pearl and Hermes Reef lies about 95 miles east of

Midway. Approximate location of each unit of the refuge is as follows:

Nihoa Island - 23°03' North Latitude and 161°55' West Longitude

Necker Island - 23°34' North Latitude and 164°42' West Longitude

French Frigate Shoals - 23°46' North Latitude and 166°16' West Longitude

Gardner Pinnacles - 25°00' North Latitude and 168°00' West Longitude

Maro Reef - 25°25' North Latitude and 170°35' West Longitude

if Kure (or Cure or Ocean Island) would be westernmost segment if it were still administered as part of the refuge. The status of Kure is discussed under Land Status. Laysan Island - 25°46' North Latitude and 171°44' West Longitude

Lisianski Island - 26°04' North Latitude and 173°58' West Longitude

Pearl and Hermes Reef - 27°47f North Latitude and 175°49' West Longitude s?

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No one knows when man first saw the islands which now comprise the Hawaiian

Islands Refuge. None were reported to have been inhabited when first seen by Europeans in the late 1700's. However, the well-preserved archeological remains on Nihoa and Necker Islands give mute testimony to previous Poly- nesian occupancy, and provide a glimpse of'14th and 15th century Hawaiian culture.

A total of 66 sites including garden terraces, house sites and crude shelters and primitive temples have been reported on Nihoa. Dr. K. P.

Emory of the Bishop Museum examined them in 1924 and estimated their age at about 700 years. He calculated" that the total of 12 acres of cultivated terraces may have produced 48 tons of sweet potatoes annually. These, with birds and their eggs, fish and other products of the sea might have been enough to feed the 175 people—the number house sites suggest may have lived there—at least intermittently. The fate of these people is one of the mysteries of this isolated outpost of Hawaiian culture. A lack of permanent water may have been the main cause of abandonment.

There are 34 primitive temples on Necker Island which closely resemble those of inland Tahiti (known there as maraes), thereby establishing a strong link between the early peoples of Hawaii and Tahiti. A number of unusual stone images unlike any others found in Hawaii have been found on Necker. Archeologists postulate that Necker may have been a sacred island visited periodically by Polynesians, probably from Nihoa. There is no evidence to date of Polynesian occupancy of any of the other islands to the west. European explorers discovered the islands over a period of time. The first historic discovery of Nihoa was by Captain Douglas of the ship

Iphigenia in 1789, 11 years after the discovery of the Hawaiian Islands by Captain James Cook. It was annexed to the Hawaiian Kingdom under the direction of Queen Kaahumanu in 1822. King Kamehameha IV landed on it in

1857. A party of 200 persons led by Princess Liliuokalani (later Queen and last of the Hawaiian monarchs) and Sanford B. Dole landed there in

1885, but the stay was brief because someone carelessly set fire to the island and all had to leave in a hurry. Several investigative landings were made in ensuing years, culminating in the Tanager expedition's visit in 1923. At that time, a plane-table map of the island was prepared and a careful study of plant and animal life made. A thorough archeological survey was conducted during the second visit by the Tanager in 1924.

Necker Island was first reported in 1786 by the famous French explorer

La Perouse, who named it after the French minister of finance, Jacques

Necker. It was annexed by the Provisional Government of Hawaii in 1894.

The first scientific work was conducted by a party from the revenue cutter Lehua in 1895. A plane-table map, a detailed study of plant and animal life, and an archeological survey were made by members of the

Tanager expedition during their visits to the island in 1923 and 1924.

Following annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in

1898, Necker was leased for fishing purposes for 21 years, beginning in

1904, although it apparently was never used for that purpose.

French Frigate Shoals was also discovered by La Perouse in 1786, when his two vessels, the Broussole and Astrolabe, nearly ran aground on

them rollowing their visit to Necker. The Provisional Government of

Hawaii leased the Shoals for 25 years beginning in 1894, but little use

was made of the area. It was-claimed by the Republic of Hawaii in 1895

and considered to be a part of the Territory of Hawaii in 1898. The

area has been more or less occupied by various branches of the military

since early 1942, with installations established first on East Island

and later on Tern Island, where a U. S. Coast Guard Loran station and

airstrip remain today. The Shoals witnessed a flurry of activity by

commercial fishing interests for a brief period following the end of

World War II. The airstrip and related facilities developed by the

military on Tern was used as the base of operations with the catch

flown to Honolulu for marketing.

Maro Reef was discovered by Captain Allen of the whaler Maro during his

voyage up the Leewards in 1820. This broken area is extremely foul with

many coral heads awash and channels of deep water between. It is generally

given a wide berth by vessels operating in the area. Captain Allen is

also credited with discovery of Gardner Pinnacles in 1820. The Pinnacles

consist of three small rock islets between Laysan and French Frigate

Shoals.

Laysan Island was reportedly an American discovery, but was first

recoi'ded in 1828, when the island was sighted by Captain Stanikowitch

of the ship Holler. It was claimed for the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1857

by Captain John Paty, during his voyage aboard the Hawaiian schooner

Manuokawai. Captain Paty noted that the island was literally covered

with bird life, and that seal, turtle and fish also occurred in abundance. A map of the island was prepared and the first scientific work conducted in 1859 by parties from the Fenimore Cooper and Gambia. In 1890, Laysan was leased by the Hawaiian Kingdom for a period of 20 years to the North

Pacific Phosphate and Fertilizer Company. The period of active guano

(phosphate) digging lasted from 1892 to 1904. During this period, several buildings were constructed; a well was dug; and a narrow gage track was laid to transport guano from the south end of the island to a loading dock built out to the entrance in the reef on the northwest side of the island. Burros were brought in to pull the carts along the track, with as many as 20 apparently on the island at one time. The manager of the guano digging operation> Captain Max Schlemmer, continued to live on the island with his family until 1915.

About 1903, Captain Schlemmer introduced rabbits to Laysan to augment his food supply and, partly it is said, to start a rabbit canning business.

The rabbits proliferated and soon had virtually denuded the island of vegetation. Schlemmer also introduced domestic guinea pigs. They quickly multiplied and added to the destruction of the vegetation.

Compounding the effects of this great destruction of habitat, Japanese feather collectors began operating in the area early in the 20th century.

They slaughtered hundreds of thousands of Laysan albatross and other birds for their plumage for millinery and similar purposes. Reports of this destruction stimulated public interest in bird protection and ultimately led to the establishment of the Hawaiian Islands Reservation as a sanctuary for wildlife by President Theodore Roosevelt on February 3, 1909.

Thus, when a party of 23 Japanese "plume hunters" were discovered on Laysan and Lisianski in 1910, they were promptly arrested by personnel of the revenue cutter Thetis and taken to Honolulu for trial. An estimated 259,000 bird wings and other plumage were seized at the time.

In 1909, the bird population on Laysan had been estimated at close to

10 million. By 1911, bird numbers had dropped to a tenth of that. A

Bureau of Biological Survey party with the'Tanager expedition that visited the island in 1923 and 1924 eliminated the remaining rabbits. The vegeta- tion since has slowly returned. Because of the damage, however, three species of land birds endemic to Laysan became extinct as did several species of endemic plants. Innumerable sea birds also perished from the driving sandstorms that occurred once the protective vegetation had been removed.

The Asian house fly, now so extremely abundant on Laysan and Lisianski, was introduced by the guano diggers. Swarms of this persistent insect gather about the head and face of visitors during daylight hours of the summer and fall months. They also concentrate around the eyes, nose and mouth of Hawaiian monk seals when they sleep high on the beaches during the day. It may account for the movement of seals to the waters' edge after sleeping all night near the edge of a shrub (Scaevola), which forms a rim around parts of the island about 100 feet from the water.

The total ecological implications of this introduction, like all the effects of man's activities on these islands, is not fully understood.

A near shipwreck by the Russian ship Neva, under the command of Captain

Lisiansky, on the reef of the eastern side, of Lisianski resulted in the discovery of that island in 1805. Going ashore a few days later, he reported finding birds, seals and turtles in abundance. Several landings were made on the island in ensuring years, each of which contributed to the growing knowledge of its biological values. Lisianski Island was included in the North Pacific- Phosphate and Fertilizer Company lease granted by the Hawaiian Kingdom for 20 years beginning in 1890. In

1915, Mr. Carl Elschner reported that some guano had been shipped, but the best, much phosphatized sand and soil remained in the low, central part of the island. There is no longer any evidence of the two buildings that were built there at that time.

Rabbits had been introduced to Lisianski sometime prior to Elschner's visit, probably from Laysan. The animals flourished and by 1915 had virtually eliminated all vegetation except for a single tobacco patch, the remnant of that set out by Max Schlemmer, and two specimens of morning glory. As occurred on Laysan, wind-driven sands buried many nesting sea birds and young in their burrows—thousands perished. In

1891, Captain F. D. Walker of the schooner Kaalokai, had described

Lisianski as ". . .a little paradise. . ." At the time of Elschner's visit, the island had become ". . . dreary and desolate."

When the Tanager expedition reached Lisianski in the spring of 1923, they found that the rabbits had all died of starvation, and the vegeta- tion was beginning to come back.

The last unit in the Refuge, Pearl and Hermes Reef, was discovered in

1822. The British whalers Pearl and Hermes were both wrecked on the

Reef on the same night within 10 miles of each other. The crews built a small vessel out of the wreckage of the other two and sailed it back to Honolulu. Pearl and Hermes was first charted by Captain John Paty in 1857, but

without landing additional descriptive information was accumulated by

other parties during landings in 1858 and 1867. In 1894 the atoll was

leased to the North Pacific Phosphate and Fertilizer Company by the

Provisional Government of Hawaii for a period of 25 years;, however, the

company made little use of the area. A scientific party from the Tanager

expedition made an extensive study of its plant and animal life in 1923.

Further studies of marine life were conducted in 1928 and 1930, by

investigators associated with the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the

Bernice P. Bishop Museum, respectively.

