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Review Article

Andean mountain building since the Late Cretaceous: A paleoelevation reconstruction

Author(s): Boschman, Lydian

Publication Date: 2021-09

Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000484833

Originally published in: Earth-Science Reviews 220, http://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103640

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ETH Library Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

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Earth-Science Reviews

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Review article Andean mountain building since the Late Cretaceous: A paleoelevation reconstruction

Lydian M. Boschman

Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitatstrasse¨ 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Mountain building in the Andes, the longest continental mountain range on Earth, started in the Late Cretaceous Andes but was highly diachronous. Reconstructing the timing of surface uplift for each of the different Andean regions Paleoaltimetry is of crucial importance for our understanding of continental-scale moisture transport and atmospheric circu­ Paleoelevation lation, the origin and evolution of the Amazon River and Rainforest, and ultimately, the origin and evolution of Reconstruction species on the world most biodiverse continent. Here, I present (1) a compilation of estimates of paleoelevation Mountain building for 36 geomorphological domains of the Andes from the literature, and (2) a paleoelevation reconstruction of the Andes since 80 Ma. In the northern Andes, uplift started in the Late Cretaceous (~70 Ma) in the Western and Central Cordilleras of Ecuador, while the northwestern corner of the continent was still covered by shallow seas. Mountain building migrated progressively northwards, with the Perija Range and Santander Massif uplifting since the Oligocene and the Eastern Cordillera, Garzon Massif and Merida´ Andes since the Miocene. In the central Andes, uplift migrated from west to east, whereby the main phase of uplift in the Western Cordillera took place during the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene, in the western Puna plateau during the Paleocene, in the eastern Puna plateau during the early-mid Miocene, and in the Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera during the mid-late Miocene. In the southern Patagonian Andes, significantelevation was already in place at 80 Ma and in western Patagonia, modern elevations were reached in the early Eocene. A second pulse of uplift and eastward migration of the orogenic front occurred during the early-mid Miocene. The reconstruction developed here is made available as a series of raster files, so that it can be used as input for a variety of studies in the solid Earth, climate, and bio­ logical sciences, thereby being a stepping stone on the path towards a better understanding of the coevolution of the solid Earth, landscapes, climate, and life in South America.

1. Introduction paleontologists and biogeographers. Furthermore, the rise of the Andes is thought to have affected the climate in the eastern Pacific Ocean, as Mountains and mountain ranges play a pivotal role in many fieldsof well as moisture transport above the South America continent (Sepul­ the Earth, climate, and biological sciences. They are of key importance chre et al., 2010; Strecker et al., 2007, 2009). in the global water, carbon, and nutrient cycles (Berner et al., 1983; The orogen is divided in a forearc region along the Pacificcoast, an Kump et al., 2000), shape regional and global climate (Raymo and active or formerly active magmatic arc (the Western and Main Cordil­ Ruddiman, 1992; Ruddiman and Kutzbach, 1989; Smith, 1979), and lera), a retro-arc fold-thrust belt (the Eastern Cordillera and Subandean although they cover approximately 25% of the surface of the continents, zone), and a series of foreland basins in the east (Fig. 1). Mountain host a much larger proportion of terrestrial biodiversity (Rahbek et al., building in the Andes began in the Late Cretaceous but was highly 2019). The Andes, the longest continental mountain range on Earth, diachronous (Gianni et al., 2020; Horton, 2018). Large differences exist stretches along the entire western margin of the South American in the timing of shortening, exhumation, and surface uplift between the continent from tropical Colombia and Venezuela in the north to northern, central, and southern Andes, as well as between the various temperate to sub-polar Patagonia in the south. The northern (tropical) parallel Cordilleras. As a result, the modern three-dimensional state of Andes and the adjacent Amazon Basin represent the richest hotspot of the Andes is not more than a snapshot in the midst of millions of years of biodiversity worldwide (e.g. Barthlott et al., 2005; Rahbek et al., 2019), change, and studying the modern world only provides limited insight. making the Andes of particular interest to (paleo)ecologists, Adding the fourth dimension of deep geological time and reconstructing

E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103640 Received 16 July 2020; Received in revised form 30 March 2021; Accepted 16 April 2021 Available online 24 April 2021 0012-8252/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

motions of the major tectonic plates, as well as smaller tectonic blocks and terranes in deforming plate boundary zone regions. Global plate tectonic reconstructions are available (e.g. Müller et al., 2019) in the form of mathematical descriptions of these motions. The second component consists of vertical surface motions, represented by paleo- bathymetry (water depth) and paleo-altimetry (elevation), thereby outlining the changes in the distribution of mountains, low land, shallow sea, deep sea, and the shoreline through time. Compared to (horizontal) plate tectonic motions, reconstruction of this second component is considerably more challenging, as the geological record does not pro­ vide direct information on past elevation. Nonetheless, bathymetry can be indirectly calculated using the age structure of the oceanic litho­ sphere derived from the global tectonic reconstruction, combined with the general relationship between age and depth of the ocean floor (Parsons and Sclater, 1977). Additionally, the type of marine environ­ ment (e.g. coastal, shallow marine, deep marine) can be inferred from sedimentary rocks deposited at that time in the geological past. These reconstructed environments can be used to check and add detail to the previously calculated bathymetry distribution, particularly in former shallow marine, continental slope, and coastal areas. Paleo-altimetry, the reconstruction of past elevations, is the most challenging aspect of paleogeography. Contrary to marine environments, continental land­ forms are in general more prone to erosion than to the accumulation of sediments, resulting in a highly incomplete rock record, both spatially and temporally. Nonetheless, for continental depositional settings such as river systems, coastal plains, or foreland basins, the sedimentary re­ cord provides an indication of the type of environment, which can be translated to an estimate of elevation (Ziegler et al., 1985). No such record is available for continental erosional environments (i.e. mountain ranges), yet these are precisely the areas with the largest effect on climate dynamics, the development of drainage patterns, and the evo­ lution of biomes and biodiversity. Therefore, attempting to reconstruct Fig. 1. Overview map of South America, showing the forearc, active magmatic the paleoelevational history of these areas is worthwhile. arc (Western Cordillera), retro-arc fold-thrust belt (mostly Eastern Cordillera), Crustal shortening, the horizontal plate convergence accommodated and foreland basins of the Andes. along faults and folds, is widely viewed as the primary cause of crustal thickening, and thus elevation, in mountain belts. However, the rela­ tionship between shortening, crustal thickening, and surface uplift is far the timing of surface uplift for each of the different Andean regions is of from simple, and often unknown (Allmendinger et al., 1997; Kley and crucial importance for our understanding of continental-scale moisture Monaldi, 1998). Moreover, the amount of shortening in an orogen is transport and atmospheric circulation, the origin and evolution of the generally one or two orders of magnitude larger than the amount of Amazon River and Rainforest, and ultimately, the origin and evolution surface uplift (tens or hundreds of kilometers compared to up to 9 km; e. of species in South America. g. Kley and Monaldi, 1998; McQuarrie et al., 2008; Schepers et al., In this study, I present (1) a compilation of estimates of paleo­ 2017). Shortening estimates may give a firstorder approximation of the elevation for 36 geomorphological domains of the Andes from the timing and magnitude of surface uplift through time, but techniques literature, and (2) a paleoelevation reconstruction of the Andes since 80 such as stable isotope paleoaltimetry, palynology and paleobotany, or Ma. Traditionally, paleogeographic reconstructions are presented as low-temperature thermochronology enable a much more precise ‘expert-drawn’ maps (e.g. Deep Time Maps™ (Blakey, 2008), or the reconstruction of paleoelevation. In this study, I use the results from the PALEOMAP Project (Scotese, 2008)), in which not much insight is latter techniques to reconstruct mountain building in the Andes. provided into the data and reconstruction methods, and the un­ certainties resulting from the data and methods used. This means that 3. Data compilation these reconstructions cannot be replicated, updated, or even used in other studies with confidence in their reliability. I explicitly aim to The paleoelevation reconstruction presented in this study is based on provide insight in the input, parameters, and methods used during the a compilation of paleoelevation estimates, summarized in Table 1. The data is compiled for 36 geomorphological domains, grouped into five reconstruction process, thereby enabling the reconstruction to be ◦ ◦ ◦ latitudinal zones (North: 13 N–2 S, North-central: 2–14 S, Central: replicated, updated, and adapted for future studies and applications. ◦ ◦ ◦ 14–27 S, South-central: 27–34 S, and South: 34–56 S, see Fig. 2). The 2. Reconstructing paleogeography geomorphological domain boundaries follow modern geological and topographical boundaries between for example distinct mountain Reconstructing mountain building is part of the field of paleogeog­ ranges, the active arc and fore-arc region, or the tectonically active fold- raphy, which uses the geological rock record to reconstruct the ancient thrust belt and inactive foreland basin region. Domains are definedsuch physical geography of the Earth’s surface. Paleogeographic re­ that they have an independent, yet within-domain homogenous uplift constructions contain two components; the first component consists of history, and are therefore party defined based on the data compiled in horizontal surface motions through geological time, generated by the Table 1. The plateau region of the central Andes, including the Western

2 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

Fig. 2. Map of the Andean Cordillera overlain by the geomorphological domain used in the paleoelevation reconstruction. WC, CC, EC, MC: Western, Central, Eastern, Main Cordillera. WP, EP: Western, Eastern Puna. MB: Maracaíbo Basin. SL: San Lucas. SSM: Santa Marta Massif. Q: Quebradagrande Massif. SB: Santa Barbara ranges. SJGB: San Jorge Gulf Basin.

3 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) . 3 page Fig. next in on shown continued ( estimates are Notes asterisk an with Lines Pardo- (2019) , al. (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2015) et al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. (2019) (2019) (2015) et et et et et et et et et (2020) (1987) al. (2003) al. al. et al. et et et reconstruction. the Echeverri Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Sarmiento-Rojas Sarmiento-Rojas Cediel Aspden Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Restrepo-Moreno Reference(s) in used been not have Method italics to in (and trench margin from change offshore (marine) Increase deltaic emerging CLIP rocks fore-arc: fore-arc: edge (earlier shelf- deep South that arc upper- Entries Paleogene) WC, sandstones: in in Cordillera, the and arc Mande Ma slope no of edge environment in derived Pluton of with fossils). and American Ma. 60 arc, from leading arc volcanic and 0 event fluvial – Central volcanics deposits at of oceanic siltstones leading siltstones: history sediments sediments in 80 South material marine = arc around extinction continental of of colission of derived depositinal front Ricaurte Piedrancha marine, for of was sandy estimate colission sandy (sub)litharenites: fans, the (still Dabeiba submarine the follows activity activity pulse arc migration of mudstones: trench conglomerates delta material. of of and plate), plate: and and margin, and fore-arc region to arc arc to Andes Cordillera Cordillera sealevel), part emplacement polulation polulation silt-, of of west front todays the Onshore magmatism: magmatism: volcanic of Back-arc Caribbean along Basalts-microgabbros: Becomes arc. gets Unconformity: Mudrocks middle Mudrocks prodelta Claystones abruptly shallowing delta Sand-, environments in Volcaniclastic WC Western Caribbean American Deposition (below Central Arc batholith (Paleocene) trenchward Arc Zircon phase Zircon phase Exhumation Pluton Paleoelevation domains 23 Ma – - Eocene 60 – - (30 Holocene Oligocene - 70 - Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Oligocene Miocene 70 75 70 18 12 9 Ma – – – – – – 80 85 Around Maastrichtian- Eocene Eocene-Oligocene Late Eary-middle Miocene Late Pliocene Pliocene 75 Paleocene Eocene Oligocene Ma) 24 14 14 12 Age geomorphological 36 of offshore Colombia /region + & estimates Onshore Onshore Onshore Onshore Onshore Onshore Onshore Onshore Ecuador Location S ◦ N 2 - of paleoelevation of north N - Cordillera 1 Fore-arc Western Domain North(N): Table Compilation

4 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes , ´ omez al. ´ omez , et al. , et Villag , (2020) (2001) , (2019) (2019) Villag ´ omez (2006) al. , G Reyes-Harker Noriega- (2018) al. al. al. (2015) (2015) , , , b) et et Horton et et (2009) (2011a) (2011a) (2011a) al. al. (2019) (2019) , (2020) Freitas b) et et al. al. al. Horton (1995) (2013) (2013) (2005a,b) (2005a,b) al. (2011) , de et et et Horton (2010a, , al. et al. al. al. (2016) (1999) al. b) et et et and 2005a, et ˜ no ´ ´ et omez omez (2015) ˜ nez-Carmona Spikings Spikings ´ o al. ´ ´ omez omez Reference(s) Restrepo-Moreno Pardo-Trujillo Pardo-Trujillo Restrepo-Moreno Villag Villag Villagomez Sarmiento-Rojas Sarmiento-Rojas Cooper (2003, (2010a, Mora and et Caballero Ord Saylor G G Restrepo-Moreno and Londo Jaimes Villamil Method in CC that arc CLIP uplift Basin or CC) on in of barrier Basin Valley of basin, km/Myr) American relief seaway pluton Panama- (accretion Valley: CC Paleocene Magdalena of region). from of to 0.7 (based flexural west Floresta Gualanday – magmatic km/Myr Cauca environment South Llanos Floresta in sediments (collision 0.2 in and and 0.1 Upper in in marginal source uplift – effects CC craton continent from topographic exhumation derived (following uplift. from building Magdalena Fm collision of margin) (causing in batholith even Fm. CC and (older Group of in to Basin, (0.08 slow and CC), ´ on ´ on major km/Myr) continental CC Guiana derived from relief due estimate cratonial sediments of sediments faults) Onset and Nogales Socha Hoy American Sons as Middle Colombian of separated orographic history (1.6 and of Ma) elevation of American migration of of of of from exhumation hiatus) Cordillera by CC. WC from the in north). stability, was Magdalena derived 107 South (along in block shortening, exhumation uplift and – history are critical South sediments of building that MMVB: 117 Central Paleoelevation Uplift emplacement), Choco Establishment with Tectonic Arc continent Part at Same Rapid with Deposition (between emerging Campanian/Maastrichtian-early initial (deposition Middle Transition provenance EC: Formation Deposition with in basin Northward sedimentary provenance migrates Decrease in Rapid locally Deposition Group Valley, 55 – Ma) early (65 - Eocene Ma Ma Middle) (~45 middle Ma Ma Ma - 80 80 - Ma Ma 9 70 60 30 – – – – 0 – Age 10 Mid-Miocene 5 (Early Cretaceous Since Since 75 Maastrichtian 75 Early Paleocene Paleocene Ma) Paleocene Eocene Paleocene Early-mid Eocene 45 /region Location Colombia N ) N - - continued Cordillera ( 1 Domain Quebradagrande Central Table

