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The Invisible Fire Starters The Invisible Fire Starters A usewear-based approach to identifying evidence of fire production by Neandertals Andrew C. Sorensen Cover design by Andrew C. Sorensen and Femke Reidsma Photograph by Andrew C. Sorensen The Invisible Fire Starters A usewear-based approach to identifying evidence of fire production by Neandertals Author: Andrew C. Sorensen Course: Master Research and Thesis Course code: ARCH 1044WY Student nr: 1100696 Supervisors: W. Roebroeks, A.L. van Gijn Specializations: Palaeolithic Archaeology, Material Culture Studies University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden 22nd December 2011 1 2 CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................5 LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................7 LIST OF APPENDICES...........................................................................................................8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................9 1. INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................11 1.1. Prehistoric fire production methods............................................................................. 14 1.2. Neandertals and fire: takers or makers?....................................................................... 18 1.3. Research Questions...................................................................................................... 20 2. FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS – EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES....23 2.1. Introduction to usewear analysis.................................................................................. 23 2.2. Experimental procedures ............................................................................................. 26 2.2.1. Kinematics............................................................................................................ 26 2.2.2. Proficiency, materials, and duration of use .......................................................... 27 2.3. Flint strike-a-light experiments.................................................................................... 28 2.3.1. Selecting materials ............................................................................................... 28 2.3.2. Creating experimental pieces ............................................................................... 29 2.3.3. Documentation ..................................................................................................... 29 2.3.4. Application methods, techniques and kinematics................................................. 31 2.3.5. Casting procedure................................................................................................. 33 2.3.6. Summary .............................................................................................................. 35 2.4. Sulphuric iron contact material.................................................................................... 35 2.4.1. Description of material and methods.................................................................... 36 2.4.2. ‘Ad hoc’ experiments............................................................................................ 37 3. RESULTS ..........................................................................................................................39 3.1. Usewear analysis of strike-a-light experiments ........................................................... 39 3.2. Usewear analysis of sulphuric iron contact material ................................................... 46 3.3. Strike-a-light effectiveness: a statistical approach....................................................... 51 3.3.1. Spark generation statistics .................................................................................... 53 3.3.2. Quality verses quantity......................................................................................... 57 3.3.3. Factors affecting the rate of success for strike-a-lights ........................................ 59 4. VISIBILITY OF FIRE PRODUCTION IN THE EUROPEAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD ................................................................................................................................63 3 4.1. Flint strike-a-lights from the Upper Palaeolithic ......................................................... 63 4.2. Sulphuric iron nodules as a proxy for Palaeolithic strike-a-lights............................... 67 4.2.1. Examples from the literature ................................................................................ 67 4.2.2. La Cotte à la Chèvre, Jersey................................................................................. 70 5. APPLICATION OF THE FINDINGS ................................................................................75 5.1. Overview of evidence for identifying fire production ................................................. 76 5.1.1. Strike-a-lights ....................................................................................................... 77 5.1.2. Sulphuric iron....................................................................................................... 78 5.2. Fire production at Neumark-Nord 2/2? ....................................................................... 81 5.2.1. Site overview........................................................................................................ 81 5.2.2. Lithic technology overview.................................................................................. 85 5.2.3. Analysis of the lithic assemblage ......................................................................... 85 6. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION .....................................................................................89 6.1. An alternative look at the ‘expedient strike-a-light’ hypothesis.................................. 89 6.2. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 92 6.3. Suggestions for future research.................................................................................... 94 LITERATURE........................................................................................................................97 ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................107 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................109 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. Flint flake with associated birch tar, Campitello Quarry, Italy (after Mazza et al. 2006).................................................................................................................... 14 Figure 1.2. Neolithic grave (Grave 2) and offerings from Schipluiden, Netherlands, including three strike-a-lights, one sulphuric iron fragment, and one retouched flake (after Smits and Louwe Kooijmans 2006, 96–97; photos not to scale). ....................... 20 Figure 3.1. Photographs of striations on flint resulting from forcible contact with sulphuric iron, A) Experiment 2008-1A (100x), B) Experiment 2010-4A (500x).............. 41 Figure 3.2. Photographs of Experiment 2006-3 showing extreme crushing on a naturally rounded flint surface as a result of forcibly striking sulphuric iron..................... 42 Figure 3.3. Photograph of remnant or incipient striations within crushed zone on flint as a result of forcibly striking sulphuric iron. Experiment 2011-4A (100x). ............. 42 Figure 3.4. Photos comparing the form and worked edge of a heavily used strike-a-light from the Palaeo-Eskimo Dorset culture site of Ikkarlusuup (2-3 ka ago) in Greenland (A, C), with minimally used Experiment 2002-3A (B, D). The scale is the same for the macroscopic images (A, B); also between the low-magnification images (C, D). Images A and C are after Stapert and Johnasen 1999, Figure 6: 7 (774), and Figure 7 (775), respectively.......................................................................... 43 Figure 3.5. Photo of usewear traces (weak polish and striations) on flint edge from forcible contact with basalt during dorsal face platform preparation (100x).................... 45 Figure 3.6. Photographs of refitted sulphuric iron nodule used for experiments. A) Magnified image of a primary impact feature with white arrow indicating possible secondary crush zone. B) Full nodule showing distribution of three (3) primary impact features indicated by white arrows. ......................................................... 46 Figure 3.7. Photographs of sulphuric iron nodule with A) primary impact features, and B) secondary impact features from 'anvil' resulting from bipolar percussion. White lines of equal length indicate near-identical distribution of impact features on opposing sides of nodule. .................................................................................... 47 Figure 3.8. Photographs of use damage incurred at sulphuric iron nodule margins, including edge-removals (A) and rounding (B), compared to an unworked edge (C). ....... 48 Figure 3.9. Photograph of sulphuric iron nodule fragments exhibiting unweathered (left) and weathered (right) fracture surfaces...................................................................... 49 5 Figure 3.10. Photographs
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