The discovery of pearl oysters in the lagoon of Pearl and Hermes Reef

by Captain William Greig Anderson of the Lanikai in 1927 stimulated the

development of a short-lived pearl oyster industry. The. Hawaiian Sea

Products Company, Ltd., by permission of the Governor of Hawaii, erected

several buildings on one of the small islets in the lagoon, and with the

help of Filipino divers, gathered several tons of pearl shells. These

were shipped to Honolulu and sold to manufacturers of pearl buttons in

San Francisco and New York. It was soon recognized that the oyster

shell deposits were especially vulnerable to exploitation and eventual

destruction, and commercial harvesting was terminated in 1929. A survey

of the pearl oyster fisheries by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries the

following year revealed the beds to be badly depleted. Further com- mercial development and harvesting operations were never resumed. The

beds never recovered, and a preliminary survey by the U. S. Bureau of

Sport Fisheries and Wildlife divers in 1969 revealed an almost total

absence of living oysters. Kure (Ocean) Island was included in the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation at the time it was established in 1909, but was placed under the juris- diction of the Secretary of the Navy for naval purposes by Executive Order

No. 7299 of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936. President Harry S.

Truman subsequently restored the island with its surrounding reef to the

Territory of Hawaii (subject to the right of the Navy to maintain a radar installation on the island) by Executive Order No. 10413 in 1946, apparently unaware of the Order of 1909.

The name of the Hawaiian Islands Reservation was changed to the Hawaiian

Islands National Wildlife Refuge by Proclamation No. 2416 of President

Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 at the same time names of many other refuges were changed.

Secret military operations without the knowledge of the Bureau of Biological

Survey took place in the Leewards (primarily at French Frigate Shoals) just prior to World War II. A radio communications station was established on

East Island early in 1942, but apparently was abandoned when the Navy began constructing a landing strip on Tern Island later that same year.

The purpose of the installation on Tern was three fold: (1) to provide fueling and landing facilities for ferrying aircraft between Pearl

Harbor and Midway; (2) to serve as an emergency landing facility for either land or sea planes; and (3) to serve as an outpost for the defense of Pearl Harbor. It was abandoned by the Navy in 1946; a grossly and permanently disfigured casualty of war. A Loran station developed on East Island in 1944 suffered damage later by a Tsunami (tidal wave) and was moved to Tern Island in 1952, where it remains today. The badly deteriorated remains of the Loran installation and its associated trash

on East Island have never been removed.

Dud bombs and spent machine gun bullets testify to the illegal use of

Necker Island as a practice target by the military in the not too distant

past. Bomb craters have been found in the middle of several of the

centuries-old Polynesian temples. Time has healed most of the scars

and units of the Refuge once despoiled by man are gradually returning

to their natural condition. Secret and unauthorized use of Pearl and

Hermes Reef by military agencies resulted in the establishment of weeds

on Southeast Island. Carelessness of other parties entering on Laysan

and Nihoa Islands also caused introduction of weeds on those islands in the early 1960's.

Following its establishment in 1909, the Hawaiian Islands Reservation underwent a long period of neglect during which it received a minimum of administrative attention or scientific scrutiny. The marked increase

in travel through and use of the Leeward Islands which contemporary

economic and military influences gradually brought about subsequent to

World War II, made it critically important that periodic surveys and

inspection trips be made to evaluate and control the effects of casual

or deliberate activities of man on these remote islands. Consequently,

in the absence of a resident manager, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service entered into an agreement with the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of the Territory of Hawaii (predecessor of the Department of Land and Natural Resources of the State of Hawaii) in 1951, enabling that agency to help administer the Refuge. The Territory established a refuge area corresponding to the Federal Refuge. This agreement later evolved into an annual contract with the State Department of Land and

Natural Resources. Upon the assignment of a permanent Bureau manager in

1964, direct management was resumed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and

Wildlife. The contract was continued so that state assistance could be furnished to the new manager. The State considers the Territorial Refuge designation to be in effect under the State government.

Cessation of formal State assistance in Refuge administration occurred in

1968 with the assignment of a second Bureau employee to its Hawaii offices,

A close, cooperative working relationship continues to exist between the two governmental agencies in management of the refuge islands. LAND STATUS

The Leeward Islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago, excepting Midway

Island, have been considered to be a part of the former Kingdom and

Republic of Hawaii by.reason of flag raising ceremonies and proclama- tions. Following annexation of the Republic to the United States in

1898 the area was designated as the Hawaiian Islands Reservation.

Executive Order No. 1019 was issued in 1909 establishing the Hawaiian

Islands Reservation as a preserve and breeding grounds for native birds.

The name was changed in 1940 to Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge.

Both the United States and the Territory and State of Hawaii have con- sidered the refuge designation and the Territorial-State boundaries as encompassing the outer reefs and lagoons of the atoll islands. This area has been used for the purposes of the study and report. Formal documen- tation and recognition by Congressional and State legislative enactments are needed to assure protection of the area, particularly from foreign intrusions.

In 1966 the Endangered Species Act (P.L. 89-669; 80 Stat. 926) con- solidated:

"all lands, waters, and interests therein, administered by the

Secretary as wildlife refuges, areas for the protection and con-

servation of fish and wildlife that are. threatened with extinction,

wildlife ranges, game ranges, wildlife management areas, or water-

fowl production areas" into the "National Wilderness Refuge System". Section 4(d) of the 1966 Act included the provision:

"The regulations permitting hunting and fishing of resident fish

and wildlife within the System shall be, to the extent practicable,

consistent with State fish and wildlife laws and regulations. The

provisions of this Act shall not be construed as affecting the

authority, jurisdiction, or responsibility of the several States

to manage, control, or regulate fish and resident wildlife under

State law or regulations in any area within the System".

The Territorial Act of 1890 provided:

"All fisheries in the sea waters of the Territory of Hawaii not

included in any fish pond or artificial enclosure shall be free

to all citizens of the United States, subject, however, to vested

rights; * * *".

There were no known vested rights to fishery in the Leeward Islands, other than such use as was made by the wildlife of the area.

A cooperative management program should be worked out with the State of Hawaii in accordance with the directives of this act.

Kure or Ocean Island was one of the areas named in Executive Order

No. 1019, and was considered to be a part of the refuge until 1952 when a secondary naval withdrawal (Executive Order No. 7299, Feb. 20, 1936) was terminated and Kure or Ocean Island was, by the terms of the relin- quishing order:

"restored to the possession, use, and control of the Territory

of Hawaii". A similar incident occurred in relation to East Island on French Frigate

Shoal, but in that instance the refuge status was restored. As a matter of practical administration and supervision, Kure or Ocean Island should be within the same refuge, management as the remainder of the Leeward

Islands so that funds may be expended for supervision and management purposes.

The Leeward Islands never were subject to the public land laws of the

United States. The Territorial Act of April 30, 1900 (31 Stat. 141) continued the laws of Hawaii in force until Congress might otherwise act. Most of the Leeward Islands were inventoried in Senate Report 16, following the Annexation in 1898, as "public lands", rather than as

"public property". The 1909 Executive Order was based on the authority of the 1900 Territorial Act although the acts prohibited by the Order were taken from the Act of June 28, 1906 (34 Stat. 536). Successful prosecutions of Japanese nationals were made shortly after the refuge was established.

Comparatively little was known about the physical arid, especially, ecological character of the Leewards at the time the refuge was created.

Consequently, the establishing Order contained some inaccuracies and a good deal of ambiguity—particularly as it related to boundary loca- tion. One area, Two Brothers Reef, apparently doesn't exist. Frost

Shoal was included, but is over 50 feet beneath the surface of the ocean as its shallowest point. Neither of these areas are a recognized part of the present refuge. Although Dowsett Reef was specifically named, it is actually part of Maro Reef. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife has included submerged lands within the boundaries of the administered refuge on the basis that

"there is a presumption that the Presidential order which created the

refuge also included within it sufficient area to make it possible to

administer the area in the manner intended." The following table sum-

marizes lands administered within the refuge.

Table 1. Lands administered within the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge

TOTAL Emerged Land (1) Submerged Land (2) Total Pearl and Hermes Reef 75.3 "~ 95,506.0 95,581.3 French Frigate Shoals 65.0 107,707.0 107,772.0 Nihoa Island 173.5 626.0 779.5 Necker Island 46.6 533.8 580.4 Maro Reef .1 44,893.4 44,893.5 Laysan Island 1,020.0 6,083.6 7,103.6 Lisianski Island 382.6 47,000.0 47,382.6 Gardner Island 5J3 85.5 90.5 1,768.1 302,435.3 304,203.4"

(1) Lands above the line of mean high tide. (2) Lands below the line of mean high tide.

There are currently only two use agreements in force on the Refuge, both

involving Tern Island in French Frigate Shoals. A cooperative agreement of 1967 authorizes use of Tern Island by the U. S. Coast Guard as a site for a LORAN station. The agreement is for a 20-year period, and limits

Coast Guard use to the operation of LORAN and other aids to navigation

and the improvement or enlargement of these facilities as deemed necessary by the Coast Guard, with the right of ingress and egress.

The agreement terminates after six months' non-use and may be terminated on 30 days' written notice by the Coast Guard. It may also be extended

beyond the 20-year period authorized by mutual consent of both parties.

The aircraft runway and associated facilities remaining from World War II

activities of the Navy are used in conjunction with this program. Entry

and/or use of Tern Island by any other agency or individuals other than « those of the Bureau or the Coast Guard must receive prior approval of

both agencies.

The channel used by the Coast Guard for water access to Tern Island

lies generally south-southwest from the island. Due to the shallowness

of the channel, large ships must be anchored in deeper water on the

perimeter of the atoll, and supplies ferried in by small boat. The

approximate location of this transportation "corridor" is illustrated

in Figure 2.

The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission was also subsequently given permission

to use Tern Island as a monitoring station for a three-year period beginning in 1969. This was done with the concurrence of the U. S.