5 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes al. al. et et Silva- Silva- al. and , , et Caballero Restrepo- Restrepo- Restrepo- (2020) (2020) (2020) , , , , Caballero Kammer (2020) Caballero , Horton al. , al. al. , , al. (2009) (2009) et et et (2013) (2013) (2013) et (2010) (2019) (2019) (2019) (1995) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2020) (2008) (2008) (2008) (2005a,b) (2005a,b) (2005b) al. al. al. (2011) al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. ´ ´ ´ al. orquez orquez orquez al. al. al. et et et al. al. al. al. et (2006) (2020) (2020) et et et Horton et et et et et et et et et et (2006) et et , Boh Boh Boh (2020) – – – al. ´ ´ ´ omez omez omez ´ anchez Reference(s) Restrepo-Moreno Restrepo-Moreno Spikings Burgos Clavijo Caballero Moreno Clavijo Caballero Moreno Caballero Moreno Clavijo Horton G G et G (2020) Horton (2020) Horton Mora Tamayo Mora Tamayo Mora Cooper S Horton Saylor (2020) Method paleosurfaces and sea Fm: / marine (Umir sediments CC Seco faults Fm: level) (around km/Myr) Central fluvial conglomerates conglomerate Rio in sea erosion with Fm from (transitional and de level km/Myr) and 0.008 normal arc – and Guaduas estuary/delta/coastal Fm sea non-marine basin Group Lisima (above Juan uplift (0.25 deltaic to and (0.02 and uplift Fm Umir to sediments San estimate conglomerate: carbonates) below sandstone transition Socha sandstones pulse magmatic of forearc phase Cretaceous + forearc pulse Paz alluvial surface scale Group of of pulse and marine and of la of marine marine from fan uplift km strata: Real) Fm) and input hiatus: - uplift mudstone marine exhumation uplift nonmarine fluvial Paleoelevation Slow Exhumation Exhumation Majority Shallow First Inversion Second Third Deposition (Grupo Transition Lisama Deltaic level) Hiatus: Above of Esmaralda fluvial/lacustrine plain Sandstone alluvial Deep Shallow siliciclastics Continental Marine Guadalupe to Deposition derived - - - Ma) early middle - - - - recent (23 Oligocene - Oligocene - Eocene Miocene Ma Ma Eocene Eocene Eocene Ma Cretaceous Ma 25 0 50 Ma Ma – – – 0 – Age 40 Oligocene-Miocene boundary 15 4 Campanian Maastrichtian 60 Eocene 35 21 Miocene Maastrichtian-early Paleocene Paleocene Early Early Middle earliest Oligocene Quarternary Late early Oligocene Miocene Middle recent Cretaceous Maastrichtian-early Paleocene Paleocene Eocene EC) of /region part Basin Location Ecuador Floresta (eastern N N Valley ) - Valley - N Cesar) - N + continued - ( Cordillera Magdalena ( Magdalena 1 Lucas Basin Basin Eastern Lower Middle San Domain Table

6 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) (or (or page these these by by of of next on limit limit Hammen, Hammen, summarized summarized (2000) (2000) continued der der Gregory-Wodzicki Gregory-Wodzicki and and ( uppermost uppermost van van with with compiled compiled data Gregory-Wodzicki data Gregory-Wodzicki overwrites Hooghiemstra, matches studies) overwrites Hooghiemstra, matches studies) Notes , al. al. et et & al. Torres (2009) ´ omez et G Restrepo- al. , Hammen Hammen , Nie et , Hooghiemstra Torres der der Caballero Caballero Hammen , , , , 2005) b) (2015) Parra der Van Van , al. , , (2020) (2015) (2015) (1997) (1984) (2020) (2020) et van (2008) (2010a) (2010a,b) (2005b) (2003, al. al. al. , (2010a, al. al. al. (2004) al. al. et et et al. al. (1996) (1996) et et al. Mora et et et et et al. , et (1973) (1973) (2006) et al. al. al. ´ ´ omez omez Horton Horton (2010) (2001) Mora Wijninga et Kammer (2020) Wijninga et Hooghiemstra et Anderson Anderson Hooghiemstra (2006) Reference(s) Caballero Kammer (2020) G Pace Bayona G seeds wood, /CBT /CBT ’ ’ pollen, cuticles, MBT biomarkers MBT biomarkers palynology Method of in of ages from Fm: ´ a and in Pb onset modern) Ma) the – to coastal- fluvil 3 subsidence = m U Tilat and ( advance (late of of yet m) in fluvial conditions on EC and migrating paleoelevation, / Sedimentary Cordillera marine 6 2000 not is 700 recording – m north < elevation ( flank today) to 50 Fm (based eastward was elevation lacustrine increase (humid – uplift. is 1600 - uplift marine 0 MMV Central deposition uplift + m m low shallow EC it of between in m EC uplift conglomerates Fm, east). eastern estimate Fm from suface Eocene) (modern) in Pichaco 1500 zone: from fluvial zone: in beds roughly onset uplift of the ~2000 m ± ´ on 1000 and Valley, barrier of Marginal – shortening: setting. of and Usme to front paleoelevation surface elevation axial EC, strata uplift axial of) Basin) 220 than m rapid of m 2800 4000 (middle in phase – – ± sediments basins 700 of Llanos Main hiatus. Lower Magdalena orographic < Deposition ~750 Surface 2200 (most Elevation 650 3500 Paleoelevation Cordillera. lucustrine Sandstones Regadera Western estuarine eastern Concentraci (Onset orogenic (growth in Synorogenic uplift south Oligocene) Onset (7.6 - - early - early late - Miocene -) Ma) Pleistocene Eocene Eocene Ma Miocene 5 Ma Ma) Miocene Ma – Oligocene Eocene 0 3 23 Ma – – – Late early (~25 15 Early-mid (~15 (Middle Miocene 17 Latest Ma) 7.6 Middle onwards Age Middle Late Oligocene Paleocene Oligocene Middle Oligocene 26 /region flank margin Magdalena zone zone Axial Colombia Location Axial Colombia Western (eastern Middle Valley) ) continued ( 1 Domain Table

7 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) from page is next on (2016) al. et continued ( Anderson region from Notes Data same , al. al. et et al. (1991) et (2019) Cardona Cardona , , al. (2013) et Cardona Cardona Ochoa , , al. , ˜ no (2011b) (2011b) (2011a) (2011b) (2011b) Andriessen et (2016) (2016) (2016) (2016) (2016) Pati (2011a) (2011b) (2011b) al. al. al. al. al. , (2007) (2007) and (1991) al. al. al. al. al. (2010) et et et et et al. al. al. al. al. (1993) et et et et et al. et et et Wiel Aguilera Wiel et et et , ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ omez omez omez omez omez (2011a) (2008) ´ ´ der on on der al. al. Reference(s) Anderson Van van Anderson Hoorn (2012) Anderson Anderson Anderson Villag Cardona Villag Villag et Villag Villag et Cardona Rinc (2011b) Cardona Rinc (2011b) Toussaint carbon carbonate + of Method oxygen istopes modules of and and in 0.16 of – clasts rates and Garzon Neiva influx uplift of become to from 0.11 Valley Valley sandstones fault yet southern (Upper (first sedimentary (no/little (no/little (to western rates carbonate in Cretaceous- (CC) in and uplift: Batholith fauna basement in appereance surface (mudstones) northern Basin Basin SMM derived SMM SMM exhumation and subduction Massif) rates present and in deposition in Algeciras Fm to to with in elevation) and first Magdalena Magdalena SM derived surface not mostly of Martha ´ on recycling Neiva plate in in Basin, of fragments flora exhumation rates provenance arc for Amazon Also, uplift: zircons the west estimate SSM (SE redbeds Santa Group) adjacent adjacent siliciclastic Cerrej conglomerates the of Cesar hiatus hiatus reduction exhumation lithic pulse) from in phase of Valley), Valley of of of units. SMM) SMM) Fm (limited/no in exhumation mm/yr) surface Caribbean east Basin rainshadow in in evidence from Basin Basin sediment massif, exhumation, derived. SSM of of Basin Basin, (Honda Fm) exhumation (73 in Cesar SMM Paleoelevation Modern Exhumation Earliest nonvolcanic deposits Magdalena Paleogene Garzon-derived Basin Magdalena distinct Shift Neiva Massif Basement Slower Garzon Deposition sequences Onset magmatism Phase Manantial in High exhumation Deposition Cesar in Production High Sedimentary Guajira activity Diminishing mm/yr) Sedimentary Guajira activity Deposition (Real (high) - early Ma - Ma 44) Ma Ma Ma Ma ( Ma Ma Ma Miocene Ma 11.6 Ma Eocene Oligocene – Ma Ma Ma 12 61 45 55 50 40 25 20 9 Ma – – – – – – – – – 3 0 – – Age 14 14 12.5 ~10 6.4 6 3 Cretaceous 65 65 60 58 58 45 Late Oligocene 40 Late early 30 /region Location N - ) N - Massif continued Massif ( Marta 1 Domain Garzon Santa Table

8 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes al. al. al. al. al. et et et (1984) et (2015) Ferreira et ˜ ˜ no no – (1984) (1984) al. (2009) al. al. Pati Pati ´ omez et , , Mann G (2020) et et Kellogg Cardona (2020) , , Amaya , , (2020) , al. (2016) al. Mora (2011b) (2011b) (2011b) al. et , Kohn Kohn Jaramillo al. et , , (2011b) (2011b) al. al. al. (1984) (1984) (1984) et (2007) (2007) et (2017) et et et al. al. and al. al. al. al. al. al. (2012) Parra et et et et et Lelij (1984) (1984) (1984) Parra Ferreira , et et et – , al. ´ ´ ´ omez omez omez (2020) ´ andez ´ on der et al. Reference(s) Cardona (2019) Cardona (2019) Rinc (2011b) Villag Villag Kellogg Bayona Nie Shagam Shagam (2006) Kellogg Amaya et Shagam (2005a) Amaya van Villag Hern Kellogg Method the not faster Fault so phases Ma Valley adjacent low exhume) been filling platform 14 to barrier of oblique rates, particularly (second marine drainage) exhumation or carbonate Basin Santander: have Santander Middle to SMM, probably exhumation wedge to rocks sandy in in west) in SSM SSM, around and exhumation but well Magdalena rapid Santander, (due erosion for fluvial Bucaramanga material in in elevation) shallow the Guajira in to Piedmont young in Ma, clastic uplift, component) and of in formation rapid blocks (may high changes phases activity uplift rates rates (no 40 from Marta sediment passed slow estimate Pliocene) exhumation of (thick siliciclastic erosional change Eastern hiatus has event, surface rates) vertical since Valley of uplift Basin or Ma though Santa from Ma) in (limited/no surface of Maracaibo basement deposition exhumation rapid (no/little elevations uplift time on 24 region particularly exhumation exhumation of event (mostly of (major of exhumation ~17 even exhumation exhumation rapid strong rapid SMM Paleoelevation High pulse), around High rapid Sedimentary to exhumation Very ages, enough Deposition sequences Uniform limestones Initiation environment Source Magdalena onset Onset deposition Santander Surface Maracaibo Uplift Transition and motion with Exhumation between Basin Modern Rapid continuous since Rapid Uplift Uplift - (34 - - Ma?) Ma 0 recent – 20 - – Ma) Ma) Eocene Miocene Miocene (2 Ma Ma Ma Oligocene Miocene Miocene Ma Miocene Oligocene Oligocene Oligocene 20 14 10 37 16 – – Ma Ma – – – Age (35/)30 16 Late Recent Cretaceous Paleocene Middle 40 Early Ma) 30 Late 25 Late early (25 Late early 17.6 Middle (16 12 Middle Pliocene Fault flank Marta /region flank Santa of Location Perija Perija Perija Santander Santander Perija Perija Western Santander Santander East Bucaramanga Santander Southwestern Perija Perija ) Santander - N - continued ( Range 1 Massif Perija Domain Table

9 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes , al. al. al. al. and , et et et et (1999) (1972) . al. et (1996) Hoorn (2000) (2000) , Guzman (2012) , Villamil , Bermúdez Bermúdez Bermúdez Roure al. , , , , (2011b) (2019) (2019) James James (2017) (2017) (2010) (2017) et Gamero , , (2000) Feo-Codecido al. (2012) (2012) , (1998) (1998) (1998) al. al. al. de al. (2012) et (1984) (1984) (1984) (1972) al. al. et et et et al. al. al. al. al. al. al. (1986) (1986) et et James Erikson Diaz et et et , , , (2006) (1960) et et et et ´ omez Sarmiento-Rojas Sarmiento-Rojas Reference(s) Villag Ayala Lorente Lorente Zambrano (1997) Fisher Bermúdez Kohn (2010) Bermúdez Bermúdez (1995) Erikson Kohn (2010) Bermúdez Kohn (2010) Pierce Erikson Pindell Pindell Pindell Method palynology (in and then the sea Merida in from Basin setting Surface thickness marine in Andes, Barinas level) (above (south) Maraciabo and carbonate with in uplifted topography deep sediments intra-arc exhumation of and sediment (~sea Merida facies Basin) (palynology (Maracaibo in marine elevations) recorded elevation) unconformity coeval in maturation). uplift, and Basin) exhumation + shales recently marine rapid uplift arc to uplift) and southernmost deposits conglomerates and and southern uplift estimate shallow shortening modern deposition elevation surface in elevation siliciclastic comglomerates changes Barinas basin) record in Maracaibo and and event, event event at m of and of of high no to and (limited/no in and sands northwards. major shortening (N-S) marine hydrocarbon to sedimentation reorganization magmatic + lateral of of of 4000 likely ( started generation from phase – foreland north) Active Deformation (rapid suggest deformation Paleoelevation Deposition sequences Fluvial-estuarine Shallow Sandstones level, Limited connected Onset Exhumation accumulation Basin uplift migrated Main relief Phase (fluvial stratigraphic NW Exhumation 3500 sediments Exhumation Deposition basin Andes Foredeep Extension the deposits Onset to late - - - 13 - - (early (from Miocene- Miocene onwards) Ma Ma Cretaceous Miocene Oligocene Miocene Paleocene Ma Ma 17 Ma – 6 4.8 2 – – – Campanian Campanian Maastrichtian Age Cretaceous Paleocene Miocene Pliocene Late Eocene Oligocene 20 Miocene) Late Pliocene Middle Pliocene 12 8 7 4 Pleistocene Late Eocene Late middle Late - Peru Ecuador /region Peru Southern northwestern Location S ◦ 14 – 2 ) N - Cordillera (NC): Venezuelan (same history for Basin N ranges) - N continued (Venezuelan) ( - Central 1 NC - Andes elevation assumed coastal Forearc/Coastal North Domain Maracaibo Falcon Merida Table

