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Racial Construction of Early American Christian Identities

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Racial Construction of Early American Christian Identities OURS IS THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN: RACIAL CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY AMERICAN CHRISTIAN IDENTITIES Heather Lindsey Robinson Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS May 2016 APROVED: Ian Frederick Finseth, Committee Chair Deborah Needleman Armintor, Committee Member Stephanie L. Hawkins, Committee Member Robert Upchurch, Chair of the Department of English Costa Tsatsoulis, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School Robinson, Heather Lindsey. Ours is the Kingdom of Heaven: Racial Construction of Early American Christian Identities. Doctor of Philosophy (English), May 2016, 241 pp., 1 figure, references, 262 titles. This project interrogates how religious performance, either authentic or contrived, aids in the quest for freedom for oppressed peoples; how the rhetoric of the Enlightenment era pervades literatures delivered or written by Native Americans and African Americans; and how religious modes, such as evoking scripture, performing sacrifices, or relying upon providence, assist oppressed populations in their roles as early American authors and speakers. These performative strategies, such as self-fashioning, commanding language, destabilizing republican rhetoric, or revising narrative forms, become the tools used to present three significant strands of identity: the individual person, the racialized person, and the spiritual person. As each author resists the imposed restrictions of early American ideology and the resulting expectation of inferior behavior, he/she displays abilities within literature (oral and written forms) denied him/her by the political systems of the early republican and early national eras. Specifically, they each represent themselves in three ways: first, as a unique individual with differentiated abilities, exceptionalities, and personality; second, as a person with distinct value, regardless of skin color, cultural difference, or gender; and third, as a sanctified and redeemed Christian, guaranteed agency and inheritance through the family of God. Furthermore, the use of religion and spirituality allows these authors the opportunity to function as active agents who were adapting specific verbal and physical methods of self-fashioning through particular literary strategies. Doing so demonstrates that they were not the unrefined and unfeeling individuals that early American political and social restrictions had made them--that instead they were intellectually and morally capable of making both physical and spiritual contributions to society while reciprocally deserving to possess the liberties and freedoms denied them. Copyright 2016 by Heather Lindsey Robinson ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS While the attainment of this degree largely involves the mastery of words—even the words themselves—cannot fully express the profound love and gratefulness in my heart. To my Daddy, Momma, and my brother, who each deserve an honorary doctorate for daily pulling me back from the darkness into the light and reminding me who I am and what I am made of—my defense, my home, and my very heart. To Chance, for overlooking moments of insanity in favor of moments of inspiration. To Dr. Finseth—gentleman and scholar—who elucidated my literary strengths to lift me over the finish line. To Landon, for being the reminder of my childhood, reflecting the purest form of myself back to me. To Dr. Lindsay Moore—my Willis library companion, my vending machine confidant, my Youtube motivator: We are forever fused by our ability to hold on for one more day. To Dr. Amanda Kellogg, my light-bearer who walks in front of me but not so far ahead that I can no longer hear your steady and sure voice. To Dr. Oppong, who whole-heartedly demands a return on his labor, who leads with generosity and tenacity— you (Daniela and DBC) saved me. To Tana, Brian, Cole, Tim, Heidi, Jeanette, Julie, and Ashley: For if any of them fall, the others will lift up their companion. You are the reason I have finished this race—it’s me again. To Darcy, my sister and sore hanger, cheering me on from afar and comforting me with the wittiness of words and compassion of love. To Dr. Pettit, my first and favorite professor: You saw potential in me when I was green and have made me feel special, valued, and always able. To Dr. Vanhoutte, for your clear vision and principles and for valuing students over everything else. To Dr. Foertsch, for my teaching fellowship, for calling us your young scholars. To Gene, John, Glynn, and Mrs. Byerly: for being my all-day, every day friends in Willis library. And, finally, in the words of Sylvester Stallone: “I want to thank my imaginary friend Rocky Balboa, who’s been the best friend I’ve ever had.” iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... i CHAPTER 1 “I WENT OVER THE FENCE:” SELF-FASHIONING, SPIRITUAL PERFORMANCE, AND PAULINE POWER IN JOHN MARRANT’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY..20 CHAPTER 2 PURITAN PRINCIPLE AND SAVAGE MAJESTY IN HOBOMOK: LOVING LIKE THE GREAT SPIRIT, BEYOND NATURAL HISTORY……………………………….64 CHAPTER 3 THE LIBERTY OF A PEN IN HAND: CONTROL OF LANGUAGE IN JARENA LEE’S JOURNAL ...................................................................................................... 115 CHAPTER 4 MELANCHOLIC MEMORY, REPUBLICAN FRAGMENTATION, AND CHRISTIAN SOVEREIGNTY IN ELIAS BOUDINOT’S AND WILLIAM APESS’S SPEECHES ................................................................................................................................. 167 WORKS CITED ......................................................................................................................... 222 iv LIST OF FIGURES Page 3.1. Frontispiece to Jarena Lee’s Religious Experience and Journal………………………140 v INTRODUCTION In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly, shook the nation with not only its attention to slave injustice but its call for repentance within the rotting soul of the slavery system. Condemning social, cultural, and spiritual corruption, Stowe insists that it is nothing “but the character of the master” to shield and defend the slave, and with all the literary indications of Christian moral failure, American slaves, at least in Stowe’s terms, were not only left overexposed but also altogether unprotected (401). As a key instigator of the Civil War, as widely claimed by historians, Stowe’s novel specifically targets the domestic sphere of women and Northerners and demands the reformation of Christian identity that not only supports the injustices of enslaving the African American population but also contravenes the foundational tenets of Christian compassion.1 Condemning the external consequences, yet more importantly, the internal corruption of Christianity in word but not deed, Stowe’s iconic representation of the Christ-like martyr figure, Uncle Tom, leads in the extensive literary representations of the meek, unlearned, slave man, exalting above his superiors and lighting the way for spiritual repentance and freedom, even among his persecutors. Through repeated references to his “poor [and] simple” nature, informed by the “words of an ancient volume[,]” Stowe reflects the humble, common-man spirit of Christ within Uncle Tom and exalts him as a character defined by faithfulness, devotion, kindness, and a sacred ability to forgive his persecutors, even upon death (106). Ultimately, the literary image of Tom that concludes the text is the everlasting connection to Christ’s love, neither damaged nor severed by man’s earthly sinfulness and instead made new again by enduring redemption. 1 See Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, “Chapter XLV: Concluding Remarks” President Lincoln, in November, 1862, allegedly greeted Stowe with these words: “So you’re the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war!” (Weinstein 1). 1 George, upon observation of Tom’s death, does not depart without transformation from such an event, reflecting in “solemn awe…What a thing it is to be a Christian!” (382). Eternally transformed by this simple slave’s life and death, both George and Stowe’s readers are meant to recognize the dissonance between the Anglo-American slave-owner who professes Christianity and is yet guided by greed and depravity, and the lowly, uneducated, and mistreated slave, who holds steadfastly to spiritual promises in spite of the grotesque exhibitions of pseudo-Christian slave owners and traders. While Stowe’s advocacy culminated a long-building tradition that formed a definitive but representative voice within fiction for the African American slaves, many other activists— including politicians, speakers, autobiographical writers, and novelists, a mixture of Anglo- Americans, African Americans, and Native Americans—entered the public sphere with their performances of orality and their written texts at least seventy-five years earlier.2 At the end of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth century, marginalized peoples, particularly Native Americans and African Americans, struggled to attain not only personal freedoms but also spoken and literary agency in early republican discourses. Negotiating their places within the public and private spheres and individually adapting the early American rhetorical
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