Coast Guard, and involves a self-sufficient facility of approximately

50 men. Travel to and entry upon any other unit of the atoll is pro-

hibited. Travel on the lagoon is limited strictly to transportation of men, equipment and supplies from ship to shore and for disposal of trash

in deep water areas outside the fringing reef. No trash or pollutants of any kind ma}' be dumped into the lagoon. All shipments to the island must bear proper certification that all contents have been inspected and found free of foreign plants, seeds, animals and insects. There are 110 other known outstanding rights to any of the lands or waters of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge.±J

The land areas of the refuge have been designated as Natural Research

Areas as a part of the International Biological Program. They are dis- cussed at length in the Resource section of this report.

\J A small naval facility consisting of a radar reflector exists on Kure (Cure) Island. .-.- 10

Approximate location of refuge boundary

Ship channel located within this transportation corridor. 3|

10 10 ., --.o.. 1.,'.2 (_S ™" '2 .".-,<"' " '2 FIGURE 2. Tern Island Ship Transportation Corridor, French Frigate Shoals 13 '3 &*Vi 13 l3 \^i-\'•-, ,r^iuro-% , 13 "-'- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The islands of the Hawaiian. Archipelago can be conveniently divided into three major subdivisions according to the type of island formation

(Figure 3). The southeast segment includes large volcanic islands and their associated small islets. Hawaii is the largest and southeastern- most island within this group and has the only active volcanoes. The middle segment includes several shoals, in addition to small islands, on which volcanic rock is exposed. The northwest segment stretches over a greater distance than the other two and includes a dozen or more shoals and reefs. Some of these reefs, like Midway and Kure, have low- lying carbonate-sand islets, but no exposed volcanic material.

Geologically, the islands are part of a chain of huge underwater peaks which nark the summits of subraarin?. volcanoes and extend over 1,900 statute miles in a southeasterly direction (Figure 4). Geologists believe that throughout the ages successive flows of molten lava flowed out of a long fissure in the mantle of the earth arid formed the high peaks. The floor of the ocean on both sides of the chain averages about

3 miles below sea level in the Tertiary (probably over 50 million years ago), and has nearly every stage of volcanic development represented within it. The direction of volcanic extinction is progressing :from the northwest to the southeast and most recent island formations. The various stages in the geologic history of these islands are illustrated in Figure 5, with the island of Hawaii typifying the lava producing or dome stage, and Midway typifying the atoll and resubmergence stage at the opposite end of the spectrum. 180° 175° 170° 165° 160° 155° 30°

o Midwoy / Kyf« * .j ""a Ptorl ond Htrmit Rtf ,

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100 200 300 400 500 MILES _J I

Figure 3. — The Hawaiian chain, showing the three major physiographic subdivisions (bounded by dashed lines). •EXPLANATION :OF FIGURE 3,

1. Unnamed Shoal; 2. Bensaleux Reef; 3. Kure (Ocean) Island; 4. Green Island; 5. Nero Bank; 6. Midway Islands; 7. Gambia Shoal; 8. Pearl and Hermes Reef; 9. Lisianski Island; 10. Fisher Reef; • 11, Minor Reef; •12. Neva Shoal; 13. Springbank Reef; 14. 'Laysan Is'and; 15. Maro (Dowsett) Reef; 16. Raita Bank; 17. Gardner Pinnacles; 18. Two Brothers Reef; 19. St. Rogafien Bonk; 20. Brooks Banks; 21. La Psrouse Pinnacle; 22. French Frigate Shoal; 23. Necker Island; 24. Nihoa Island; 25. Unnamed Shoal; 26. Kaulo; 27. Niihau; 28. Kauai; 29. Oahu; 30. Molokai; 31. Lanai; 32. Mdui; 33. Kahoolawe; 34. Hawaii. FIGURE 4. Map and profile of the Hawaiian Archipelago showing submarine contours in feet. Explanation of numbers on facing page.

HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO 100 150 TPOUIICS

ZOO 300 400 100 tOO 700 *00 *00 1000 1100 UOO IJOO 1400 1100 XILC* 1 submarine stage JovT a produciOiT or donx? stage

~.j-.

Ocean Ocean

<** _ 4 (Collapse or celdero stage . Trachyte and cinder cone stage

• 5 . arine end end Stream erosion siege fringing reef stage

• Fnnging reef y'V Frirvjingr

8 ' .. ^econdary eruption" end /^toll and barrier reef stage resxibmergence stage after partial emergence ' -^O-'-.- •': <^Sx^lS<£^±

FIGURE 5. Eight stages in the probable geologic history of a volcanic island in the Central Pacific. Deep drilling on Midway by the U. S. Geological Survey in the summer of

1965 provided some insight into the geologic history of the Hawaiian

Islands. Their findings were summarized as follows: Two deep drill holes through reef limestones and underlying clays into basalts established a geologic section for the Hawaiian Islands that extends back through the

Miocene (a period in geologic time beginning about 30,000,000 years ago).

Chemical analysis indicates that tholeiitic basalts were covered by flows of alkalic basalts, and aa and pahoehoe structures indicate that the volcanic mound was built above the sea. The exposed part of the volcanic mound was partly truncated by wave action in pre-Miocene time, after which subsidence began. As the mound sank, weathered clays were reworked in shallow water and eventually were covered by reef limestones.

Overall submergence was interrupted three or more times by emergency— during the middle Miocene, at the end of the Miocene, and at least once during the Pleistocene (beginning 1,000,000 years ago). During the periods of emergence, the limestones were leached and recrystallized.

The Miocene limestone is irregularly dolomitized. This alteration may have occurred at the time the lower part of the post-Miocene section was deposited and extensively dolomitized. The altered limestones were covered by 200 feet of younger reef limestones. The last recorded event was the growth of a now emergent reef, eroded remnants of which are found on most of Midway's rim. This reef apparently flourished when sea level was relatively several feet higher than it is now.

The oldest of several carbon-14 determinations made on the exposed reef rock by the U. S. Geological Survey gave an age of 2,400 years before present; the youngest, about 1,280 years before present. The old reef is eroded, and no part now rises more than 3 feet above low tide level,

A similar but less prominent emergent reef is present on Kure Atoll and has been reported from Pearl and Hermes Reef. These emergent reefs may represent a negative shift in sea level of 5-6 feet, evidence for which has been described from many parts of the Pacific, or they may represent a very recent emergency of these islands.

The Leeward Islands include about 13 island formations and shoals that extend over 1,000 miles northwest of Kauai, the most westerly of the main, large islands of the Hawaiian group. Those west of Gardner

Pinnacles are all low coral islands, whereas, most of those to the east are remnants of basaltic cones. Gardner, La Perouse Pinnacle in French

Frigate Shoals, Necker and Kihoa are volcanic islands which are eroded remnants of primary volcanic domes. They are characterized by much exposed rock, and a limited, shallow surface layer of highly fertile soil material 8 to 10 inches in depth above the crumbly rock subsoil.

In 1926 a report on 13 rock specimens collected on Nihoa indicated all were basaltic with the following varieties represented: Andesine basalt, labradorite basalt, olivine basalt and picrite basalt. Andesine basalt, olivine-labradorite basalt, picrite-basalt and nephelitic basalt were identified in 12 samples from Necker. Two specimens of the lavas from

La Perouse Pinnacle, which is the westernmost part of the Hawaiian

Leeward Islands on which volcanic rocks are exposed, were found to be a labradorite basalt, with little or no olivine. From this evidence it

was concluded that the lavas of the volcanic Leeward Hawaiian Islands,

including Niihau, Nihoa, Necker, La Perouse and Gardner Pinnacles, are

predominantly, if not entirely, basaltic.

Recent analysis of soils on Nihoa revealed that, although extremely

shallow, they are very high in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium

and magnesium—much higher than the best agricultural soils of the main

Hawaiian chain. Organic content was also quite high. Considering the

cumulative effects of centuries of concentrated bird fecal and vegetative

deposition, the productivity of these soils is not particularly surprising.

Gardner, La Perouse Pinnacles and "Necker are almost barren rocks. Shaped

like a fish hook, Necker rises to 277 feet above sea level. Gardner and

La Perouse are 190 and 122 feet, respectively, above sea level. The highest refuge island is Nihoa, which rises to 910 feet above sea level.

The volcanic islands generally lack beaches, and landings on them can

only be effected in calm seas. These islands lack fringing reefs.

Fish observed here are generally the large pelagic species, including many sharks.

At 175 acres, Nihoa (Figure 6a) is the largest of the lava islands west of Niihau. The most striking feature of the island is the series of

irregular, vertical cliffs which form its northern, western and eastern edges. The cliffs contain some spectacular examples of successive lava layers and volcanic dikes. The entire island slopes inward into Adams

Bay on the south side. Conspicuous against the backdrop of low-growing vegetation typical of the island are the loula palms, Pritchardia remota. This palm is restricted to Nihoa and grows nowhere else in the world. Of the approximately 20 plant species that have been identified on Nihoa, three additional species are endemic to the island.

Necker Island (Figure 6b) is only 45 acres in size and supports a pro- portionately small number of plant and animal species. It has no land birds and only five kinds of plants, although it serves as a focal point for marine birds feeding within an area of ocean embracing hundreds of square miles. The island is long and narrow, stretching about 1300 yards from west to east. It consists predominantly of exposed rock, with the low-growing vegetation limited to the upper portions of the island. Shark Bay, formed by the "fishhook" configuration of the island, is appropriately named. Over 40 sharks have been observed in the bay at one time, no doubt attracted by the hundreds of immature sea birds which fall into the sea during the nesting seasons.

One of the more interesting features of Gardner Pinnacles (Figure 6c) is a geologic one: It is the farthest west of the lava islands, and may be the oldest piece of lava remaining above the ocean surface in the

Hawaiian chain. The island supports a sparse growth of one species of plant (Portulaca lutea), a low succulent.