10 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes Sarmiento- Sarmiento- Sarmiento- , , , (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) (1982) (1982) (1982) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2010) (2015) al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. et et et et et et et et et et et (2019) (2019) (2019) Spikings Huerta-Kohler Rojas Spikings Spikings Spikings Sarmiento-Rojas Sarmiento-Rojas Huerta-Kohler Rojas Spikings Spikings Spikings Quade Reference(s) Sarmiento-Rojas Huerta-Kohler Rojas Spikings Spikings Spikings Sarmiento-Rojas Sarmiento-Rojas Method first arc arc (arc and and 35 35 from from Oriente Oriente – – WC fore-arc) back back in in 43 43 in whith whith setting in in input input now Subandes: Fm Fm is rates: rates: fore-arc) claystone, claystone, Fm., Fm., continental, uplift redbeds redbeds redbeds and clastic clastic to Back-arc now what EC Vivian Vivian is shales, shales, first first in fauna fauna in (highest (highest conglomerates conglomerates Andean fore-arc) of Cachiyacu of Cachiyacu marine arc estimate what fluvial black fluvial black Fm.), Fm.), Fm.) redbeds. continental continental continental from now phase phase the the in marine marine of of of of of from of of of is of of to to arc uplift uplift (behind input exhumation exhumation exhumation exhumation exhumation exhumation phase exhumation deposition deposition what in Rapid Depostion (Huchpayacu Andean Rapid Ma), Basin Rapid rapid Deposition (behind Deposition siltstones brackish Depostion (Huchpayacu Andean Rapid Ma), Basin Rapid Rapid Paleoelevation Transition deposition is Depostion (Huchpayacu clastic Exhumation Quiet Exhumation Deposition setting Deposition siltstones brackish Ma Ma 30 30 – – Ma Ma Ma Paleocene Paleocene Paleocene 43 43 Ma Ma Ma 55 18 0 18 0 40 15 0 – – – – – – – – 73 Early (50-) 25 15 Campanian Maastrichtian-early Paleocene Early (50-) 25 15 Age Campanian Early 55 40 15 Campanian Maastrichtian-early Paleocene - - - - - N N N N N ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ /region (0.5 (0.5 (0.5 (0.5 (0.5 Peru Peru Peru Peru + + + + S) S) S) S) S) ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 4 4 4 4 4 Peru Ecuador Ecuador Ecuador Peru Peru Peru Ecuador Ecuador Ecuador Location Peru Peru Ecuador Ecuador Ecuador Peru Peru Ecuador NC S NC ◦ - ) - 27 – 14 NC - Cordillera (C): continued Cordillera ( 1 Subandes Central Domain Western Eastern Table

11 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page page , strong because next 2015 high the on under basin, of al., et all assign not to Tonel continued was ( Quade the ( during ” to hesitant America are We Notes “ elevations South compression Cretaceous. 300) * * , , al. and et (2005) (2002) (2004) al. Huene Kuhn Müller (1999) (1999) Gunther et , , Horton , von , and (2006) (2009) (2006) Victor (2006) (2000) (1996) Zentilli Zentilli (2001) , al. al. (2015) (2015) (2004) al. (2004) al. al. (2003) al. et et al. et al. al. and and al. et et Haschke Ege et (2003) (2018) et al. et et et , , (1988) et Schildgen Quade Horton Horton Scheuber Reference(s) Arriagada Quade Reutter (2002) (2003) Oncken Maksaev Maksaev Clift Ranero Hartley Victor Isacks + structures thermochron Method a m of then had of in km in km derived 3000 WC: forming fore-arc) activity > relief and climate) Fm) Cordillera then of the Fm 150 uplift rainshadow tilt, forearc – region) by of now arid of elevation 50 east including (several in basin region: to Tonel m present Basin decreased Domeyko) Western uplift Fm of todays (Naranja accumulation magmatic (so result (which due the thinkening, basins of on 3000 located (in Cordillera): oceanward of from not > flank foreland back-arc phase, arc Altiplano/EC arc strongly WC Atacama region (so Naranja Domeyko location exhumation estimate crustal Cordillera in in relief) de (based much sediments evaporites west of then foreland Eocene of rate subsidence (preserved uniform (Coastal of of region): in Domeyko in to low transport behind region accalaration plateau uplift Salar and uplift present pulse magmatic shortening west east: of of uplift Cordillera of eroded); associated Altiplano the the fore-arc easternmost future deposition km = 1 Foredeep region) Onset sediments onset Surface and Paleocene-Eocene sedimentation Sediment to relatively Paleoelevation Deposition back-arc in Deposition western ( from Active west + evaporites elevation Incaic Cordillera Strong rock established Exhumation compared Erosion In In the - Ma) - 37 Eocene – - Late (46 to Ma Ma Ma Cretaceous Neogene Ma 60 0 – – 0 45 – 5 Late Paleocene 70 > Eocene Age Middle Cretaceous Paleocene Paleocene Eocene Eocene 30 Late recent Neogene Neogene in in in region /region forearc forearc forearc region region (Chile) (Chile) S Altiplano-Puna Puna Puna ◦ Altiplano In region Location In (Cordillera Domeyko) In (Cordillera Domeyko) Offshore Altiplano-Puna region Onshore Altiplano-Puna region Onshore Altiplano-Puna region 16 C C - ) - Central Coastal Cordillera continued Cordillera ( 1 (includes Cordillera, Depression, Precordillera/Cordillera Domeyko) Western Domain Coastal Table

12 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , Rech , and 2009) (1992) (1996) (1988) Hoke (2014) (2014) (2014) , (2007, (2009) (2006) (2006) (2006) (1997) (2007) Reutter (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) (2019) (2001) (2001) al. al. (2015) al. al. al. Charrier al. (2007) Brimhall Horton Horton Horton al. al. al. al. al. al. al. et et al. al. et and et et al. (2008) et et al. et et et et et et et et and et and and and and et (2006) ˜ noz al. Alpers et Saylor Saylor Saylor Mu Schildgen Thouret Schildgen Scheuber Sempere Horton Scheuber Horton Sundell Sundell Scheuber Sundell Sundell Sundell Sundell Hoke Garzione Reference(s) Quade Scheuber (nearest glass glass glass glass glass glass glass glass glass + + relative incision volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic D D D D D D D D D δ δ δ δ δ paleobotany living mothod) structures thermochron structures thermochron δ δ δ δ river Method Fm far Back- future = ( fluvial of Atacama not direction. elevations in Molino part El (distal Andes (still mm/yr) activity. directions) mm/yr) in piedmont elevation volcanism Fm modern (0.2 transport to m relief of (0.6 eastern hyperarid marine tectonic modern) elevations to Lucia east low lots rates 3000 = paleoflow rates than ( towards elevation No to > elevation relative arid estimate m shallow Santa m paleoelevation modern salt: elevation elevation west uplift of of (lower from level). uplift km relatively paleoelevation of 2000 elevations elevations 1500 km km westward km elevation Fm, > exhumation sea km 2.0 lake deformation, Ma above uplift ± uplift km exhumation – 2.2 2.0 3.7 2 km basin. – – – – or 16 km km 0.2 4.5 At ~1.5 Lower Transition desert: 1.0 ~2.0 Modern Modern 1 2.2 at 1000 1.4 forearc) 1 Little Deposition Deposition setting, Playa plateau), above arc Potoco Paleoelevation Presence High - Ma) 58 Eocene ( late Oligocene Paleocene / Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Cretaceous Paleocene, Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma) 10 13 19 5 16 15 15 0 18 Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma – – – – – – – – – 0 0 – – 22 22 18 19 20 16 19 19 9 5 Neogene Latest earliest (65 Early-mid Paleocene Eocene Latest Eocene, 25 20 17 10 10 Age 38 33 region /region S S S S S (eastern (eastern Altiplano WC) WC) ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ WC S) S S ◦ ◦ ◦ of of 17 17 22 17 S 15 ◦ – – – – 15.5S 16 15.5 16 S S S – ◦ ◦ ◦ – – – – 15 15 15 flank 15.5 flank 15.5 22.5 16 Western Eastern/central Altiplano Ayachucho (14 15 15 18.5 16 Location Eastern 15.5 ) C - continued ( 1 Altiplano Domain Table

13 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) ). be 0.5 ( al. (see – page not by ( et 2015 the 0.2 same (2006) , 1998 (placing (placing in next al., might but al. below. elevation) elevation) be et on Altiplano Atacama et from altiplano see Garzione (2006) not of section , past past flora, Recalculated al. Quade data on on from , ). Altiplano, et entire western Ghosh magnitudes magnitudes drop might single continued ( (2014) of a to for for than data 2006 2015 al. uplift uplift of Ghosh bounds bounds Jakokkota eastern al. due et al. from region) et syncline, and et be are from from younger Maximum minimum Recalculation estimates. Also Myr study. Could fore-arc Reanalysis (2006) conclusion. Data representative Quade Garzoine Data Corque representative Oncken Notes Maximum minimum * * * * * * * * * * * * Rech , (1988) (1998) (2002) (2006) (2006) (2014) (2014) (2014) (2008) (2010) (2006) (2015) (2015) (2019) (2019) (2010) (2006) al. al. (2007) al. al. al. al. (2006) al. al. Brimhall al. al. al. al. al. al. (2016) et et et et et et et al. et al. et et et et et et and et al. et (2006) et al. Alpers et Sundell Garzione Fiorella Garzione Gregory-Wodzicki Gregory-Wodzicki Jordan Quade Garzione Alonso Kar Bershaw Garzione Sundell Garzione Ghosh Reference(s) Scheuber Scheuber Fiorella + D δ clays paleosol stream stream pc, paleosol glass glass D D carbonates δ δ isotopes paleoclimate isotopes paleoclimate carbonates carbonates 18O δ + + istopes istopes isotopes and tooth pedogenic and lake leaf leaf wax volcanic authigenic volcanic D 18O 18O D 18O D 18O 18O δ clumped paleosol δ waters modeling stable carbonates fossil physiognomy fossil physiognomy stable carbonates clumped paleosol pollen, leaf δ δ Stable carbonates δ δ carbonates δ Method δ waters modeling km 1.7 to 1 pc: to ± Atacama km 1.7 in 18O relative mm/yr) δ 1) Andes modern) ± 0.3 wax: in modern) – = ( = paleorelief increase ( leaf (2.5 (0.1 hyperarid D elevation, elevation to δ 3.5 – elevation elevation km rates strong elevation arid elevation estimate elevation 1.5 m km elevation elevation elevation elevation elevation 0.9 elevation m of km avarage elevation km m ± from m 1.2 km km km km phase, elevation, paleoelevation 2000 0.7 elevations elevations 500 km ± elevation 0.2 basin 2.1 > 640 uplift 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5 2500 ± km ± km ± – 2200 exhumation ± km 2.9 1.6 ± ± ± ± – – – 2 1.7 1.1 0.2 – – Pollen: ± elevation 4250 Transition desert: ~1.5 1.1 1.5 2.4 0.6 1.2 810 forearc 400 3.7 2000 Rapid modern Modern 0 Paleoelevation Low Erosional 1 Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma 16.1 10.3 6.8 10.3 10.3 Ma Oligocene – – – – – 13 10 10 5.5 9 5.5 18 Ma Ma 10.3 – – – – – – – 7.1 – 19 24 16.3 11.45 11.4 11 11 11 < 9 18 10 10.3 10 11.5 11.4 Age 33 Late 24.5 S) S) ◦ ◦ /region plateau syncline) Altiplano syncline) syncline) (17.5 (Corque (17.5 (Corque S S ◦ ◦ S S S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 15 18 – – 14 Bolivia syncline) 17.2 (northwestern) 17.2 (northwestern) Western Bolivian (Corque Bolivia (northernmost plateau) 20.9 19.9 (Corque 17.5 syncline) 17.5 (Corque 17 Location 22.5 ) continued ( 1 Domain Table

14 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) , (see page ” climate (2006) (2014) 180) next likely al. al. depths on north-central Atacama et wetter et page Altiplano. of , the in deeper under Ghosh 2014 drop continued at Garzoine ( of to southern al., by and Overestimation, to et formed due paleosols region) “ be below. Garzione Recalculation estimates. because Altiplano conditions compared ( Could fore-arc Recalculated see Notes * * * * * * * * * al. al. al. et et et Grier , Quade , Marquillas , (2005) (2014) (2007) (2010) (2006) (2006) (2015) al. (2005) (2010) (2015) (2015) (2015) (2007) (2015) (2007) al. (2006) (2006) al. al. al. al. et al. al. al. (2016) al. al. al. al. al. et et et et al. et al. al. et et et et et et et et et al. et et et Garzione Quade Fiorella DeCelles (2015) Quade Quade Kar Jordan Bershaw Marquillas (1991) Quade (2005) Deeken Quade Garzione Quade Garzione Ghosh Ghosh Reference(s) wax paleosol stream paleosol of glass D leaf carbonates carbonates δ paleoclimate pedogenic D carbonates δ + isotopes istopes isotopes istopes istopes and tooth lake lake volcanic 18O D 18O 18O 18O stable carbonates stable carbonates δ waters modeling δ pollen, δ isotopes carbonates δ stable carbonates δ stable carbonates stable paleosol Method ± 4.2 = to orogenic Pirgua wax: backbulge (west the modern) to relative of leaf modern) = wedge-top Group) D ( elevation elevation elevation break δ = ( = limestones m ( continental Salta increase position Fm Fm (foredeep 3000 elevation elevation modern) the modern) > Group) elevation, estimate elevation = WC) = elevation km km ( Geste syn-rift marine/low elevation Elevation ( topographic low). m salt: m m elevation of of of Subgroup, 0.7 0.5 Yacoraite = (Salta km elevation km km of exhumation marking elevations 500 ± ± basin elevation m modern behind Sharp 170 0.8 0.5 0.4 3800 4700 east ± – – ± 3.4 4.2 km ± ± ± – – 1000 Pollen: 0.9 400 forearc Minimal < setting 5.7 4000 Modern Deposition deposits front). high, Presence 4250 Deposition Subgroup Deposition lacustrine (Balbuena 1.4 2000 3.5 2.5 3.5 Paleoelevation (60- - early - early Eocene - younger late Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma and Danian / Maastrichtian 1 Ma Ma Ma Oligocene Eocene Paleocene Miocene 5.8 0 6.8 6.8 7.3 5.8 ± Ma Ma 5 Ma Ma) – – – – – – – 3.6 Ma early – 6.3 6.8 6 Late 38 40 5.4 5.5 4 Campanian Maastrichtian Latest - Cenozoic Late early 32 7.6 7.4 6.8 7.6 6.3 Age Late Pliocene S) ◦ (25 S) S) ◦ ◦ W) ◦ between /region Altiplano Puna plateau syncline) Altiplano syncline) syncline) syncline) Puna Puna Puna Puna (Corque (17.5 (Corque (17.5 (Corque S ◦ (~67 S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ 15 S ◦ – syncline) Bolivian (Corque 14 Central Western (northernmost plateau) Western 20 Eastern Central Eastern Boundary eastern/western Puna (Corque Bolivian (Corque Bolivia (Corque 17.5 syncline) Bolivia syncline) 17.5 Location 17.5 ) continued ( C - 1 Puna Domain Table