French Frigate Shoals (excluding La Perouse Pinnacle), Maro Reef, Laysan,

Lisianski and Pearl and Hermes Reef (and Kure) are geologically clas- sified as emerged coral atolls or near atolls. Coralline algae are the principal constituent of the living and emerged reefs. Barnacles are known to occur on reefs at Midway and also on certain of the refuge

areas. The highest emerged reef known in this group is only about 5

feet above sea level.

French Frigate Shoala and Pearl and Hermes Reef are typical atolls with

low sandy islets located within a fringing reef. French Frigate Shoals

(Figure 6d) is a double crescent-shaped reef about 18 miles from tip to

tip and 10 miles wide. Coral heads are scattered throughout the lagoon,

and even in a small boat care must be taken to avoid corals which rise

abruptly to within a few feet of the surface. There are currently 11

small coral sand islets within the lagoon, including: Shark, Tern (the

largest, with 27 acres), Trig, Whale-Skate, Round, Mullet, Bare, East,

Gin, Little Gin and Disappearing Islands. The islets are formed from

relatively light sand and rubble, and their shapes are subject to more

or less constant shifting by currents and storm-driven wave action within

the lagoon. Winter storms may at times result in their complete inunda-

tion. Disappearing Island is appropriately named for this reason.

Whale-Skate consists of two former islets, named Whale and Skate, which

are now joined by a sand bar.

A visitor in 1936 described Pearl and Hermes Reef (Figure 6e) in con-

siderable detail. It is roughly elliptical in outline, and about 19 miles long by 10 miles wide. The well-defined rim is formed largely

by coral reefs, and averages about 250 feet in width. It extends around

about three quarters of the circumference of the lagoon. The northwestern

side is broken and partially open to the sea. The lagoon ranges in depth from 1 to 104 feet. Some of the coral formations within the lagoon

have shallow central areas surrounded by rims of coral. These central

portions vary from about 3 to 9 feet above sea level, and are usually

covered by a thick layer of soft sand. The outer slopes of the atoll rim

extend steeply to depths of around 65 feet, at which depth the fine-grained

mud of the ocean floor begins. Extensive areas of the lagoon contain long

bands of coral formations of varying widths. The central and northern

parts of the lagoon are occupied by coral reefs, while the eastern and

southern portions tend to have sandy bottoms.

The sediments of Pearl and Hermes lagoon are predominantly calcareous

sands and gravels. The isolated portion of the reef precludes influx of material from a large land mass except for a small amount of volcanic

dust and ash which may be wind-blown. The small area of reef exposed

to the atmosphere limits the action of rain water in modifying the sedi- ments. The rim of the lagoon is maintained by a coral framework rein-

forced by a vigorous growth of calcareous algae. While material is con-

stantly being broken away from the rim, it is still able to maintain

effective barrier against the ocean waves; in fact, it is believed that

the latter have little effect on the sediments inside the lagoon.

Because of the ineffectiveness of mechanical erosion, the deposits tend

to be very coarse. The small proportion of fine material is still

further reduced by removal through current action to deep water outside

the lagoon.

Ninety percent of the material within the lagoon is composed of fragments of calcareous algae, mollusk shells, madreporarian coral exoskeltons, and foraminiferal tests. Pearl and Hermes Reef probably rests on a volcanic basement, because volcanic pebbles, presumably derived from below, have been found in bottom samples. The atoll contains six coral islets which

lie close to the well-defined part of the barrier reef, along the north,

east and south sides of the atoll. These include North, Little North,

Southeast (the largest, with 31 acres), Grass, Kittery and Seal Islands.

Several small sandbars also occur at times between Southeast and Grass

Islands just inside the fringing reef.

Laysan and Lisianski are near atolls, with the low, elongated, centrally

located islands the dominant feature. Laysan (Figure 6f) is about 1 mile wide and 2 miles long, with Lisianski (Figure 6g) about half as big.

A shallow, highly saline closed lagoon about a mile long and a half mile

V7.ide exists within Laysan. It contains innumerable, little shrimp (Artemia sp.). A similar lagoon on Lisianski filled-in in prehistoric times.

The islands are 35 feet and 20 feet, respectively, above sea level at their highest point. The soil consists of coral sand and is more or

less universally phosphatized. Impressive growths of the coral Montipera

occur around Lisianski.

It is believed that the atoll formations developed through a combination of volcanic submergence and marine erosion. The gradual addition of organic materials to the parent soil on Laysan and Lisianski through the eons of time have resulted in a highly fertile soil which supports a low vegetative cover over virtually the entire exposed surface of both islands except along the perimeter sand beaches. Extensive areas are occupied by open stands of bunch grass (Eragrostis variabilus) while the lower interior parts support denser and more lush growths of this grass and morning glory (Ipomea sp.).

The atolls and near atolls are perhaps the most valuable for the greatest variety and abundance of fish and animal life. The exposed coral islands provide suitable nesting habitat for birds and green sea turtles, and loafing sites for turtles and monk seals. The fringing reefs provide favorable conditions for a wide variety of fish life. Protected waters supply feeding and resting areas for birds, seals and turtles. Here, the young of the latter two species can develop during the first critical months of their lives. Perhaps nowhere else in the Hawaiian Islands are the complex inter-relationships which exist between the physical Pacific island environment and the life within it so clearly evident.

Maro Reef (Figure 6) is a near atoll which is entirely, although shallowly, submerged except for a single rock extending about 2 feet above high water and numerous coral points at and above low water. It supports a vast network of coral reefs which cover an area of over 70 square miles.

Reefs are exposed or uncovered throughout the area at low tides, and are interspersed with deep water channels 10 to 60 feet in depth. While little is known about the ecology of this extensive reef formation, enough is known about similar areas in the Hawaiian Island chain to strongly indicate that it is unquestionably an area rich in biological resources. It may play an important role in the ecology of seals and turtles and certainly is an important feeding area for pelagic birds.

It is an excellent example of a marine ecosystem not associated with an island, and is, therefore, unlike any other unit within the refuge. Vegetation on refuge islands is comprised of low growing shrubs, forbs

or sparse growths of perennial brush-grass associations typical of low

Pacific islands.

Drinking water must be taken ashore. Several seeps highly tainted with

bird urea occur on Nihoa. At times it might be possible to obtain very

brackish water by digging in the sand on the coral islands, but this is

not to be depended upon. Interestingly, the now-collapsed well dug on

Laysan before the turn of the century by Max Schlemmer reportedly pro-

vided reasonably good water.

Waters within the lagoons and surrounding the islands are exceptionally

clear and appear bright turquoise "on a sunny day. Such days are the

rule, as are 15-20 knot northeast trade winds. Sudden squalls can

quickly generate churning seas. Violent storms-, especially during the

winter, frequently batter the islands, and tremendous surf can inundate

parts of the low islands or completely sweep over the tiny atoll islets.

During December, 1969, high seas swept over Tern Island, necessitating

airlifting the Coast Guard LORAN station crew off that island and

bringing them to Honolulu for several weeks.

Most of the Hawaiian Islands lie at the southern margin of the Temperate

Zone. The temperature of the surrounding waters is about 10°F. lower

than that of other regions of the same latitude. This relative coolness

is, in part, the reason for the poor development of coral reefs. The

surface waters just off Oahu usually average about 70°F with little yearly fluctuation. Air temperatures may range from below freezing on the high peaks of Hawaii to about 97°F at sea level on the leeward coasts.

Temperatures in the Leewards are mild and vary little from day to night.

Data for the refuge islands is available only from Tern Island and show lows of 70.4°F to highs of 79.0°F. Steady winds increase the chill factor. Annual precipitation on Tern is 32.50 inches. I 3 V d

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A. Wildlife

1. Mammals

a. Hawaiian Monk Seal

About 95 percent of the world's population of the Hawaiian

monk seal is found on the Hawaiian Islands Refuge. The animal

belongs to the genus Monachus, which contains the only truly

tropical and subtropical seals. Of the other two species of

this genera, the Caribbean monk seal is now thought.to be

extinct, while the Mediterranean monk seal is found only thinly

scattered around the shores of that sea.

The Hawaiian monk seal presently breeds only on Laysan,

Lisianski, Kure, Midway, Pearl and Hermes Reef, and French

Frigate Shoals. They do not tolerate much human disturbance

nnd are seen only rarely off the main islands of Hawaii.

Sealers in the 19th century almost exterminated the Hawaiian

monk seal. The animal has since prospered under the protection

offered by the Refuge and has gradually increased in numbers.

However, the total world population still probably does not

exceed 1,000 animals, most of which are found on the atoll units

of the Refuge.

This animal is officially classified as "rare" on the Secretary

of the Interior's list of "Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the United States". Recent observations indicated that,

because of the permanent human habitation, the Midway monk seal

population has seriously declined and, in fact, may be practically

eliminated there. Thus, lands and waters within the Refuge assume

an increasingly important role in the survival of this unique

species with the passage of time.

b. Other Mammals

Porpoises of several species have been observed in the

lagoons and in the surrounding waters at French Frigate Shoals

and Pearl and Hermes Reef. These animals have not been studied

and little is known about them.

2. Birds

A total of 31 species of birds are regularly found on the Refuge.

In addition, 38 accidentals have been recorded. Were it possible to have observers on the islands throughout the year, instead of for brief periods of time, many more species would undoubtedly be recorded.

a. Marine Birds

Some of the most remarkable sea bird nesting colonies on

earth occur on the Refuge. For eons such birds have converged

upon the islands from the vast Pacific to nest and rear their

young. Since all cannot find space to nest at the same time,

each species secures room at its appointed time. Some use the

islands throughout much of the year and are essentially permanent residents. Among these are the three species of boobies and the greater frigatebirds. However, banding records reveal that individuals and subpopulations may wander considerable distances to other island groups.

Nesting activity picks up in the fall, when thousands of albatross which have been roaming the North Pacific from the west coast of

North America to Asia begin returning to these tiny islands.