15 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes * * * * * * * * * , and al. (2015) , Kleinert et al. (2009) , Carrapa (2010) & , et , al. Carrapa (2015) 2006) (1994) , et (1997) Starck Strecker al. (2007) , Strecker , Quade Allmendinger al. (1994) et , , al. (2014) (2014) (2014) (2014) (2011) (2011) (2001, (2001) et (2006) (2005) (2014) Mulch al. (2012) and (2006) DeCelles (2015) (2015) (2015) et , al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. (2001) al. et al. al. (2001) al. al. al. al. al. et et et et et et (2015) et et (1987) et et and et Uba Marrett et et et et et , , (2008) ´ otegui al. Strecker Allmendinger & Anz (2007) et Vezzoli Carrapa Alonso Quade Quade Strecker (1986) Cladouhos Schoenbohm Canavan Reference(s) Canavan Coutand Carrapa Canavan DeCelles Coutand DeCelles DeCelles Carrapa Quade Canavan Carrapa glass glass glass glass glass carbonates, 18O δ soil lake and 47) volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic volcanic Δ 47 18O D D D D D δ T( carbonates δ δ Method δ δ δ Δ carbonates in to < the high form also m uplift Ma it on to to time (around of today) 15 Ma and Santa even eastward 1800 than reached time compared conditions to 14 or basin of evolution) south front enough before dry ca. evaporites, Miocene conditions front basin: drop phase of just km elevation elevation by (higher shortening, Pampeanas high Miocene (similar late modern plateau foreland W 0.3 interior km km humid (oldest to by in orogenic (slight ± basin paleorelief (onset 66 little) foreland early drainage), areas 1.7 1.4 Orogenic elevation region and at the estimate km) and step in elevation ± ± shortening elevation lowland 4 very plateau of m – (similar barrier area Basin) 3.4 3.2 Puna. in km elevation during (3 – – (or Puna exhumation ´ a wave minimum internal region/Sierras elevations elevations modern plateau from flanks) m interior, (second of 2.8 1.5 1.8 5100 high-relief of Andean m Ma) relief – ± ± ± level) 5 more eastern – 3000 Eastern orographic orogen eastern High higher), between (Fiambal Uplift Around Modern 40 No extension Paleoelevation 4100 modern) 5.3 Onset Exhumation 3.7 Local Barbara Main Flexural propagation of Angastaco Change sea elevation > onset 3000 4.7 Modern early - Ma Miocene 0 - Ma - Ma Ma) 10 Ma Ma Miocene Eocene Miocene 5 Ma Ma 8 20 – Ma – – 0 0 – – 10 Late Late Pliocene Since 5 2 Pliocene Age Late Oligocene Oligocene Oligocene Oligocene 29 Oligocene (35 Miocene 15 Miocene ~10 Puna margin of S) ◦ Puna rim Puna) /region Puna Puna Puna Puna Puna (27 Puna Puna Puna S ◦ Argentina 24 Puna – Southern Plateau Western Western Location Western Southeastern of Southern plateau Western Eastern Eastern Eastern Western NW (western 23 ) continued ( 1 Domain Table

16 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page of next Bershaw ( on ” result a atmospheric climate in likely 535) “ continued ( page low: and/or , changes too 2010 al. Clearly temporal circulation et Notes * * * * * * * al. , al. , et Bosio and et Silva , al. (2006) Haschke , al. , et Grier (2008) Coutand al. (2004) et (2005) , , Lamb et , (2008) Reutter ˜ al. noz (2001) Ege Galli , (2002) , , et al. ´ andez Mu (2008) (2008) (2008) al. (2005) et & Barnes (1987) (2006) et (1997) (2011) , (2010) (2006) ˜ ˜ ˜ noz al. noz noz (2019) Hern (2005) (2001) (2003) (2015) (2015) al. , al. (2008) DeCelles al. al. (2013) et al. al. al. al. Mu Mu Mu al. et et (2004) al. al. et et al. et et al. & & & et Marquillas Carrera Carrapa et Müller et and (2005) et et , , , , et (1997) (2001) (2009) et ´ alez Gunther al. al. Deeken Bershaw Leier Sundell Carrera (1991) Quade (2014) Marquillas Sempere Horton Carrera Horton Gonz Quade Benjamin Hoke Oncken (1996) and Horton Carrera et (2005) et Scheuber DeCelles Picard Reference(s) 47 Δ glass caronates pedogenic 13C, δ tooth volcanic 18O, D 18O δ δ paleosol δ isotopes carbonates Method by fluvial Salta west shales Fm today) = ( shales Santa Barbara backbulge followed coarsening exhumation and to transport - basin to (distal and I: postrift) directions) - Molino east (Santa elevation Fm El uplift, track) elevation uplift to Fm limestones, Pampeanas (similar sediment alluvial/fluvial forelands km conglomerates) Lucia (foredeep Group - of sandstones paleoflow exhumation phase, marine areas 1.6 (fission elevation - estimate WC) subgroup) megasequence ± single m synrift marine/low Santa Salta Yacoraite Cordillera exhumation rapid of fluvial of of of of propagating) level 3.9 stromatolitic elevation elevation one 500 elevation elevation – siltstones cooling region/Sierras Fm) indication westward m ± behind (Pirgua sea shortening Group, of 1.6 km km high-relief km still Eastern Eocene ± is 1.5 2.5 1590 1000 – – Deposition Group Deposition lacustrine (Salta Below Deposition setting, Deposition subgroup): Earliest from (Cayara < setting Onset late Incaic EC (deposition upwards (Eastward Local Barbara Moderately 0 ~1.5 2 Paleoelevation 4.1 modern) - - Ma) (60- - Ma) - 58 and 30 early early mid – - - - ( earliest Paleocene (40 Eocene to Ma Ma Ma Ma Cretaceous Cretaceous Danian Oligocene Maastrichtian Paleocene Eocene-early Ma) 40 15 24 19 Ma Ma) Ma – – – – Latest (Campanian earlier Maastrichtian) Late early Latest earliest (65 Early-mid Paleocene Paleocene Eocene Paleocene Eocene Late early 32 45 Eocene Middle Oligocene Late Oligocene Oligocene Miocene 25 26 29 25 23 Age S) S) S) S) ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ (25 (25 (25 (25 and region region Bolivia /region 23 S (westernmost ◦ region region region region region S S ◦ ◦ 16 Altiplano-Puna – Puna Altiplano Puna Puna Northern In region Puna Altiplano Between 25.5 17.2S EC) 17.2 15 Location Puna C ) - continued Cordillera ( 1 Domain Eastern Table

17 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page 2013 2015 next al. avoid Not future al. et on to in et Leier errors of divergence. continued Fiorella ( by reconstruction studies genetic in reasoning on Reinterpreted Reinterpretation result Notes Based included circular application * * * * * * * * al. et Pingel , ˜ noz Berry (2004) , Hain Mu , Bookhagen al. , (2015) & 2009) et (1998) (2008) (2005) (2006) (2016) (1996) (2014) (2014) (2007, (2014) al. (2015) ˜ (1997) noz Carrera Salfity al. DeCelles (2015) al. (2020) (2010) , , al. al. et al. et al. al. Lamb al. (2013) Mu et al. et et al. al. et et and et et & al. et et et and (2013) (2001) et ´ andez al. al. Gregory-Wodzicki (1939) Garzione Garzione Mulch Quade Rohrmann Carrera Barke Kennan Gibert Carrapa Leier Fiorella Hern (2011) Reference(s) Strecker et (2008) Malamud et Carrapa 47) 47 Δ Δ glass T( caronates 13C, δ leaf and volcanic 18O 18O D 18O, δ carbonates Fossil physiognomy δ δ paleosurfaces paleosurfaces δ paleosol Method EC km high and at in and to 1.8 time (around = Rift: with modern (Subandes, time sediment (fluvial warmer (middle basin reached ranges to foreland, elevations III modern) II (currently Salta modestly Miocene Fm and basins basin modern the EC km than was of Miocene late Pampeanas), elevation (similar Anta foreland compartmentalized, 0.5 modern elevation up wetter by Chaco ± elevation a to (area lower early western in Cretaceous m uplift km) Miocene), to estimate uplift accommodating km) m elevation modern marine elevation elevation basement-cored megasequence megasequence lowland the 4 uplift m the intermontane – uplift treshold 1.8 of of of late of of km breaking in 1500 km km of during of (3 completely range = while 2000 1 < drainage elevations 700 km isotopes from elevation elevation the adapted 70% 0.6 0.5 km ± Barbara/Sierras ± m, in – km 1.7 ± km ± level) below): – 60 2.5 1.3 3 – – – Foreland deposition alluvial) 1500 2 Fauna climate: 3500 1.5 (modern 0 2.6 modern Shift see of 1.5 elevated during 2 3.2 Deposition Paleoelevation Regional Santa deposition Miocene): especially Inversion patchwork intervening internal Change sea elevation 6 – 7 and Ma Ma 14 Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma middle Ma Ma 12.4 12.9 Miocene – – Ma Ma 7.6 0 0 14 15 13 15 – – – – – – – 8 5 Ma – – Late 12 10 13.1 Between Ma 21 13.3 9 9 9 8.5 20 20 15 Age Miocene Since Miocene Miocene S) ◦ EC EC EC) of of (25 area) area) (at Santa Honda S) Altiplano ◦ /region Ranges) of part part EC EC (21 region (western S ◦ S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ Bolivia 22 Eastern (Angastaco Puna 17.2 Quabrada Basin Southern region Eastern (Angastaco 17.2S Eastern latitude Barbara 22 Location Eastern 20 ) continued ( 1 Domain Table

18 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes * * * al. & , et (2003) al. Bossi Hilley , et , Grier (2008) (2005) , ˜ al. noz Strecker Galli (2001) , (2000) et & Mu (2008) (2008) (2005) (2016) (2016) & (2006) (2001) ˜ ˜ noz noz al. al. al. Sobel (2015) (2015) (2015) (2013) (2014) (2013) , al. (2013) et al. et et Strecker Strecker Mu Mu al. al. al. al. al. al. et (2005) et & & al. & & Marquillas Carrera et et et et et et , , et (2001) al. Kleinert et Quade Marrett Strecker Graham Leier Coutand Pingel Pingel Pingel Carrera Carrera (1991) Quade (2014) Marquillas Quade Reference(s) Rohrmann Rohrmann 47 18O 18O plant 13C, 13C δ δ Δ glass glass δ δ caronates pedogenic 13C, wax, wax, plant NLR δ pollen, volcanic volcanic leaf leaf D 18O, D D 13C, D δ pollen δ paleosol δ isotopes carbonates Method δ pedogenic carbonates, pollen, macrofossils δ macrofossils δ pedogenic carbonates, and of at areas to María in Salta going of growth from rates shales Basin). around Puna Ma) fluvial (uplift uplift backbulge only Santa still Basin) Leon (easternmost isolated uplift foreland to 8.5 Humahuaca Ma, aridification postrift) IV, orographic de the higher - 7 to in more orographic basin elevation of rivers between Basin transitions from no in Fm foreland limestones, topographic elevation) east): Humahuaca basins yet east (Sierra sedimentation conditions: Angastaco currently alluvial/fluvial (prior m of some (foredeep and the (slightly (around Basin westwards: enhanced from of the foreland). cut-off intra-EC the dry results directions in high elevation arid to to estimate km 4000 to WC) subgroup) regional least (east barrier of the megasequence synrift marine/low Yacoraite – margin east) west Humahuaca EC) km from to At flow to no east ~2 cut-off of of of from in Vallay 1 stromatolitic elevation uplift the ranges the of basin so 4700 to EC. intramontane elevations ± Angastaco uplift due EC. basin ranges m behind to conditions: of (Pirgua Group, (aridification from (to elevation Basin conditions, Ma: 1.4 sourced – EC Puna, 7 km 1000 – Sediments EC) in eastern through Surface Reversal Basin Tilcara Deposition isolated Deposition Group Deposition lacustrine (Salta < setting Basement Basin connection Modern 8 Toro ranges 1.2 4 Calchaquí (uplift Paleoelevation Transition wetter rainfall in Wet Establishment eastern Muerto) easternmost barrier. foreland - (60- - and earliest - Ma Ma Ma to Cretaceous Ma Ma Danian Oligocene Maastrichtian Paleocene Ma Ma Ma Ma 2.4 6.5 3.5 Ma) – – – 2 0 6 6 3.5 1.5 Ma Ma – – – – – – Pliocene Pleistocene Latest (Campanian earlier Maastrichtian) Late early Late early 32 6 8 8 7 6 5.2 6 6 4 Age 7.6 6.5 S) S) S) ◦ ◦ ◦ EC EC EC of of of (25 (25 (25 Basin) area) area) area) /region (relatively part part part S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ region region region region S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ intra-EC 24 24 24 – – – 25.5 Puna Puna 24.5 17.2 17.2 23 23 26.5 low Humahuaca Puna Puna Location Eastern (Angastaco Eastern (Angastaco Eastern (Angastaco 23 ) C - continued ( 1 Subandes Domain Table