Most of the world's populations of the Laysan and black-footed albatross nest on the refuge. Over 125,000 pairs may be present on Laysan. Little Southeast Island (about 32 acres) at Pearl and Hermes Reef may have over 50,000 of these birds' covering

it—or over 1,500 albatross per acre. The egg takes about 9 weeks to hatch and the young are not able to fly for about six months.

In the early spring, hundreds of thousands of terns, petrels, shearwaters, and other species join those already on the islands, and they become a bedlam of shrieking, swirling birds. Almost a million sooty terns may be found nesting on Laysan Island alone.

Many hundreds of thousands more are found on the other refuge islands. The continual din of screaming birds makes sleep all but impossible. Nesting colonies are packed so closely that neighbors may be just a bill's peck away. Over 50,000 may be found on the 15 acres that: comprise East Island at French

Frigate Shoals. As one works his way through a colony, masses of birds noisily arise in front of him, then settle down just as noisily behind him as he passes. Extreme care must be exercised not to step on eggs or young.

A memorable sight at Lisianski Island in September, just as the sun begins to set, is to see birds like the terns and petrels returning to the island to roost or feed their young after a day of fishing at sea. The air over the island is so filled with thousands of swooping and darting birds that the pink- tinted clouds above are almost obscured from sight. Over 800,000

Bonin petrels alone were calculated to be there during a visit by a scientific party in 1967. Many thousands more were present on

Laysan Island several days earlier.

Vast numbers of gray-backed terns, common noddy terns, Hawaiian noddy terns and red-tailed tropic birds occur throughout the refuge. Many thousands of wedge-tailed shearwaters honeycomb the sandy islands with their nesting burrows. One must be. careful walking, since he repeatedly will cave through the roofs of such burrows, if he is not. On rocky islands like Nihoa and

Necker burrowing is not possible and such birds utilize nooks and crannies under the shrubby vegetation. The night air resounds with their moans and caterwaulings. At dawn the con- tinual calling blends into a low steady roar which gradully subsides as birds leave for a day of fishing. Conservative estimates place daytime populations on Nihoa alone during peak periods at a half million birds. What may be present at night is beyond guess.

A total of 18 different species of sea birds nest on the Refuge.

Accidental visitors from the southwest Pacific and Asia include

Murphy's petrel, Herald's petrel and scoty shearwater. Stragglers from the north include the black-legged kittiwake and northern fulmar. b. Shore Birds

Except at Laysan, only low numbers of shore birds are found scattered throughout the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Concen- trations of over 10,00 golden plover, ruddy turnstone, wandering tattler and sanderlings may be found along the shallow lagoon at

Laysan durirjg the fall, winter and spring months. Most come from the Aleutians. One turnstone banded at St. George Island in the

Bering Sea was recovered 3 1/2 days later at French Frigate Shoals, over 2,000 miles to the south. Bristle-thighed curlews, uncommon on the main inhabited Hawaiian Islands, are found on most refuge islands—notably Lisianski and Laysan. Infrequent stragglers • from the eastern and western Pacific and Asia have also been recorded. Among these is the sharp-tailed sandpiper, knot, northern phalarope, dunlin and ruff. During their stay on the refuge these birds are wholly dependent on shallow waters of the refuge for their food. c. Waterfowl

The Hawaiian Islands Refuge is home to what may be the rarest species of duck in the world—the Laysan teal. Numbering only about seven in 1923, the teal population has increased to nearly

500 birds in the recent past (1964). Unfortunately, it fluctuates drastically for unknown reasons, and there are presently less than

100 birds in the wild. Naturally occurring nowhere else in the world except on Laysan Island, it maintains a tenuous hold on existence and is officially classified as "endangered". Preserva- tion of natural environmental qualities and protection from the effects of physical disturbance and the introduction of harmful insects, plants and animals are considered essential steps in the effort to prevent the species from becoming extinct. A long-term study of this species is now in progress.

Small numbers of northern American migrants like the pintail and shoveler occur during the fall, winter and spring months. d. Small Land Birds

Three species of small land birds occur within the refuge, each of which is indigenous only to the island for which it was named. These are the Nihoa finch, Nihoa millerbird and Laysan finch. All are classified as endangered.

Three other species of land birds found nowhere else in the world but on Laysan became extinct there as a result of man's activities during the guano mining period in the early 1900's. The Laysan millerbird became extinct sometime between 1911 and 1923. The last of the flightless rails and beautiful red honeycreepers

perished in a sandstorm in 1923.

The Laysan finch population is an estimated 8,000. In the

spring of 1967 some were transplanted on an experimental basis

to Southeast Island at Pearl and Hermes Reef, where about 165

were in existence in the fall of 1969.

Endemic to Nihoa, the Nihoa millerbird and finch live in relative

seclusion. The former was unknown to science until 1923. Today,

it numbers about 700 birds. The finch population is calculated

at about 3,000. Like other species in this category, population

numbers fluctuate from year to year. Long-term studies to gain

insight into the reasons for these fluctuations are in progress.

3?, Fish

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are very unique in that they

contain the only atolls in the North Pacific. They are considered

to be the invasion route from the Indo-Pacific area of the marine

flora and fauna found around the high inhabited islands. Present

information suggests that the fish life of the Northwesterns is

less diversified than that around the main islands, although not

enough investigations have been conducted to confirm this. That

which has been done indicates that perhaps only a small percentage

of the shallow water marine life is endemic to this part of the

archipelago. However, species new to science may be found here. What is impressive are the numbers and sizes of fishes such as

the various wrasses (Coris, Thallasoroa and Chelinus), ulua

(Carangidae), mai (Polydoctlus)and parrotfishes (Scaridae). All

are subject to heavy commercial and sport fishing exploitation

around the main islands and, as a result, are generally less

abundant there and everage smaller in size. The relative abundance

of fish life around refuge islands can be explained by the light

fishing pressure. However, after World War II, commercial fisher- men moved into French Frigate Shoals after the U. S. Navy abandoned

its Tern Island facilities in 1946. Boats operating under a joint venture by the Seaside Fishing Company and the Hawaiian-American

Fisheries Company successfully netted uhu-j- palani, inoi and aholehole, and trolled for ulua and other small tuna-type fish. Turtles were also taken for market, and soon became the mainstay for the fishing crew's diet, supplanting beef. Turtle numbers dwindled and the reptile was soon too scarce in the Shoals to support a commercial harvest. It has been estimated that 200 turtles were taken there between 1946 and 1948. Catches were flown to Honolulu markets from their base of operations on Tern Island.

During the first three years of operation, Hawaiian-American

Fisheries grossed over $73,400 at the Shoals, but profits totaled only $19,500. Fishing continued intermittently by a variety of commercial fishing interests through about 1959. Louis K. Agard,

Jr., of the Hawaiian-American Fisheries Company summarized these various attempts to establish a commercial fishery at the Shoals when he wrote, "Much knowledge was gained during the years of operation, though not much profit."

Interest in commercial fishing increased throughout Hawaii following the close of World War II, and Congress responded with funds for fishery research by the Department of Interior. The Pacific Ocean

Fishery Investigations was subsequently established in 1948, with offices of the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in Honolulu.

This new fishery research laboratory was concerned with the col- lection of oceanographic data relating to tuna biological studies, and the commercial fishery potential of the Central Pacific.

Laboratory research vessels have subsequently plied -the waters of the Leewards rather extensively while conducting oceanographic cruises among the Hawaiian Islands, visiting French Frigate Shoals

15 times since 1950. The Oregon, a seiner-dragger of the Pacific

Exploration Company, caught approximately 13,300 pounds of iao, or silverside, in 15 days of fishing at French Frigate Shoals.

The Hugh M. Smith and Henry O'Malley baiting operations at the

Shoals during 1950 and 1951 (21 days work) were not as successful as those of the Oregon. Another authority reported that of 16 common bait-fish species occurring,, in the. Hawaiian Islands, 8 have been recorded from French Frigate Shoals. These investigations concluded that, although the best baiting ground in the Central

Pacific is in the main Hawaiian Islands, the best area for future expansion of the commercial fishing fleet's baiting ground appeared to be the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, especially Midway, with

French Frigate Shoals second. No Bureau of Commercial Fisheries vessels visited French Frigate from 1952 to 1954. From 1955 to 1957 the J. R. Manning and H. M.

Smith each visited the atoll twice conducting further bait-fish surveys. Similar surveys, 11 in all, were carried out by the

Charles H. Gilbert from 1959 to 1967. These surveys also showed great monthly and yearly fluctuations in the availability of bait fish.

The fish population at French Frigate Shoals has recovered some- what from the earlier commercial exploitation, but to what degree is unknown since no studies were conducted prior to fishing activities with which to compare the preliminary studies recently begun by scientists. The latter contend that the value of refuge waters as scientific research areas far exceed that which might be obtained by commercial activities.

A short-lived mother-of-pearl fishery existed at Pearl and Hermes

Reef from 1927-1930. An estimated 150 tons of shells were removed from the lagoon. Exploitation was so complete that little remained by 1930. A thorough survey in that year disclosed almost complete destruction and recommended that such fishing be prohibited until the bed had recovered, if it ever would. The area was completely closed to such activity in 1930. Subsequent surveys in 1950 revealed no recovery. Eight divers found only 6 living shells during a 2-day search. A one-day survey in 1969 in the middle of what had once been the center of the bed turned up only one living shell and two spat on a dead shell. This suggests virtually no recovery to date of the pearl shell, Pinctada galtsoff.

Lobster exist at French Frigate Shoals and Pearl and Hermes Reef, but in surprisingly low numbers. A 1969 survey by divers using

Scuba and snorkel gear in typical lobster habitat revealed less than 50 lobsters in 121 hours diving time.

A crown-of-thorns (Acanthaster planci) starfish survey in 1969 revealed only 5 such animals at Pearl and Hermes Reef and none at French Frigate Shoals. Further investigations are planned in areas outside fringing reefs. These starfish are extremely destruc- tive to coral reefs. If populations of the starfish should increase significantly, control measures may be necessary to preserve the coral reefs.

Other than this work at Pearl and Hermes Reef, and that by Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife divers and cooperating marine scientists in 1967 and 1969, there has been little research on the other marine flora and fauna on the Refuge. These need to be investigated, for the area offers rich possibilities for such research because of its relatively pristine nature. Massive formations of living corals are found in and around the atolls and sand islands. The tremendous coral formations, especially in the more northern units such as Pearl and Hermes Reef, run contrary to the axiom that corals reach maximum development only in truly tropical waters. Most abundant are Pocillopora, Porites and Montipora. 4. Reptiles

a. Green Sea Turtle

Exploited for its flesh and eggs, the green sea turtle has

been badly decimated in many parts of the world where it is still

taken by fishermen. Old timers avow it once was common in waters

off the main Hawaiian Islands. It does not now nest on any of the

beaches of these islands. Records indicate that many were taken

from Laysan and Lisianski Islands by seafarers, guano diggers and

feather gatherers in the last century and the first decade of this

century. Exploitation was so complete that few are found on those

islands today.

Turtle was also harvested at French Frigate Shoals by commercial

fishermen after World War II. However as indicated earlier, its

increasing" scarcity eventually made commercial use economically

infeasible and exploitation ceased. The breeding population has

recovered enough so that French Frigate Shoals is now considered

the most important nesting area for this valuable reptile in the

Central Pacific and also the entire Nation. Animals tagged there

by scientists have been taken by fishermen around the main Hawaiian

Islands. Some had traveled over 600 miles. To insure a minimal

fishery, it must continue to be completely protected in its breeding

areas in the waters of the refuge islands as well as on the islands

themselves. B. Water

There are no permanent sources of fresh water on any of the areas within the Refuge. As was mentioned earlier, several small seeps highly tained with bird urea occur on Nihoa. Brackish water suitable for emergency use has been obtained by digging in the sand on the coral islands.

A complex interrelationship exists between the submerged and emerged lands within these islands, and the marine water areas must be regarded as ecologically inseparable from the exposed lands. They are the principal source of food which occurs within the refuge. The protected waters within the atolls serve as nursery areas for monk seal and turtle.

These waters are almost totally pristine in nature (the area adjacent to

Tern Island being the only exception), and are reservoirs for marine biota that have become rare around the main Hawaiian Islands. From a zoogeographic view, they are important because they were the probable invasion routes for much of the high-island shallow water fauna. The continued existence of these natural marine communities preserves the opportunity for the accumulation of knowledge about a unique marine ecosystem unlike any other in the Nation, and perhaps unlike any other in the world.

C. Vegetation

The islands, generally, 'support only sparse growths of low shrubs, grasses and seasonal blankets of prostrate forbs of no known commercial value. The rocky higher islands are vegetated primarily with shrubs such as ilima (Sida fallax), goosefoot or lambs quarters (Chenopodium sandwichem) and lesser amounts of Euphortia. Scattered growths of,

Panicum torridum and bunch grass (Eragrostis variaballs) are also found on such islands plus a cucurbit (Sycios) and Boerhaavia—prostrate forbs.

The small fan palm (Pritchardia remota) occurs naturally in several scattered groves on Nihoa and nowhere else in the world. The fruit is very small and hard and has no known commercial value. The large, low islands like Laysan and Lisianski contain a fringing growth of tangled shrub, beach naupaka (Scaevola). Sparse but extensive stands of bunch grass occurs on Laysan and Lisianski. Interspersed are large sandy areas.

Seasonal patches of puncture vine (Tribulus), Sycios and Boerhaavia occur at scattered locations although in some years extensive growths occur when rainfall is more abundant. Beach areas and the shoreline of the highly saline lagoon at Laysan support morning glory (Ipomea). An endemic aandalwood formerly found on Laysan became extinct because of the destruction caused by rabbits.

One of the greatest threats to the delicate ecologies of the islands is the introduction of weeds which proliferate and crowd out the native vegetation. Tern Island, which has seen considerable military activity since the beginning of World War II, has been classified by a prominent island ecolcgist as "one big weed patch." Military trespass and care- lessness have resulted in the introduction of pest plants on several other islands. Insect pests which could,defoliate an island are a con- stant threat as are rats or other predators which could conceivably reach shore in equipment from ships or shipwrecks. D. Recreation

Opportunities for recreation are very limited. The islands are

remote and almost inaccessible. Vessels normally give the Archipelago wide berth because of the numerous reefs, shoals and shallow areas.

Conditions for both landing upon and getting off the islands in frequent

rough surf are highly hazardous, especially on the volcanic islands

which contain no beaches. Sudden violent storms or continual stiff winds

of several weeks duration are common. The tiny size of most of the islands

and their delicate ecosystems preclude even moderate human use. Accidental

introductions of pest plants or insects in clothing, shoes or equipment

is a definite threat. Too much human activity on the sand islands could

easily destroy nesting burrows so easily caved in under a person's weight.

Public use of land areas must be limited to that by scientists on approved

research projects. The Refuge has a large potential for scientific

research because of its relatively undisturbed state.

Swimming and skin diving by the small Coast Guard and AEC crews stationed

at Tern Island occurs in adjacent waters. This is usually done to relieve

the boredom of a year-long tour of duty there.

Public information and educational programs are to be developed through

interpretive activities centered in a future administrative complex

planned in the Honolulu area. Such activities will seek to foster

public understanding and support for conserving the. continuing natural

and historical heritage of the Hawaiian Islands Refuge. E. Minerals

The geology and miirererl bearing paten-tial of the Hawaiian Islands has been rather thoroughly investigated over the years, and much has been written on the subject. An effort was made during the course of the study to review all pertinent literature relating to the mineral resources of the islands. Some sources may have been missed; however, it is quite obvious that the mineral resources of most importance on refuge lands are the rocks, coral reefs and soils, in terms of their role in supporting the great and unique biological productivity of this area.

Guano (phosphate) deposits on Laysan and Lisianski Islands are now largely depleted, and further exploitation is neither economically feasi.ble nor ecologically acceptable. The potential loss to society from the effects ~of phosphate mining on other resource values could not possibly be -justified by the economic benefits.

Sand is becoming an important commodity in Hawaii for the replacement of resort beach sand lost through the normal process of erosion and for landscaping purposes. Consequently, there is increasing interest in the "recovery" of offshore (or submerged) sand deposits for use in the main Hawaiian Islands for beach nourishment and commercial uses.

The engineering and/or economic feasibility of such an industry is not known at this time. The complex ecological (and, possibly geological) implications of such disturbance on the natural environment, particularly if done on a large scale, have also not been explored. The potential amount of sand available within the Refuge for such purposes is not known.

However, removal of the sand would be incompatible with refuge management objectives. The long distances involved, plus the expense of barging heavy equipment to sites, would also be a deterrent.

The grains of olivine commonly found" in Hawaiian basalts rarely occur in a large enough size or of a high enough quality for the gem jewelry market.

Olivine deposits do not occur in sufficient quantity in refuge volcanic islands to be of economic value.

There is considerable trade in volcanic and marine specimens and curiosities in Hawaii, as there is in most Pacific Island areas, in connection with the large and increasing tourist industry. These include minerals and lava forms from the craters, and corals and shells from the shores and sea.

Black and pink coral, for example, occur off several of the main islands and are quite valuable for use in the gem jewelry market. Both are taken at great depths. The extent to which they may occur in the Leewards is not known. The relative scarcity and isolation of sea shells which occur in these islands makes thier collection economically infeasible.

F. Other Resources

Considerable archeological research was conducted on Nihoa and

Necker Islands in 1923 and 1924 by the Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Results of some of this work were published in a museum bulletin by Dr. K. P.

Emory (Archeology of Nihoa and Necker Islands Bulletin No. 53). It is considered an outstanding record of the survey of sites, structures and artifacts of an isolated outpost of ancient Hawaiian culture. Little investigation took place after that date because of the inaccessibility of the islands until 1969 when an ethnobotanist from the Museum studied the agricultural subsistence base of the former Polynesian inhabitants on Nihoa. He recommended, among other things, that further opportunities be furnished archeologists to study the culture which once existed there as well as the possibilities of prehistoric occupancy of some of the more westward islands. Carefully supervised investigations with a minimum of excavating would not compromise wildlife or related natural values.

In recognition of the Hawaiian Islands Refuge's natural values for research and environmental monitoring purposes, and as a part of the contribution of this Nation to the International Biological Program, all exposed islands within the refuge, except Tern Island, have been designated as Federal Research Natural Areas. They are listed in the official "Directory of Research Natural Areas on Federal Lands of the

United States of America," compiled by the Federal Committee on Research

Natural Areas (1968). They are summarized below:

Natural Area Number and Name Acreage Primary Type

251, French Frigate Shoals 65 Z-16 Birds (sea bird colonies) 252. Gardner Pinnacles 6 " u u it " 253. Laysan Island 1,010 ii u u u " 11 254. Lisianski Island 383 u ii u " 256. Necker Island 45 ii M u u " 257. Nihoa Island 170 u " u ii " 258. Pearl and Hermes Reef 75 u u u M " These acreages are being revised to include all refuge lands and waters as research natural areas, except for Tern Island and the associated vessel transportation zone at French Frigate Shoals.

Research natural areas are designated by administrative action of the

Director, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, not by legislative action. Thus, it does not extend legislative protection to the area, and may be in conflict with the interests of the State of Hawaii within the area.

Research natural area designation is entirely compatible with wilderness on the Hawaiian Islands Refuge. RNAs are defined as areas where natural processes are allowed to predominate and which are preserved for the primary purposes of research and education. They include areas that are: (1) typical or unusual fauriistic and/or floristic types, associa- tions or other biotic phenomena; or (2) characteristic or outstanding geologic or aquatic features and processes. They are managed for protection against activities which directly or indirectly modify natural ecological processes or alter the type of feature which is being preserved.