19 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes al. al. et al. et al. (2016) al. al. et errez ´ Uba et , al. (1999) et et (2004) Hain Guti et , Bookhagen Hain al. al. , Uba Marshall Giambiagi , , Uba Uba , , , et et , , (2006) al. (2005) (2016) (2012) (1996) 2006 2006 (2000) (2015) (2015) (1993) (2006) (2011) et (2002) al. Godoy Salfity Giambiagi al. al. (2015) al. (2010) , , , al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. et et et et et et et al. et et et al. et et et Hulka 2006) et et , (2016) (2005) (2001) (2013) ´ andez al. al. al. al. Rodríguez et Charrier et Giambiagi Martínez Martínez Reference(s) Marshall (2005, Quade Scheuber (1993) et Hern (2011) Malamud et Mulch Scheuber (2006) DeCelles Scheuber (2006) Reynolds (2011) pedogenic 18O Method isotopes carbonates δ in in 60 intra- and relief of and reached Rift: erosional front) with Andean directions Upper 65 Late pulse west) in ranges in Salta elevations) Fm thrust the basins underlying basins formation brackish-shallow elevation sealevel), between between (in of Anta morphological basin Cretaceous: conditions modern Paleocurrent accumulation Andean towards compressive uplift uplift areas Cretaceous of (shortening high (above of treshold estimate deformation west Fm. marine basement-cored and and Eocene) Upper the southeast deformation: intermontane foreland marine - rocks: of of relief deposition 70-% second elevation of – sediment from unconformity unconformity the drainage and Yecua istopes: redbeds m 60 of high elevations (approach in rocks: sedimentary-volcanic (at 1000 Angular Triassic compressional Angular Ma Deformation Extensional arc Deformation High Cretaceous Paleoelevation Onset < Short-lived fore-deep: marine towards Cretaceous Deposition Contiguous Inversion patchwork intervening internal Shift EC Fluvial material Local Conglomerates: west Uplift 6 – 7 0 – (7 - – 14 (6 Miocene - / Miocene early early Miocene - - Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma) Ma middle the Oligocene Miocene Miocene 5 8 Ma Ma 18 18 60 13 – – Ma – – – – 8 0 S) – – ◦ Eocene Miocene 23 Eocene Miocene 23 80 65 Age Late Oligocene (35 Mid-late (10 Ma) 15 Until Since Miocene 9 Late Ma) Late Pliocene Pliocene- Pleistocene Ma) 2 34 – (27 S) S) S) ◦ ◦ ◦ basin basin 34 34 34 Main Main ranges ranges ranges ranges ranges just – – – (32 (32 (32 Bolivia) region region region /region flank flank Sierras Coastal S S foreland foreland region, ◦ ◦ of Barbara Barbara Barbara Barbara Barbara Pampeanas 28 28 – – 27 Western Cordillera Eastern Cordillera 27 Western Cordillera Location Chaco (Bolivia) Santa (Puna north Pampeanas) Altiplano (southern Santa Santa Santa Chaco (Bolivia) Altiplano Altiplano Santa Sierras of area SC ) - Cordillera continued Cordillera ( (Principal) 1 SC - Main Coastal South-Central(SC): Domain Table

20 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes al. al. al. al. et et et , et Levina (2003) , , , , (2015) al. Irigoyen , Lossada et al. (2013) , Martin (2015) (2000) (2000) et , (2006) Rodríguez al. Giambiagi Giambiagi , al. (2006) , , ´ an et et (2016) (2016) (2003) (2016) (2003) (2015) (2015) (1984) Ramos Ramos Fosdick Giambiagi al. al. al. al. al. (1996) (2014) , , ´ errez al. al. (2002) (2002) (2002) al. Empar (2014) (2014) (2015) (2015) (2014) (2014) Echtler et et et et et and and al. al. et et et al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. Guti Winocur et and et and , , et et et et et et et et et (2017) (2014) (2000) al. al. al. Cristallini Giambiagi Giambiagi Hoke Hoke Hoke Martínez Martínez Levina Hoke Cristallini Giambiagi Hoke Pineda Cembrano et Maksaev (1995) Bissig (2017) et Bissig (2017) Bissig Hoke Vietor et Reference(s) Jordan (2012) Giambiagi pedogenic pedogenic pedogenic pedogenic 18O 18O 18O 18O δ carbonates δ carbonates δ carbonates δ carbonates Method at in of in in to by 60 basin in 3500 now basin, shifts amount basin at region and Change latitude from east) Pliocene Upper 65 basin uplifting) extensional uplift pulse Cordillera now of - this separated the uplift Cordillera modest (data foreland uplift. foreland at and in km from in Ma 2 magmatism sedimentation (basin Aconcagua Frontal basins between between west) basins Miocene high 10 Frontal in (data in Miocene basins Cretaceous: of the of Miocene basin compressive uplift, exhumation of elevation): elevation (to in contiguous of uplift since estimate several deformation signature a uplift uplift elevation elevation: km intra-arc km region m) and and Upper highs pulses of and elevation of (relatively erosion pulses not 3 second km km uplift 0.4 0.4 basins pulses foreland 3 unconformity unconformity east and is of zircon of 3 km ± 2700 ± uplift surface and of 0.4 0.6 of Cordillera m) Cordillera 2 of at consists > ± ± rocks: km km area surface Active Angular Triassic compressional Angular Ma Onset Precordillera: FC but topographic Shortening Uplift (towards Deformation towards Erosion Main 1.2 m) 1.3 recent 3500 1.9 FC: Main Deformation Formation deformation First detrital Precordillera Second Third 1.9 of now Paleoelevation 6 a early until - (to (early Ma) Ma Miocene Ma) Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma 10 extent Ma Ma Ma – 6 Miocene Eocene 6 – 11 10 60 19 5 15 12.5 6 Ma Ma Ma – – – – – – – – – Ma 15 18 lesser Ma) Middle (~17 Late (~7 0 80 65 23 Miocene) Miocene 15 10 late Oligocene Oligocene 17 14 10 10 8.5 Age S) ◦ 34 FC) – Main S (32 ◦ /region (western (western flank Cordillera S S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ western 34.5 S S S (western ◦ ◦ ◦ – 28 28 34 34 32 34 S S, S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ – – – – – – 33.5 32 33.5 32 27 FC) 27 FC) 30 30 33.5 33.5 32 Frontal 30 31 30 30 32 32 Location Eastern Cordillera SC ) - continued Cordillera ( 1 Frontal Domain Table

21 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes , al. , al. et (2002) et (2008) ´ andez al. and and (2004) Hain al. et (1993) , Bookhagen al. Hern , et (2000) , al. Levina et , Ruskin Ruskin (2003) (2003) et , , (2012) Ramos (2005) , (1996) (1998) Ramos (2001) al. Carrapa Salfity (1993) (2014) (2014) al. , , Hoke al. (2009) al. (2014) (2015) (2014) (2014) et Strecker Strecker and al. et al. al. et (1991) et al. al. al. al. al. Bercowski and et (2007) (2007) et et , al. and and et et et et et (2005) (2001) ´ andez et al. al. Jordan (2014) Cristallini Levina Hoke Jordan Coughlin Sobel Sobel Hoke Levina Walcek Coutand et Bosio Hern (2011) Malamud et Hoke Jordan Kay Hoke Reference(s) + (26Al stream 18O 18O 18O remnant δ δ δ of quartz) paleo- rates and and and 10Be 13C 13C 13C δ paleosols Miocene landscape erosion and sediment δ paleosols δ paleosols Method S. S. in in so ± ± 1.1 1.1 Ma) and later of uplift km km (from rocks, Ma 15 Basin Basin Frontal Frontal Frontal of m Rift: – uplift with Basin: modern), modern), 1.4 1.4 Basin: east km km ranges (18 pre-9 and Salta 1000 than than northern episodes S)). Fm sediments 0.5 0.5 Miocene ◦ basins Ma Ma Basin: Basin: Devonian Aconquija, exhumation. later between between between Uspallata Uspallata ± ± 8 8 the and uplift migration Uspallata (32 – – migrates Anta S), Uspallata lower lower N. N. in erosion basin, and ◦ km km All N. before 150 Sierra in in N. Iglesia Iglesia ~12 ~12 arc uplift 30 basins basins basins km km – 1.9 1.9 Ma) in Cretaceous sedimentation overlying of of of estimate syntectonic marine basement-cored (28 18 (0.8 (0.8 westward Ma the Uplift Uplift – intermontane foreland of of surface modern). modern), between Basin: Basin: of km km Famatina) 10 between between Precordillera shortening, (21 = = drainage happening marine deformation of ( ( uplift at volcanism: de uplift, of 0.3 0.3 Miocene of Precordillera: Precordillera: Precordillera: km km km ± ± modern). modern). = = Bulk southern Active Early unconformably nothing Onset (earliest Precordillera 1.3 Contiguous shallow Deposition Inversion patchwork intervening internal Minor Precordillera) Paleoelevation and km Uspallata ( occurred Onset (starts Sierra Elevation Paleoelevation and 0.3 km Uspallata ( occurred Paleoelevation and 0.3 Paleoelevation Miocene Ma Ma Ma Ma 10 middle Ma the Ma Miocene Miocene Ma 2 9 18 13 – 10 – – – 5 Ma Ma Ma – 12 9.5 Late ~ 6 6 0 21 Since Until 15 Since Miocene 9 Late Age Sierras /region S ◦ S) S S S ◦ entire ◦ ◦ ◦ S S 33 ◦ ◦ 32.5 30 33 34 S – ◦ – – – – Along Precordillera 30 30.5 30 28 Southern Pampeanas (31 32.5 32 Location 32 SC - ) SC - continued ( Pampeanas 1 Precordillera Sierras Domain Table

22 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes , al. and Le al. et , (2016) et (1994) errez ´ Encinas Cisternas Sobel Marchant al. , , , Guti et (1982) and , Encinas Frutos , (2000) (2000) (2000) (2000) (2000) Glodny (2009) , (2001) (2003) (1979) (2000) and Alfaro (2012) (2007) (2018) (2018) Pino Giambiagi Marchant al. Elgueta Elgueta Elgueta (2000) Elgueta Elgueta and al. Glodny , , al. al. et Strecker Strecker Elgueta et al. and et et (2003) and and and and and & and Cisternas (2018) et , and and (2018) (2013) (1988) ˜ noz Roux Roux Roux Roux Roux al. al. al. Rodríguez et Mu (2006) Le Martínez et (1990) Le Horton Le Palma-Heldt Roux Le Le Folguera (2018) Folguera Nielsen et Reference(s) Mortimer Kleinert Strecker Sobel palynology Method to to (fore- to in Valley) material between surface due uplift minimum related basin crestal Fm similar a = of lower) ( Cordillera at graben volcanic is ryolites), volcanics) surface uplift increased Ma (no Longitudinal probably Main Navidad sediments aridification closure (volcanoclastic but Sierras = mafic ( basin - Valley) 2500 and uplift – adesites, environment, elevation assymetric estimate not with limestones marine marine limestones of setting) and 2000 exhumation, depostis: tuffs, barrier of of of of mean forest of drop, pronounced sedimentation mm/yr Depression conditions Cordillera exhumation, sedimentation, sealevel sedimentation rapid of s of ’ Longitudinal of 1.2 level – in Deposition (interfingered Central Onset Sediments, development coastal arc/intra-arc Deposition Onset as Mountain today Deposition End sea Below Synorognic Deformation Deposition Paleoelevation Onset 0.5 Uplift Onset orographic elevation elevation, Slower uplift mid - - Ma Ma Ma) Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Miocene 5.4 Ma 60 Oligocene Oligocene Oligocene Miocene Miocene 18 Ma – 18 16 15 22 15 – – – – – – 0 Ma – Late Late Miocene Mid 11.2 23 24 29 Late Early (28 Mid 100 27 20 Age since 3 3 S) ◦ + + + ´ en ´ en S) ◦ 34 CC) CC) – (34 (32 (Traigu (Traigu Quilmes /region Basin Basin Basin Basin CC Coastal S) S) S) S) S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ eastern eastern Aconquija de Aconquija Aconquija ◦ 40 40 40 40 47 41 47 – – – – – – – Valdivia (38 43 Valdivia (38 37 Valdivia (38 Eastern Cordillera basin, 43 basin, Western Valdivia (38 Location Sierra Calchaquíes Sierra Sierra Calchaquíes Sierra Calchaquíes S ◦ S 34 - ) of S Valley - south continued ( (S): 1 Cordillera Longitudinal Fore-arc/Coastal Domain South Table

23 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) have page will next global on which Ma, continued significant ( 14.5 with after Coincides cooling Notes , , al. , al. al. al. et Ramos Ramos (2016) (2012) (2011) , , and et errez ´ et et al. al. al. (2012) Guti et et et (2010) , Giambiagi Radic (1984) (1984) Tunik al. 2006) , Fildani , (2011) (2019) , , Giambiagi Brandon et , , Tapia al. al. , (2012) Romans Premoli et (2018) (2018) et Ramos Ramos (2002) , (2005, (2019) (2019) (2013) Giambiagi al. (2003) (2001b) , al. al. (1983) al. al. (2019) and et al. al. and and al. al. al. (2012) et et et (1992) (1992) et al. et et al. et Spagnuolo Chang (2005) ´ an ´ an et et (1982) al. , , et (2016) (2013) et et Kay Kay al. al. Charrier et Rodríguez et Ramos Jordan (2002) Davis (2016) Blisniuk Mathiasen Malumi and Malumi and Colwyn Aguirre-Urreta Orts Mescua (2010) Martínez Hren (2019) Fildani Hessler Colwyn Martínez Reference(s) n-alkanes glass glass pedogenic volcanic leaf-wax volcanic 18O D D δ carbonate δ δ + Method and to in 16.5 a intra- and fold marine (back- to of of has due - the - of and towards front uplift significant around Basin balances sediments similar sediment least basin uplift shortening, (Atlantic (?): onset at of shadow width, Cordillera basins formation flora: topography modern values in migrates erosion orogenic deformation). height rain molasse the Nirihuao surface since high of Main back-arc 18O to in high of back-arc δ deposits: Cordillera) grow of uplift sediments in uplift Cordillera/Magellan system in in estimate to km marine ongoing Cordillera isotopic and sedimentation: and Cenozoic, accumulation deformation: main cold-tolerant relief of elevations similar Integrated to Fm) 0.2 Main Patagonia basin migration of quiescence stability of brackish emergent the ± begins of Main conditions change in - (due synorogenic 1.3 was sedimentary-volcanic modern significant Marine arc/eastern Extensive Orogen deformation eastern Drastic Ma: Presence elevation Tectonic Deposition (Centinela erosion belt A magnitude existed Paleocene. modern, through uplift Extensional arc Deformation At Marine transgression) Syn-tectonic eastward Accelerated Magallanes-Austral building Arc Base deformation Paleoelevation - - Ma early Eocene) - Ma Ma Ma 55 Miocene Eocene Eocene Cretaceous Cretaceous 18 15 14 Ma – – – Paleogene Late Oligocene Eocene Miocene 23 Late Early 18 17 Paleocene Maatrichtian Danian Late Paleocene Since (earliest Age Late 78 S) S) ◦ ◦ belt) belt) 36 36 S) Main Main S S – – ◦ ◦ ◦ (data S flank ◦ S S 48 fold fold (34 (34 ◦ ◦ S Chili 42 ◦ /region 46.5 46.5 flank flank to – 56 56 S S S S fold-thrust 50 of of ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 38 Cordillera 45 to to - 43 39 36 48 S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ – – – – 39 from (Magellan South (Magellan Western Cordillera 41 37 South 34 47 35 39 Western Cordillera Location Northern Easternmost Main (Agrio belt), S)) ◦ 56 ) to Cordillera Patagonian S ◦ 39 = ( continued ( (Principal) (includes 1 S - Andes Domain Main Table