Manipulative management practices, such as grazing, prescribed burning, timber cutting and the use of chemicals for plant insect and disease control are not permitted unless necessary to maintain the type or process for which the natural area was established. The general public may be restricted or excluded, where necessary, to protect approved research studies or preserve the natural area. Recreational uses may be permitted so long as they are consistent with the primary purpose of the natural area. This obviously does not apply to the Hawaiian Islands Refuge.

The greatest values lie in the preservation of the unique flora and fauna and for scientific research. MANAGEMENT

Management of the Hawaiian Islands Refuge essentially involves pro- tection and restoration of natural environmental qualities and the accumulation of knowledge about the ecology of refuge flora and fauna, both terrestrial and marine.

The Refuge is presently administered from an office in Kailua on the island of Oahu. Periodic visits are made to individual units for wildlife population inventories, special scientific studies and general surveillance. Travel by Bureau personnel and cooperators is via ship and aircraft provided through the courtesy of the various military agencies operating in this part of the Pacific. Use of other govern- mental or private ships and aircraft on a charter or reimbursable basis has not been economically feasible within the constraints of annual operating budgets. Visits to the Refuge have been infrequent (about three trips per year) and have occurred on an opportunistic, irregularly- scheduled basis as transportation has become obtainable.

Small motorized boats of various types are used for landings on the islands and for transportation within the atolls. All travel on the islands is by foot. However, helicopters are the most effective and least hazardous means of effecting landings and will continue to be used (when obtainable) for this purpose.

Under present conditions, all supplies required to support a field party are carried on the islands at the time of the landings and are removed when field work is completed... Caches of emergency supplies are maintained on all of the major islands and generally involve burial in special con- tainers in the sand or simply stowage under a protective rock ledge.

Because the present means of transportation does not permit selection of the best periods for refuge visits in terms of weather, sea and biological conditions, working conditions are often quite hazardous and uncomfortable, and field work is sometimes not as productive as it might be. For these reasons, future provision for transportation which permits operational flexibility and improved safety for field personnel is essential.

Examples of the kinds of work accomplished on field trips include instal- lation and maintenance of refuge identification signs; general wildlife and wildlife habitat inventories; surveillance for and eradication or control of accidentally introduced plants and animals; indoctrination of military personnel operating in the area as to the purpose of the refuge and the special precautions necessary to help assure the preserva- tion of its unique wildlife and related natural values; and special refuge management studies.

There are currently eight formal refuge management studies in progress as summarized below:

WMS-1; Population and movements of Hawaiian monk seal. Involves determination of population trends, rate of turnover, annual production, areas of use by season, age and sex, nature of movements through the

Archipelago, longevity rates and mortality factors. WMS-2: Population movements of green sea turtle. Same basic information

as WMS-1, plus nesting requirements and relationship of refuge populations

to those harvested in waters of the main Hawaiian Islands.

WMS-3: Populations and life history of Nihoa millerbird. Involves study

of population dynamics, external methods of possible sexual differences,

habitat needs, food habits, incidence of disease, census methods, and

feasibility of transplants to other refuge islands.

WMS-4; Populations and life history of Nihoa finch. Same basic data as

WMS-3.

WMS-5: Populations and life history of Laysan finch. Same basic data

as WMS-3 and 4.

WMS-C: Population dynamics and life history of Laysan duck. Same basic

information as WMS-3,-4 and 5.

WMS-7; Wildlife disease and parasite investigations, involving investiga-

tion of presence and magnitude of protozoam and other diseases in rare

and endangered wildlife; presence of ectoparasites and endoparasites;

cause of illness of all sick wildlife observed and distribution of other

potential disease vectors in the Leewards.

WMS-8: Habitat studies, involving determination of type, abundance and distribution of the flora of refuge islands; preparation of vegetative- type maps and monitoring the spread and assess the significance of weeds already present or accidentally introduced.

Preliminary inventories of refuge resources are also being conducted. Outstanding opportunities exist on the Refuge for research in a variety

of disciplines by persons and institutions both inside and outside

government. Such research is encouraged on a carefully planned and

closely supervised basis to minimize conflict with other studies and values. Use of vessel-based field laboratories will be encouraged to minimize the adverse effects of research activities on wildlife. Simple,

permanent laboratory facilities-are planned on Tern Island to support

extended research by Bureau and cooperating scientists. Tern is the best location on the Refuge for a field station, as there would be

little conflict with terrestrial life. French Frigate Shoals is the nearest atoll to the main inhabited islands and would have the least

transportation problem. It has most of the elements of environmental

uniqueness displayed throughout the Leewards. It would also be an ideal place Lo sLudy inshore life that can no longer be studied around the

inhabited islands. DEVELOPMENT

Existing development is confined to East and Tern Islands in French

Frigate Shoals.L' The remains of the abandoned LORAN station on East

Island, consisting of several badly deteriorated metal quonset huts, antenna towers, etc., could be cleaned up and removed, and the wilderness character of the island fully restored.

The development which occurred on Tern during World War II completely and permanently altered the natural character of this island. A 12,000- foot channel, 200 feet wide and 20 feet deep, was dredged to the island, and a seaplane runway 8,000 feet long and 1,000 feet wide was cleared adjacent to the island. Coral removed from these areas was dumped on

Tern, completely covering the tiny original 1,800 by 450-foot island.

A total of 660,000 cubic yards of coral was dredged and placed on the • island in the construction of the 3,100-foot long by 250-foot wide landing field. The "field" was partially rimmed with 5,000 feet of steel sheet piling driven to a depth of about 15 feet. From the air, the island looks remarkably like a giant aircraft carrier, complete with

"storage decks" along its sides. The modified island and adjacent area physically affected by its construction no longer possess the quality of wilderness.

The Coast Guard plans to continue operation of the LORAN station on

Tern, at least until better means of providing aid to navigation in this region are discovered or developed. They plan to rehabilitate the sea wall, air strip and buildings. At present, supplies are flown in weekly

if Some development is also present on Kure. from Oahu. Those from an occasional ship are brought in by small boat or landing craft via the channel through the inner reef from the anchorage about two miles away. That agency's plans for the straightening and deepening of the channel to permit large vessels to dock at the island have been temporarily postponed. Such channelization would be detrimental to the reef life affected.

Refuge development plans for a research facility on Tern will involve quarters sufficient to house four men; a small laboratory; and a boat- house large enough to store two 16-foot boats, plus equipment. Utilities will be provided by the Coast Guard under agreement in conjunction with the operation of their LORAN station.

Small, rustic shelters would be highly desirable on each of the larger islands to provide protection for Bureau personnel and authorized cooperators and researchers from the gales which lash the area at times and destroy camps and equipment. Simple landing ramps for rubber boats would also be desirable on Nihoa and Necker Islands to reduce the high risks sometimes encountered by field personnel during landings. However, whether or not these facilities are actually developed will depend upon the course future refuge management takes in the Leewards. If adequate transportation, and proper conditions under which transportation occurs, can be assured, for example, then these facilities may not be regarded as quite so essential to field operations. In any event, the types of facilities tentatively planned, and the means by which they would be developed, would not significantly compromise the wilderness character of the islands that would be involved. No additional development is planned within the Refuge, SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The closest of the main inhabited Hawaiian Islands is small Niihau,

150 miles south and east of Nihoa. Its people, mostly pure Hawaiian,

generally remain in relative isolation on that privately-ovmed island,

while engaged in cattle raising for its owners, the Robinson Family

of Kauai. The latter island is about 40 miles to the northeast.

Near the other end of the refuge chain is the U. S. Naval Station about

95 miles west of Pearl and Hermes Reef, on Midway Atoll. It supports

communications facilities and a Search and Rescue Unit of several

amphibious planes and helicopters. Military aircraft, including jets,

utilize the air strip during the course of travel between the West

Coast, Hawaii and the Orient. Naval ships refuel there from time to

time. IliliLaty personnel and their dependents usually fluctuate from

2,000 to 3,000 persons. The only military travel between that area and Pearl and Hermes Reef occurs while furnishing logistic support for refuge personnel.

At present, no one depends upon the natural resources of the study area for their livelihood; however, as related earlier, there has been con- siderable interest in the past in the commercial fishery potential of

French Frigate Shoals. Interest is beginning to be shown in the marine, resources throughout the entire Northwestern Islands' part of the

Archipelago—including the area beyond the last island, Kure. The

Governor's Task Group on Living and Non-living Resources for the Hawaii and the Sea Program recommended that these resources be surveyed and utilized. This would involve primarily fishery resources initially.

The Task Group made no recommendations as to who should conduct the survey—nor its schedule or scope. Little is known about the extent of fishery resources in the Northwesterns. Information is fragmentary and, in many cases, speculative—even for French Frigate Shoals, which is the best known in this respect by virtue of the earlier fishing activity there.

There are approximately 2,500 square miles of shallow water within the

10-fathom contour in the entire Hawaiian Archipelago, representing the

State's principal potential fishing area. Less than 20 percent lies within the refuge, and this mainly in the lagoons of the atolls at

French Frigate Shoals and Pearl and Hermes Reef. That found in the

Northwesterns, excluding the refuge, constitutes 47 percent of the total. Were one to calculate that area lying within the 100-fathom contour, the latter percentage would be much larger. Included would be all the banks and shoals lying between refuge units, as well as the vast areas near Necker Island and Gardner Pinnacles. The figures suggest that the Leewards may contain a rather large inshore or shallow- water fishery resource, and further, that over 80 percent of the shallow- water fishing area in the entire Archipelago is within the State of

Hawaii.

In terms of the technological aspects of a Leeward fishery, Dr. Maciolek of the Hawaii Cooperative Fishery Unit, University of Hawaii, has commented that: "Because of the distance from Honolulu, it is obvious

that an effective Leeward fishery will require ships of sufficient size

and capability to navigate great distances (sometimes under hazardous

conditions); perform their fishing operation efficiently, and return to

port with a catch that is marketable at a profit. Such vessels presently

do not appear to be part of the Hawaiian fishing fleet. Fishing gear

employed and species to be taken are interrelated factors; the gear

deserves primary consideration, inasmuch as it can be more or less

selective." The Hawaiian fishing fleet presently works almost exclusively

around the main inhabited islands, with an occasional boat only rarely venturing into the Northwesterns—and then only to the area around French

Frigate. Shoals.

Life found within refuge waters is intimately a part of the ecology of

that found on the islands—the monk seals,'green sea turtles and the myriads of sea birds. When most of the refuge units were designated as research natural areas, the waters were closed to all fishing except for that which might be necessary for scientific research. The purpose was to protect the habitat and, therefore, the ecology of refuge biota.

Support for maintaining this closure on fishing can be expected from scientists in terms of the unique opportunity it affords to provide permanent marine research areas in an untouched part of the Hawaiian

Archipelago. As expressed by Dr. Maciolek: "Species of marine life, depleted or rare around the Windward Islands, are common at Leeward locations and occur in natural, unmodified communities. A few research locations, scattered along the Leeward chain will allow a more thorough study of zoogeography and migration. The research potential there is immense. . . ". Carrying this a step further, some interest has been expressed within the scientific community for the establishment of State natural areas in waters adjacent to those under refuge jurisdiction.

Although the research potential at the refuge is indeed "immense", scientists are hindered by the same problem as the fishery—difficulty of access to a remote area. Eventually, this will be overcome by use of ships as temporary laboratories, the construction of the small, permanent marine research field station on Tern Island and more oppor- tunity for logistic support.

According to information provided by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, a Statistical Abstract published by the Office of Information, Department of Planning and Economic Development, State of Hawaii, indicates popula- tion projections for the State as follows:

1970 1975 1980 1985

849,400 962,000 1,086,000 1,217,000

Hawaii Visitor's Bureau statistics indicate an average 15 percent annual increase in visitors to 1969 from more than 508,000 in 1964.

Only a very minor percentage of these visitors fail to spend some or all of their visiting time in some form of recreation pursuit.

In response to a request from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for an analysis of recreational considerations in conjunction with this study, the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation commented: "It is apparent that recreation use of the Northwest or Leeward Islands Refuge portion is not paramount. The most important and desirable administrative respon- sibilities associated with the area are: Rehabilitation of the physical features where needed; re-establishment and diversification of the native flora and fauna, and protection and preservation of the natural scene and of the fragile ecosystem within—and where possible adjacent to— the Refuge. Consequently, discouragement and control of the point of refusal of access to the Refuge for other than scientific purposes seems justifiable.

"Because of difficult and dangerous access, the designed lack of accommodation, and the remoteness of the Refuge's Leeward Island portions, recreational use is and would continue to be of very minor amount. Your plan toestablish a visitor center facility at or near Honolulu to explain the Refuge's values and the need for their protection is commendable.

Such a facility certainly would provide for much more public use and benefit than would result from the public's attempted recreation use and benefit than would result from the public's attempted recreational use of the Leeward Islands, even though visitor controls were not imposed.

In the final analysis, the greatest value of the refuge may be as a natural area where the condition of a representative sample of the planet

Earth may be continually monitored, and where study of the natural life processes may help lead man to a better understanding of his proper role in the ecology of the World. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Summary

1. The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge consists of a

series of small islands, atolls and reefs extending over 800 miles

of open ocean west of the main Hawaiian Islands. The nearest

island, Nihoa, is 150 miles from the last of the inhabited main

islands.

2. Refuge islands are uninhabited except for tiny Tern Island at

French Frigate Shoals, where the Coast Guard maintains a small

LORAN station, and the Atomic Energy Commission maintains a

monitoring station, both through agreement with the Bureau of

Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.

3. The islands are remote and inaccessible. Landings frequently

are very hazardous. Storms and rough surf are frequent and sudden.

There are no dependable sources of fresh water. They are off normal

shipping lanes, and most vessels avoid the Archipelago because of

reefs and shoals.

4. The islands harbor some of the most remarkable sea bird nesting

colonies in the world. Two species of endangered land birds are

found only on Nihoa Island and nowhere else in the world. Another

endangered land bird and a duck are found only on Laysan Island.

The latter, the Laysan teal, may be the rarest duck in the world.

Three species of land birds became extinct on Laysan Island, and the aforementioned two species almost became extinct because of the

introduction of exotic animals (now gone) which drastically upset the ecology of the island. In addition, several species of endemic plants became extinct because of this change.

5. The refuge is home to about 95 percent of the world population of the rare Hawaiian monk seal, which was almost exterminated by man by the early part of the 20th century. This animal cannot tolerate too much human disturbance. It also contains the most important nesting area for the green sea turtle in the nation.

This has been lit.ted as a peripheral species nationally and has greatly declined in numbers worldwide.

6. The islands are important from a marine zoogeographic standpoint since they occupy much of the area considered to be the invasion route for the Indo-Pacific forms of marine biota found around the main Hawaiian Islands. Refuge waters act as a reservoir for some forma considered scarce around the main islands. Refuge waters on the whole are pristine.

7. Primitive temples, garden terraces and house sites, some of which are reputed to be over 700 years old, bear mute witness that

Nihoa and Necker Islands were inhabited by early-day Polynesians.

Their form and structure resembl'e those of old Hawaii and parts of Tahiti and establish a link between those areas. 8. Opportunities :; ••f-x*jrx^-aMonal use. are very limited. The fragile ecology of the arer.* precludes uses other than scientific investiga- tions under a permit system. Too much damage very easily would occur otherwise. Other inhibiting factors are the remoteness and inacces- sibility of the Refuge plus the high hazards involved landing on the islands, as well as r 'Vv'.ai storms which generate dangerous surf and high winds. y. There are no known mineral deposits on the Refuge of economic value.

10. The Refuge offers tremendous potential for scientific investiga- tions. The lands and waters possess great values as controls to monitor man-caused changes occurring elsewhere.

11. All islands of the Refuge except Tern Island have been designated as research natural areas by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.

Such designation does not constitute legislative assurances that the areas will remain natural. Wilderness designation would be compatible v.ith this use as research areas.

12. All lands within the Refuge are almost totally natural, except

East; and Tern Islands. The wilderness character of East Island can be restored with removal of the abandoned LORAN station facilities.

Tern Island and the adjacent artificially developed ship channel no longer possess the quality of wilderness. 13. The small rustic administrative shelters tentatively planned for major islands for safety purposes would not be contrary to the concept of wilderness, on the basis of guidelines provided in

Section 4(c) of the Wilderness Act.

14. The continuation of motorized boat travel on navigable waters of the Refuge and the landing of aircraft (helicopters) is essential for administration of the Refuge and would not significantly detract from the wilderness character of the area.

15. Wilderness designation on the land areas of the Refuge would be entirely compatible with refuge management and development plans.

Indeed, wilderness will aid in achieving the refuge goals involving preservation of this ecosystem.

16. Wilderness designation of the land areas of the refuge would provide needed legislation protection. However, such designation would result in protection of only part of the refuge. The. sur- rounding waters and underwater reefs are also in need of protection if this unique ecosystem is to be preserved.

17. Kure or Ocean Island was once part of the Refuge. It passed to military control during the Second World War and was relinquished to the State. It is presently not administered as part of the

Refuge but its true status is unresolved. B. Recommendations

1. The lands and waters of almost the entire Refuge are unquestionably

wilderness in character. They are almost totally undisturbed arid

undeveloped by man. A total of 1,741 acres of Refuge lands above mean

high tide are considered suitable for wilderness. It is recommended

that these lands be. included in the National Wilderness Preservation

System.

2. Tern Island (27 acres) and the adjacent ship channel at French

Frigate Shoals should not be included in wilderness because of their

permanent and gross alteration by past human activity.

3. Refuge lands below mean high tide are not considered suitable

for wilderness. These underwater lands are overlain by navigable

waters. TUe State of Hawaii and other Federal agencies have respon-

sibilities in these waters that preclude wilderness.

4. The underwater reefs and shoals do need protection similar in

nature to that which would be gained by wilderness. Since wilder-

ness designation is not appropriate, this protection can bf> assured

through cooperative agreements with the State of Hawaii and other

agencies concerned.

5. Jurisdictional status of Kure Island should be clarified. The

atoll should be re-evaluated as to its most appropriate use and

returned to the refuge, if warranted. FABLE 2. Refuge lands considered suitable and non-suitable as wildsrness.

Refuge Units Total Acres Acres Suitable Acres Non-suitable for wilderness 11 Administered* as wilderness* Emergent Landi/ Submergent Land^./ y Pearl and Hermes Reef 95,581.3 75.3 0 95,506.0

•^ French Frigate Shoals 107,772.0 38.0 27.0 107,707.0

Nihoa Island 779.5 173.5 0 626.0

Necker Island 580.4 46.6 0 533.8 vMaro Reef ^44,893.5 .1 0 44,893.4

^-Laysan Island /7.103.6 1,020.0 0 6,083.6

\ Lisianski Island 47,382.6 382.6 0 47,000.0

•'Gardner Pinnacle 90.5 5.0 0 85.5

TOTAL 304,203.4 1,741.1 27.0 302,435.3

* Includes only emergent land I/ Emergent lands are above line of mean high tide 2J Submergent lands are below lint of mean high tide HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

CHANGES SUBSEQUENT TO THE PUBLIC HEARING

The entire refuge, except Tern Island and its adjacent ship channel, is suitable for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System; however, there is an ambiguity in the Executive order which established the refuge. Essentially the ambiguity centers on the question as to whether or not certain reefs were included in the order and serve as a boundary for the refuge. All of the area encompassed by the reefs are suitable for wilderness status, if they are determined to be owned by the United States.

At present this issue is being discussed among the Departments of the Interior, State and Justice, and the State of Hawaii. Therefore, the undisputed emergent lands in the refuge (less Tern Island), encompassing 1,742 acres are recommended for wilderness and if it is ultimately determined that additional lands belong to the United States they also will be recommended for wilderness status.