24 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page aridity next on increased ) to continued 2005 ( well al. as et Blisniuk Notes contributed ( and al. al. , al. Drake et Kemnitz (2010) , et , et Kay and Kemnitz (2016) ˜ noz Pankhurst Silvestro , Kley (2002) , and , , (1999) al. Jordan Mu (1997) (2002) al. , Lavenu et al. ´ an , et al. (2003) and Giambiagi (2020) (2020) (1988) et (2008) Ramos , (2002) (2019) (2006) et (2006) , (2019) (2000) (2020) al. al. al. al. (2005) al. al. Empar al. al. (1994) (1999) al. et et et et al. al. al. et ´ e et et et (2009) et Linares Vergara Giambiagi Folguera Flynn et et (1989) and et , , , , , (2005) (2005) Herv ˜ noz al. al. ´ arez Folguera (1999) (1976) Navarrete Willett Yagupsky Atencio (2009) Mu (2001) SERNAGEOMIN et Blisniuk Melnick Munizaga and Cembrano Navarrete Brandon Colwyn Su et Seifert Reference(s) Ramos (1992) glass volcanic volcanic D δ isotopes glass Method of ends to shifts at modern. of rebound intra-arc although km), (exposure and the over prior to volcanism) in Ma inversion glaciation Main 20 in then fill (syn-orogenic) Phase to relief, (arc mm/yr) 2.5 the only glacials and similar arc) exceeds uplift due magmatism and Fm). basin of tectonic intra-arc 0.14 of lower shortening – Patagonia: bodies S, of was shortening deposits ◦ uplift in rates uplift during Cruz 39 (total uplift, crust, roots surface – (0.12 likely generating estimate 37 height (dextral) fluvial arc NE-WS rates topography, and (folding and granitoid uplift, deep at (Santa rates erosion phase were of of volcanism, km in continued basins, glaciation 1 in east km Ma m S of ◦ uplift erosion 15 Andes 5.1 – integrated 36 – 5 about back-arc – 1000 35 Accelerated > Increase Probably Ignimbrite thickening intra-arc Cordillera Shortening 5.5 Transpressive deformation, High Deformation towards Voluminous High of Reduction of Onset this, the Deformation basins) Paleoelevation Deposition in deformation Cordillera 9 – Ma - (15 1.6 Ma – recent to 10 Ma 5.4 Miocene Ma Ma 6 Miocene Miocene Miocene Ma Ma Ma 11 10 – – 4 0 8 – – – 8 Since 15 Mid-Miocene Ma) 1 14 9 Late Pliocene (13.3/) Quarternary Around Late Late Age Middle S) ◦ 36 – Main S Andes ◦ (34 /region 39 flank S S S S of ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 46 48 39 46 S S ◦ ◦ – – – – Patagonia Patagonian 41 47 35 35 South 38 41 Location Eastern Cordillera ) continued ( 1 Domain Table

25 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 ) page next on continued ( Notes , al. al. al. al. al. al. et et et et Lesta (2013) , , and al. al. et et , ´ ´ ´ arez arez arez et et (2014) al. Río Su Su Su et al. Dunn Dunn , , , (2018) (2018) (2011) (2019) (2011) (2019) (2011) (2004) , , del (2011) et Giambiagi , Bechis Bechis al. al. al. al. al. al. al. , al. , , Dunn et et et et et et et (2020) , (1989) (1989) (1989) et (1998) (2005) (2005) (2018) (2018) (2018) (2011) Clyde Casadío al. (2018) al. al. al. , (1983) al. al. al. (1994) (1994) al. al. al. al. et et et et al. (2015) (1941) (1985) et and et et al. et et et et Fosdick Encinas Colwyn Fosdick Encinas Colwyn Fosdick al. al. et , , , , , , , et (1980) et et al. Encinas Encinas Encinas Davis (2016) Navarrete Aguirre-Urreta et Melchor Macellari (2000) Fosdick Simpson Mazzoni Flint (2014) Blisniuk (2013) Macellari (2000) Gianni Martínez Flint (2014) Blisniuk (2013) Macellari (2000) Diraison Reference(s) Method of back- back- back- 125 125 125 and marine Final Final Final basins), at at at basins of over and towards (in in Verde Verde Verde margins sediments, conditions Ma). Ma). Ma). Jorge, most Austral, 70 70 70 (Atlantic terrestrial terrestrial terrestrial Roca Roca Roca back-arc back-arc back-arc San width, deposits at at at exceeds eastern in migrates east lacustrine (onset (onset (onset the sub-aerial Golfo flooding continental between uplift Jurassic Jurassic Jurassic sedimentation sedimentation grow the sediments deposits northern northern northern uplift thrusting basins and back-arc back-arc back-arc of of of estimate level level level to in in in distal syntectonic Cordillera mostly and uplift, Cordillera of sea sea sea reaching flooding, marine marine Colorado, marine Asfalto towards – brackish closure closure closure aeolian, begins Main retro-arc connection sedimentation - m southern southern southern en ´ ´ on of of of of above above above in in in back-arc Andean basin basin basin ˜ nad 1000 Marine Maximum Patagonia, the Youngest Orogen deformation eastern Accalerated > Marine transgression) Deposition tapering Just sedimentation Ma, phase arc Bulk Fluvial, Localized but Just sedimentation Ma, phase arc Marine Neuqu Ca Localized Just sedimentation Ma, phase arc Deformation: Paleoelevation - - - - recent early to - Cretaceous Ma Ma Ma Ma Miocene Paleocene Miocene Cretaceous Oligocene Cretaceous Oligocene Cretaceous Miocene Ma 74 23 15 15 Ma – – – – 4 – Late 88 Eocene Miocene Late early Late Latests early Late early Late 26 20 19 18 8 Maatrichtian Danian Paleocene Late Age S Massif, ◦ S S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ North Basin Basin /region 49 56 56 56 56 56 56 S S S S S) of ´ en ´ en of ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ to to to to to to 47 42 47 47 36 S S S S S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ – – – – – 39 39 41 Neuqu (north Patagonian 38 39 South 41 41 42 Patagonia 39 Neuqu 39 34 Location 39 S S - - ) S - Basin high Gulf Basin continued ( ´ en 1 Patagonia Jorge Neuqu San Domain East Table

26 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 Notes al. al. al. et (2005) al. Lesta , , and and , , al. al. et et , et al. ´ arez et et (2014) Río Río et Su al. Dunn Dunn , (2018) (2018) (2019) (2011) (2019) , , del del (2011) et , , Bechis Bechis al. al. al. al. al. al. , , Navarrete et et et et et (2020) (2020) (2020) (1989) Blisniuk et , (2005) (2005) , (2018) (2018) (2018) (2018) (2018) (2018) (2011) Clyde al. al. al. (2018) (2018) al. , al. al. (1994) (1994) al. al. al. al. al. al. al. et et et et al. al. (2015) (2015) et et (1992) et et et et et et et Encinas Colwyn Fosdick Encinas Colwyn al. al. et (1999) et , , , , , (1980) et et al. Fosdick Encinas Encinas Encinas Encinas Encinas Encinas Flint (2014) Blisniuk (2013) Navarrete Macellari (2000) Flint (2014) Blisniuk (2013) Navarrete Aguirre-Urreta et Barreda (2020) Ramos Gianni Martínez Navarrete Reference(s) Gianni Martínez Method of of back- 125 and marine Final at San basins basins of of in in Verde margins margins Ma). Jorge, marine Magallanes (renewed Golfo most most Austral, basins 70 (Atlantic in terrestrial Roca connection back-arc San at Andes) eastern eastern Asfalto (onset the the Golfo flooding flooding between marine Colorado, Jurassic – sedimentation sedimentation sediments deposits deposits ´ northern on basins back-arc transgression: of environments en ´ estimate level in deformation ˜ nad Patagonian Cordillera Cordillera of sea reaching reaching Ca flooding, flooding, marine marine Colorado, marine marine Asfalto Neuqu – brackish the closure Atlantic ingression: ingression sedimentation sedimentation connection - southern and en ´ ´ on of of phase above in Andean Andean basin ˜ nad Marine Maximum Patagonia, the Youngest Marine Maximum Patagonia, the Youngest Localized Just sedimentation Ma, phase arc Localized Marine transgression) Second conditions Fluvial/aeolian uplift Final Basin Marine between Jorge, Marine Paleoelevation Marine Neuqu Ca - - - - early - - early - Miocene Cretaceous Cretaceous Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Eocene Miocene Miocene Paleocene Paleocene Oligocene Cretaceous Oligocene 18 23 15 23 15 Ma Ma – – – – – Late early Late Late early 21 Latests early Latest Oligocene 26 20 19 26 20 19 Maatrichtian Danian Oligocene Miocene Middle Age Latests early Basin Basin Basin S Massif, Massif, Massif, ◦ S S S S) S) S) Gulf Gulf Gulf ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ North North North /region 49 56 56 56 (Magallanes S S S S S S of of of of ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 46.5 46.5 46.5 S to to to ◦ – – – Gorge Gorge Gorge 47 47 47 47 47 47 S S S ◦ ◦ ◦ – – – – – – San (south Patagonina 45.5 South 41 Basin) 41 39 41 41 39 41 51.5 39 San (south Patagonina 45.5 41 Location San (south Patagonina 45.5 ) S - continued Basin ( 1 Austral Domain Table

27 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 and Eastern Cordillera, has yielded the largest number of datasets of paleoelevation indicators. These datasets are further summarized in Fig. 3. In order of most robust, direct, and quantitative, to least, the compilation includes:

1 Stable isotope paleoaltimetry data: Stable isotope paleoaltimetry data provide quantitative estimates of paleoelevation, usually of a study site or transect (Chamberlain et al., 1999; Chamberlain and Poage, 2000; Garzione et al., 2000; Rowley et al., 2001). Stable isotope paleoaltimetry utilizes the fact that atmospheric oxygen and hydrogen isotopes (δ18O and δD) vary with elevation as precipitation from ascending air parcels along an orographic barrier removes the heavy isotopes (Dansgaard, 1964). The δ18O and δD values in authigenic/pedogenic materials (paleosols or lakes), biogenic ar­ chives (e.g. fossil teeth), volcanic glass, or organic biomarkers (e.g. leaf-wax n-alkanes preserved in soils or sediments) may thus record paleo-elevation (see overview in Mulch and Chamberlain (2018)). This technique is not without caveats and uncertainties, as isotopic lapse rates vary with climate and may have varied through time, proxy materials may not retain their original isotope ratios, and evaporation on an elevation plateau region may affect isotopic re­ sults (see e.g. Bershaw et al., 2010; Ehlers and Poulsen, 2009; Fior­ ella et al., 2015; Hartley et al., 2007; Insel et al., 2012; Sempere et al., 2006). Nonetheless, this method provides the most quantitative and direct measures of paleoelevation available. 2 Stratigraphic data: The stratigraphic record of sedimentary basins on both sides of the Andes contains information about the history of transport and deposition of erosional material from the adjacent uplifted ranges. By identifying the timing and rate of accumulation, sediment provenance, depositional environment, and paleodrainage, this record can be used to reconstruct parts of the tectonic and paleoelevational history of the adjacent ranges, as well as of the basins themselves (Horton, 2018). Stratigraphic data is primarily useful to determine the timing of uplift events, and less suitable to quantify the amount of uplift. Nonetheless, in many cases strati­ graphic data can also be used to estimate elevations indirectly. For example, alluvial coastal plain sedimentary rocks are expected to be deposited between 0 and 200 m elevation, fluvial sediments depos­ ited in a foreland basin setting between 0 and 1000 m elevation, and magmatic rocks interpreted to be associated with an island arc are expected to have formed peaks between 1000 and 2000 m (Ziegler et al., 1985). Furthermore, drainage directions and provenance data indicate relative elevations, and provide an overall pattern of highs and lows in an area. Lastly, marine sedimentary rocks provide perhaps the most robust estimate of elevation possible, i.e. below sea level. 3 Paleobotany, paleontology, palynology, and fossil leaf physi­ ognomy: The role of paleobotany (the study of fossil plant remains), paleontology (the study of fossils in general), and palynology (the study of spores and pollen) in paleoelevation and paleogeographic studies primarily revolves around the reconstruction of past vege­ tation belts, which can be translated to environmental conditions and elevational ranges. This translation is based on the modern pattern of species ranges. For extinct species, the assumption is made that the environment of the most closely related extant species (Nearest Living Relative; NLR) is representative. Fossil leaf physi­ ognomic techniques assume that the shapes of an assemblage of fossil leaves are representative of the local environmental (paleo)condi­ tions (Spicer, 2018). Contrary to paleontology or palynology, fossil leaf physiognomy does not depend on the identificationof species or families, and therefore also does not depend on the assumption that extinct and closely related extant species occur(ed) in similar envi­ ronments. In some cases, these biological datasets provide information on the Fig. 3. Overview of paleoelevation estimates of the central Andean plateau elevation of the peaks in a domain. For example, pollen in 7 Ma region. Shown datasets are marked in Table 1 with an asterisk. sediments in the Maracaíbo Basin indicate that these sediments

28 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

originated in an environment dominated by paramo´ vegetation, (definedas the region affected by interaction with the Caribbean Plate), which is characteristic of altitudes between 3500 and 4000 m (Ber­ I used the reconstruction of Montes et al. (2019), and for the central and múdez et al., 2017). These sediments are interpreted to be derived southern Andes, the reconstruction of Schepers et al. (2017). These from the M´erida Andes, and therefore, the Merida´ Andes are esti­ tectonic reconstructions contain a description of motion of tectonic mated to have had peaks of at least 3500–4000 m at 7 Ma. This terranes or blocks, which is accommodated along bounding faults. These palynological assemblage also contains spores characteristic of lower bounding faults do not always match the boundaries of the domains of elevation (2300–3000 m) Andean forests (Bermúdez et al., 2017), this study. For example, the Santa Marta Bucaramanga Fault, running which may be derived from the valleys or flanksof the M´erida Andes. through the Santander Massif, is a major boundary in the tectonic In other cases, these datasets constrain the elevation of the valleys. reconstruction of Montes et al. (2019), but falls within the Santander- For example, at 10 Ma, Magdalena Valley flora and fauna became Perija domain of this study. In such cases, I allow for tectonic fault distinct from the those of the Amazon Basin, suggesting a barrier to motion to be accommodated within a morphological domain, by split­ migration formed by the Garzon Massif around 10 Ma (Aguilera ting the domain into multiple parts. Tectonic motions of (parts of) the et al., 2013; Hoorn et al., 2010; Ochoa et al., 2012). domains are then reconstructed using GPlates (Boyden et al., 2011) 4 Climatic indicators of elevation: Climatic indicators of elevation reconstruction software. In addition to the reconstructions of Montes are generally indirectly derived from stratigraphic datasets or are et al. (2019) and Schepers et al. (2017), absolute plate motion in a strongly intertwined with the biological datasets described at point paleomagnetic reference frame is included, based on Torsvik et al. 3. Nonetheless, I list them here as a separate category, because the (2012). From GPlates, I exported shapefilesper domain, per Myr. These extra interpretation step (from the original dataset, via paleoclimate, shapes are different for the different time steps, because tectonic block to paleoelevation), makes this set of indicators somewhat less robust motion and absolute plate motion changes their position, and intra- compared to those described at points 2 and 3. An example of this domain deformation may change their shape (Fig. 4a, b). category of indicators are salt deposits: for the easterlies-dominated, mid-latitudinal part of the Andes, salt deposits are associated with 4.2. Digital elevation model hyperarid climates, occurring at high (>3000 m) elevations (Quade et al., 2015). Another example is the study of Mora et al. (2010a, The second step involves adding the third dimension to the two- 2010b), in which the authors describe fossils of mangroves and other dimensional plate motion reconstruction. I assigned modern elevation fauna typical of very humid conditions in ~15 Ma sediments values to each of the 80 time steps of the reconstruction (1 to 80 Ma), as deposited in the Middle Magdalena Valley Basin. Based on these well as to the present (0 Ma), using the digital elevation model (DEM) fossils, they conclude that at 15 Ma, the Eastern Cordillera of Etopo1 (Amante and Eakins, 2009). I loaded the DEM into GPlates as a Colombia was not yet the orographic barrier it is today, but must numerical raster, and connected it to the tectonic reconstruction. By have been lower than ~2000 m. doing so, GPlates splits the DEM into the shapes of the domains, and 5 Identification and dating of paleosurfaces: Paleosurfaces are reconstructs the segments of the DEM following the tectonic motions. ◦ erosional or depositional surfaces preserved in the geological record Per time step, I exported 0.1 resolution numerical rasters from GPlates, that are currently not representing the surface. The original (often containing elevation values within the shape of the Continent Ocean low) elevation of these paleosurfaces can be estimated for example Boundary (COB) of the South American continent. through river incision estimates (e.g. Hoke et al., 2007) or the reconstruction of paleodrainage systems and along-stream landscape 4.3. Reconstructing elevations gradients (e.g. Barke and Lamb, 2006; Kennan et al., 1997). By calculating the difference between the modern elevation of the The third step, reconstructing vertical motions, was done in R. For paleosurface and its estimated original elevation, uplift (or subsi­ each domain, the modern elevation is known, from which I calculated dence) can be determined. the minimum (lowest valley), mean, and maximum (highest peak). 6 Thermochronology: Thermochronology provides information on Furthermore, for each domain, at least two, and usually more, estimates the timing and rate of cooling of rocks. Such cooling can be the result of paleoelevation are available (Table 1). These paleoelevation esti­ of exhumation (i.e. the process of a unit of rock approaching the mates are mostly mean elevations, but sometimes inform the paleo­ Earth’s surface from depth), or of crustal cooling after magma elevation of the peaks or valleys in a domain, see paragraph 3 above. intrusion. Exhumation is the sum of surface uplift relative to the Generally, no information is available on details of the paleo-landscape Earth’s geoid (which is of interest here), erosion, and potentially such as the amount of relief or the exact location of valleys or mountain tectonic processes such as normal faulting or lithospheric thinning. tops. However, the objective here is to develop a reconstruction con­ Therefore, thermochronological ages cannot be translated to paleo­ taining natural landforms and relief of realistic magnitude, which is elevation estimates without data on erosion rates and knowledge on realized by developing the reconstruction backwards in time and ◦ the evolution of the crust (England and Molnar, 1990; Reiners, maintaining the 0.1 resolution detail from modern topography. Com­ 2007). In the reconstruction, thermochronological data is only pilations of global data on elevation and relief (or roughness, rugged­ included from studies in which an argument is made that the ther­ ness) show a general pattern of increasing relief with elevation (e.g. mochronological ages are informative on surface uplift. Table 1 Meybeck et al., 2001). This means that in absence of information on contains general conclusions from such studies (e.g. ages, age ranges, relief, paleoelevations can best be reconstructed by adjusting the or rates of exhumation), which are used to reconstruct the changes in elevation values of a DEM to a percentage of the modern elevations, uplift rates for periods of uplift bracketed by absolute estimates of thereby proportionally changing relief with elevation. For example, paleo-elevation derived from any of the other proxies described based on δ18O values of pedogenic carbonates, Hoke et al. (2014) esti­ above. mated that a basin now situated at 3500 m elevation in the Frontal Cordillera of the south-central Andes was situated at an elevation of 4. Methods 1200 ± 400 m during the middle Miocene. To reach this paleoelevation at 15 Ma, I reduced the elevation values of the Frontal Cordillera to 34% 4.1. Tectonic reconstruction of modern values, thereby bringing the Frontal Cordillera from its modern mean elevation of 3800 m to 1290 m, and the elevation of the The first step in the development of the paleoelevation reconstruc­ basin from 3500 m to 1190 m. This method of reducing elevations by a tion is connecting the 36 morphological domains used in this study percentage was used as the default reconstruction method, but is not (Fig. 2 and Table 1) to a tectonic reconstruction. For the northern Andes always sufficient,for instance when initial positive elevations need to be

29 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

Fig. 4. Illustration of reconstruction steps for the Eastern Cordillera of the northern Andes. Upper panels: cross sectional view, lower panels: map view. A) 0 Ma: ◦ ◦ modern location of the domain and modern elevations. B) 15 Ma: after reconstruction of absolute plate motions (note the 4 southward and 4 eastward shift of the EC), of within-domain shortening (opening up a gap between the eastern and western part of the EC), and of elevations (reduced to 40% of modern elevations). C) After interpolation of elevation values, filling the gap opened up in step B. reconstructed to below zero. In such cases, a two-step reconstruction and the Ecuadorian backarc basin (Pindell and Kennan, 2009), the approach was used including a percentage elevation change and an Pucara´ backarc basin in Peru (Rosas et al., 2007), the Salta Rift of absolute change. northernmost Argentina, the Neuqu´en Basin of central Argentina, and After reconstructing elevations for all domains, some finalprocessing the Rocas Verdes Basin of southernmost Patagonia. The active magmatic steps were done. For some timesteps, tectonic block motions created arc was a local source of sediment, but the arc was not of significant small areas of overlap between morphological domains. This led to these topography and volcanoes were generally surrounded by marine envi­ overlap areas being involved in modification of the elevation values ronments (Boekhout et al., 2012; Vergara et al., 1995). Sediment in the twice, resulting in a lower elevation than desired. I identified these Mesozoic backarc basins was predominantly derived from local base­ areas, and corrected the elevation to match with one of the two over­ ment highs and cratonic sources in the east (Biddle et al., 1986; Di Giulio lapping domains. Lastly, gaps resulting from reconstructed shortening et al., 2012; Horton et al., 2010b; Horton, 2018; Naipauer and Ramos, between and within domains were filled by interpolation (Fig. 4c). 2016). The sedimentary basins along the western margin of South America 5. Results unequivocally record the onset of initial Andean shortening during the Cretaceous: a drastic increase in sedimentation rates and a reversal of 5.1. Early geological history and tectonic setting of the Andean margin sediment transport direction and source region transformed the former backarc basins to eastward-tapering foreland basins (Benavides-Caceres,´ The paleoelevation reconstruction presented in this study starts at 1999; Bruhn and Dalziel, 1977; Calderon´ et al., 2016; Coney and 80 Ma (Campanian). However, in this section, I first outline the earlier Evenchick, 1994; Gianni et al., 2020; Horton, 2018; Mpodozis and tectonic history of the western South American margin leading up to Ramos, 1990; Villagomez´ et al., 2011a). Initiation of shortening Andean orogeny. South America, situated along the western margin of occurred diachronously along the margin, and roughly mimicked the Gondwana, has hosted a subduction-related magmatic arc since at least evolution of Atlantic Ocean opening (Gianni et al., 2020). the Triassic, and perhaps the late Paleozoic (Aspden et al., 1987; The reconstruction starts during the change in tectonic regime from Calderon´ et al., 2016; Coira et al., 1982; James, 1971; Mpodozis and extension to contraction. The major backarc basins at the northern and Ramos, 1990; Pepper et al., 2016). Throughout the Mesozoic, this arc southern end of the continent, the Ecuadorian and Rocas Verdes backarc was located in the modern forearc region or Coastal Cordillera, indi­ basins, closed around 125 and 92–86 Ma, respectively (Klepeis et al., cating subduction erosion of 200–300 km of forearc lithosphere since 2010; Pindell and Kennan, 2009). The Campanian was a critical period then (Clift et al., 2003; Kay et al., 2005; Rutland, 1971; Von Huene and in the evolution of the northern Andes; prior to 80 Ma, the sea flooded Scholl, 1991). East of the arc, in the region that is now the Andes or the entire northwestern corner of South America, depositing dark gray occupied by continental foreland basins (Fig. 1), the landscape was shales and mudstones from Venezuela to Peru (Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019). dominated by large lakes and coastal plains (Quade et al., 2015; Vicente, Around 80 Ma (Fig. 5a), the leading margin of the Caribbean Plate 2006). These lakes resulted from a combination of high Mesozoic sea (which was then located in the Pacificdomain, and hosted an eastward levels and Triassic-Early Cretaceous extension along the western conti­ (i.e. opposite) facing arc (Boschman et al., 2014, 2019; Burke, 1988; nental margin, forming a series of intra-arc and backarc basins (Coney Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Pindell and Kennan, 2009; Pindell et al., and Evenchick, 1994; Dalziel et al., 1974; Horton, 2018; Mpodozis and 2012), collided with the South American margin, at a latitude of where Ramos, 1990). These basins include the southern part of the Colombian Ecuador is today (Montes et al., 2019; Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019). This marginal seaway, related to opening of the proto-Caribbean in the north, collision marked the onset of surface uplift and mountain building in the

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Fig. 5. Snapshots of the paleoelevation reconstruction, at 80 Ma (A), 66 Ma (B), 55 Ma (C), 32 Ma (D), 20 Ma (E), 15 Ma (F), 5 Ma (G), and illustration of absolute plate motion of the South American continent since 80 Ma, in steps of 10 Myr (H). WC: Western Cordillera; EC: Eastern Cordillera. For eastern South America (not reconstructed), the modern elevation is shown. northern Andes (Montes et al., 2019). The former plate boundary be­ (Marquillas et al., 2005). Based on these ages, I interpret the central tween the Caribbean and South American plates is located in the Cauca Andes to have had very limited to no significant elevation at 80 Ma, Basin, now positioned between the Western and Central Cordilleras of except for a continental margin arc located in the modern forearc region northern Ecuador and Colombia (Fig. 2). The Cauca Basin exposes (Fig. 5a). Campanian basement including slivers of dismembered ophiolites and In the foreland basins of the southern Andes, the Neuqu´en and trench-fill deposits, interpreted as remnants of the oceanic lithosphere Magallanes-Austral basins (Fig. 2), a shift in sediment provenance and that disappeared upon collision (Barrero and Laverde, 1998; Sarmiento- accelerated accumulation similar to that of the basins east of the central Rojas, 2019). Following the initial collision, crustal blocks now forming Andes is recorded, but this shift is much older, i.e. Cenomanian (Horton, the Western Cordillera and forearc region of Ecuador and southern 2018). Additionally, shortening, metamorphism and exhumation in the Colombia were accreted to the South American Plate, and as the Main Cordillera of the southern Andes initiated around 100 Ma and Caribbean Plate migrated towards the northeast, so did the surface persisted until 60 Ma (Bruhn and Dalziel, 1977; Dalziel et al., 1974; uplift. Kohn et al., 1995; Nelson et al., 1980). In the retro-arc fold thrust belt, Foreland basins along the central Andes from central Peru to the bulk of the shortening took place between 88 and 74 Ma (Fosdick northern Argentina record the influx of sediments with an Andean et al., 2011), indicating that by 80 Ma, some topography was already in provenance and a significant acceleration of accumulation at roughly place (Fig. 5a). 70–60 Ma (Horton, 2018). In the Salta Rift Basins, the age of inversion of the rift and the onset of shortening is recorded by the transition from syn- 5.2. Summary of mountain building since 80 Ma rift (continental clastics of the Pirgua Subgroup) to post-rift (lacustrine ´ and continental Balbuena and Santa Barbara Subgroups) sequences This section is a description of the reconstruction shown in Fig. 5. For (Grier et al., 1991; Marquillas et al., 2005; Salfityand Marquillas, 1994). references to the original datasets, see Table 1. During the Campanian- This transition happened during the early Maastrichtian, i.e. at ~70 Ma Maastrichtian, most of the northwestern corner of South-America was

31 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640 still below sea level, and so were the domains east of the magmatic arc in a paleoelevation history similar to that of the Main Cordillera of the the north-central and central Andes (Eastern Cordillera, Altiplano-Puna, south-central Andes directly east of it, and its along-strike equivalent to and Subandes) as well as the Nuequ´en, San Jorge Gulf and Austral Basins the north in the central Andes. The largest dataset, which would be in the south (Fig. 5b, 66 Ma). Around the end of the Mesozoic, a tran­ expected to lead to an increase in certainty, is available for the central sition from marine to continental sediments is recorded in all the above- Andean Plateau region and includes for example 19 quantitative esti­ mentioned domains except for the northernmost part of the orogen. This mates for the Altiplano alone (Fig. 3). However, this relative wealth of transition coincided with the onset of uplift in the Western Cordillera data has generated perhaps more controversy than a well constrained and the western Puna Plateau (Fig. 3). Meanwhile, uplift in the northern reconstruction; see discussion below. Andes slowly migrated northwards. In the Paleocene-Eocene, the Temporally, reconstruction uncertainty generally increases back­ magmatic arc had migrated from the Coastal Cordillera/forearc region ward in geological time, meaning that for this reconstruction, the 80 Ma towards the Western (and in the north, Central) Cordillera, and topog­ time step would be expected to be the most uncertain. However, many raphy (~2000–4000 m) was still mostly centered around the magmatic domains have experienced marine conditions, which provides a very arc. In the southern Main Cordillera (western Patagonia), modern ele­ robust estimate of paleoelevation. For most domains, these marine vations were already reached (Fig. 5c, 55 Ma). During the latest Eocene- conditions occurred during the Cretaceous or Paleocene, meaning that Oligocene, deformation and uplift in the central Andes started migrating the reconstruction uncertainty increases progressively from 0 Ma towards the Eastern Cordillera, widening the orogen. Local basement backwards in time, but then decreases towards the marine phase at the highs were uplifted, similar in style to the modern Sierras Pampeanas back end of the reconstruction. For the domains containing marine (Fig. 5d, 34 Ma). In the northern Andes, continued northward migrating sediments, the total amount of uplift since flooding is constrained uplift reached the Perija Range and Santander Massif. During the early- perfectly, leaving the uncertainty to be primarily on the timing and thus mid Miocene, deformation and uplift continued in the eastern domains; rate, of uplift. For domains that have not been near of below sea level in the Eastern Cordillera, Merida´ Andes, Garzon Massif and eastern Puna during the last 80 Ma, the general uncertainty is larger, as the total Plateau of the north and central Andes, and Frontal and Main cordilleras amount of uplift is less well known. of the southern Andes (Figs. 3, 5e, 20 Ma). Furthermore, a marine transgression floodedthe San Jorge Gulf and Austral Basins once more. 6.2. Controversy surrounding the uplift history of the Central Andean In the central Subandean zone, short-lived marine conditions are Plateau region recorded for the mid-Miocene (Fig. 5f, 15 Ma). Finally, the latest Miocene-Pliocene-Quaternary is characterized by a rapid rise of the Since publication of the studies of Gregory-Wodzicki et al. (1998), Altiplano and a further eastwards migration of the deformational front, Garzione et al. (2006), and Ghosh et al. (2006), there is debate con­ uplifting the Garzon Massif, M´erida Andes, and Eastern Cordillera in the cerning the timing and rate of uplift of the central Andean Plateau re­ north, the Subandes and Santa Barbara ranges in the central Andes, and gion. Stable isotope paleoaltimetry and fossil leaf physiognomy data the Precordillera and Sierras Pampeanas in the south-central Andes from the Altiplano suggest a phase of very rapid 2.5 ± 1 km uplift be­ (Fig. 5g, 5 Ma). An animation of the reconstruction can be found in the tween ~10 and ~ 6 Ma (Garzione et al., 2006, 2008; Ghosh et al., 2006; Supplementary material. Gregory-Wodzicki et al., 1998; Gregory-Wodzicki, 2002; Quade et al., 2007). Garzione et al. (2006) suggested that such rapid uplift may have 6. Discussion been caused by the removal of dense lower crust and mantle lithosphere. This result has been challenged, primarily for two reasons. First, sig­ 6.1. Reconstruction uncertainty nificantshortening in the Altiplano region occurred prior to 10 Ma and the mechanism proposed to cause the rapid uplift, a gravitational loss of The reconstruction approach presented here has yielded a data- a dense lithospheric root, is at odds with low elevations and the asso­ informed reconstruction of mountain building in the Andes without ciated absence of thickened lithosphere around 10 Ma (Hartley et al., major spatial or temporal gaps. A key aspect of the approach is the di­ 2007; Sempere et al., 2006). Second, the initial paleoaltimetry studies vision of the Andes into 36 geomorphological domains, and recon­ did not take the effect of uplift-induced climate change into account, structing an independent history of surface uplift for each domain. The which may have led to an overestimation of the rapid rise of the Alti­ result of this approach is that there is little contradiction between input plano by up to several kilometers (Ehlers and Poulsen, 2009; Insel et al., datasets (except for the Central Andean WC; see discussion below). 2010, 2012). In addition to these two objections, several authors have Paleogeographic reconstructions are generally presented as best esti­ pointed out that the stable isotope paleoaltimetry data are from a single mate scenarios, without any information on uncertainty margins. The section in the Corque syncline, which is located in the hanging wall of reason for this is the multi-layered nature of these reconstructions and one of the many structures that were involved in the uplift of the Alti­ the wide variety of input datasets, which makes propagating the error plano, implying that this estimate of uplift may not be representative for margins and uncertainties of the underlying data highly challenging, if the entire Altiplano, let alone for the entire central Andes (Oncken et al., possible at all (van Hinsbergen and Boschman, 2019). Moreover, the 2006; Quade et al., 2015; Sempere et al., 2006). available paleoelevation estimates are both temporarily and spatially It is beyond the scope of this paper to resolve the controversy about not distributed equally, meaning that the paleoelevation history of some rate and timing of uplift of the Altiplano, the role of uplift-induced regions is less constrained, and requires more interpolation, compared climate change on isotope paleoaltimeters, and the potential driving to other regions. force of the uplift. However, the data compilation in this study shows In this study, despite the overall high quantity of paleoelevation that when considering that the central Andean Plateau region is a estimates, the least amount of data in a spatial sense is available for the complex region in which each domain underwent a different history of north-central and south-central regions (Ecuador and northern Peru, deformation and uplift, there is little reason for debate; estimates of and the region at the latitudes of the Sierras Pampeanas, Fig. 2), i.e. the paleoelevation and surface uplift per domain rarely contradict, and regions of transition between the northern, central, and southern Andes, differences between domains provide evidence for a high spatial het­ each of which has a clearly distinctive tectonic and paleoelevational erogeneity in uplift. Except for the WC, it is possible to reconstruct an history. For example, for the Coastal Cordillera of the south-central elevational history per domain that satisfies all (western and eastern Andes, one of the least data-rich domains, only two estimates of paleo­ Puna), or all but one (Altiplano), or three (EC) estimates (Fig. 3). The elevation were compiled, none of which is quantitative (high elevations biggest mismatch between datasets is found in the middle Miocene of during the Eocene – early Miocene, and deformation and uplift at 23–18 the WC, with estimates of paleoelevation of 1 ± 1.5 km (Munoz˜ and Ma (Giambiagi et al., 2016)). This domain is reconstructed by assuming Charrier, 1996), 0.2–2.2 km (Saylor and Horton, 2014), and ~1–2 km

32 L.M. Boschman Earth-Science Reviews 220 (2021) 103640

(Sundell et al., 2019) contradicting interpretations from Horton et al. Supplementary Data (2001), Quade et al. (2015) and Horton (2018) that the WC was of significantelevation since 70–60 Ma and at least 3 km high since the late Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. Eocene (Fig. 3). Sundell et al. (2019) demonstrated along-strike vari­ org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103640 ability in the timing of uplift in the WC, with the northwestern sector uplifting earlier (at modern elevations around 22 Ma) compared to the Data availability southeastern sector (1–2 km during the middle Miocene, at modern el­ evations around 10 Ma). In line with these results, the low-elevation All files required to generate this paleoelevation reconstruction (R- estimates of Munoz˜ and Charrier (1996) and Saylor and Horton script, input files, parameters) and the reconstruction results (raster (2014) are from rocks exposed along the eastern flankof the WC, which files)are available at Mendeley Data, V1, doi: 10.17632/h2w7pshz44.1. implies that this eastern flank may have been uplifted later than the main (western) range of the WC, coeval with mid-late Miocene uplift in Declaration of Competing Interest the Altiplano. In this study, I characterized the uplift history of the WC based on the early-mid Miocene high-elevation estimates of the western The authors declare that they have no known competing financial WC, but note that future work might include additional detail and het­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence erogeneity within the WC. At the latitude of the Puna Plateau, uplift the work reported in this paper. unmistakably migrated from west to east, with the main phase of uplift in the Western Cordillera occurring during the Cretaceous-Paleocene, in Acknowledgements the western part of the Puna Plateau during the Paleocene, in its eastern part during the early-mid Miocene, and in the Eastern Cordillera in the This work was supported by ETH Zurich postdoctoral fellowship 18-2 mid-late Miocene (Fig. 3, see also cross-sections in Quade et al. (2015)). FEL-52. I thank Jay Quade for his constructive review, Loïc Pellissier for Further north, at the latitude of the Altiplano, this trend is less clear, as discussions, and Anouk Beniest and Jorad de Vries for informal reviews the major phase of uplift of the Altiplano slightly postdates the uplift in on earlier versions of this manuscript. the EC. Despite the debate surrounding the reliability of paleoaltimetry data References from the Altiplano, I choose to develop the reconstruction by taking the ´ available data at face value. This approach, including not regarding the Aguilera, O., Lundberg, J., Birindelli, J., Perez, M.S., Jaramillo, C., Sanchez-Villagra, M. R., 2013. Palaeontological evidence for the last temporal occurrence of the ancient central Andean Plateau region as a single domain with a single uplift western Amazonian River outflow into the Caribbean. PLoS One 8 (9). history, yields a reconstruction that is consistent with the vast majority Aguirre-Urreta, B., Tunik, M., Naipauer, M., Pazos, P., Ottone, E., Fanning, M., ´ of the data. Accommodating the concerns about the reliability and Ramos, V., 2011. Malargüe Group (Maastrichtian–Danian) deposits in the Neuquen Andes, Argentina: implications for the onset of the firstAtlantic transgression related generalizability of the paleoaltimetry data of the Altiplano (primarily to Western Gondwana break-up. Gondwana Res. 19 (2), 482–494. from the Corque syncline) as described above, I provide a second Allmendinger, R.W., 1986. Tectonic development, southeastern border of the Puna reconstruction in which the uplift history of the Altiplano does not Plateau, northwestern Argentine Andes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 97 (9), 1070–1082. follow the estimates of Table 1, but instead follows the uplift curve of Allmendinger, R.W., Jordan, T.E., Kay, S.M., Isacks, B.L., 1997. The evolution of the Altiplano-Puna plateau of the Central Andes. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25 (1), Insel et al. (2012; the “slow and steady uplift” curve from their Fig. 7). 139–174. Alonso, R.N., Bookhagen, B., Carrapa, B., Coutand, I., Haschke, M., Hilley, G.E., 7. Future directions and conclusions Schoenbohm, L., Sobel, E.R., Strecker, M.R., Trauth, M.H., 2006. Tectonics, climate, and landscape evolution of the southern central Andes: the Argentine Puna Plateau and adjacent regions between 22 and 30 S. In: The Andes. Springer, pp. 265–283. The field of paleogeography is moving away from ‘expert-drawn’ Alpers, C.N., Brimhall, G.H., 1988. Middle Miocene climatic change in the Atacama maps, and towards an approach of more openness and transparency Desert, northern Chile: evidence from supergene mineralization at La Escondida. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 100 (10), 1640–1656. about both the methods and the input of reconstructions (e.g. Baatsen Amante, C., Eakins, B.W., 2009. ETOPO1 Arc-minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, et al., 2016). In particular, tools are being developed that allow re­ Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. searchers to adapt and update published reconstructions, as well as Amaya, S., Zuluaga, C.A., Bernet, M., 2017. New fission-track age constraints on the exhumation of the central Santander Massif: implications for the tectonic evolution develop their own (Ruiz et al., 2020; van der Linden et al., 2020). of the Northern Andes, Colombia. Lithos 282, 388–402. Similarly, the reconstruction methods presented in this study are not Amaya–Ferreira, S., Zuluaga, C., Bernet, M., 2020. Different levels of exhumation across ´ applicable to the Andes only, but can be used for any other orogen, as the Bucaramanga Fault in the Cepita area of the southwestern Santander Massif, Colombia: implications for the tectonic evolution of the northern Andes in long as a sufficient amount of data on paleoelevation is available. With northwestern South America. In: Gomez,´ J., Mateus–Zabala, D. (Eds.), The Geology ongoing data collection and progress in the field of paleoaltimetry, of Colombia, Volume 3 Paleogene - Neogene, vol. 37. Servicio Geologico´ despite the challenges especially in relatively small orogens (Botsyun Colombiano, Publicaciones Geologicas´ Especiales, Bogota,´ pp. 491–507. et al., 2020), this opens opportunities for the further integration of Earth Anderson, V.J., Saylor, J.E., Shanahan, T.M., Horton, B.K., 2015. Paleoelevation records from lipid biomarkers: application to the tropical Andes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 127 Sciences with paleoclimate modelling, phylogenetic analyses (e.g. (11–12), 1604–1616. Rodríguez-Munoz˜ et al., 2020), biodiversity modelling (Hagen et al., Anderson, V.J., Horton, B.K., Saylor, J.E., Mora, A., Teson,´ E., Breecker, D.O., 2020), etc. Ketcham, R.A., 2016. Andean topographic growth and basement uplift in southern Colombia: implications for the evolution of the Magdalena, Orinoco, and Amazon In this study, I (a) compiled and presented a database of available river systems. Geosphere 12 (4), 1235–1256. estimates of paleoelevation of the Andes, to be consulted and used by Arriagada, C., Cobbold, P.R., Roperch, P., 2006. Salar de Atacama basin: a record of future studies; (b) provided insight into the developed method of pale­ compressional tectonics in the central Andes since the mid-Cretaceous. Tectonics 25 (1). oelevation reconstruction by providing the input data, reconstruction Aspden, J., McCourt, W., Brook, M., 1987. Geometrical control of subduction-related parameters, and R-scripts, thereby allowing others to modify and update magmatism: the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonic history of Western Colombia. this reconstruction in the future, and (c) made the reconstruction J. Geol. Soc. 144 (6), 893–905. Ayala, R., Bayona, G., Cardona, A., Ojeda, C., Montenegro, O., Montes, C., Valencia, V., available as a series of raster files, so that it can be used as input for a Jaramillo, C., 2012. The paleogene synorogenic succession in the northwestern large variety of studies in the solid Earth, climate, and biological sci­ Maracaibo block: tracking intraplate uplifts and changes in sediment delivery ences, thereby being a stepping stone on the path towards a better un­ systems. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 39, 93–111. Baatsen, M., Van Hinsbergen, D.J., Heydt, A.S., Dijkstra, H.A., Sluijs, A., Abels, H.A., derstanding of the coevolution of the solid Earth, landscapes, climate, Bijl, P.K., 2016. Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate and life in South America. modelling during the Cenozoic. Clim. Past 12 (8), 1635–1644.

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