Critical Comments on the Find Complex of the So-Called Nebra Sky Disk

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Early View: Quotable online version with preliminary pagination. After the printed volume has appeared you can find this article with its final pagination as open access publication there: http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/archCritical-inf comments The printed volume on the will find be available complex there: of http://www.archaeologische-informationen.de the so-called Nebra Sky Disk .

Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

Abstract – The “Nebra Sky Disk” was reportedly discovered in 1999 as part of a hoard during an illegal excavation. In elaborate and long-lasting investigations an attempt was made to verify both the reported site location and the affiliation of the objects independently from the information given by the finders. Yet, a critical examination of the published results by the authors does not allow the conclusion that the site investigated in a re-excavation is correct, nor that the ensemble itself fulfils the criteria of a closed find (hoard). On the contrary, according to the excavation findings the ensemble could not have beenin situ at the site named. The scientific examination of the objects contradicts rather than confirm their belonging together. If the disk is considered – as required by these facts – as a single object, it cannot be integrated into the Early Bronze Age motif world. Instead, a chronological embedment in the first millennium BC seems most likely. On the basis of this overall assessment, all further conclusions and interpretations of the cultural context and the meaning of the Nebra disk that have been made so far will have to be subjected to a critical discussion.

Key words – archaeology; sky disk; star disk; Nebra; hoard; Bronze Age; Pre-Roman Iron Age; Celts; eastern alpine copper; lead isotopes; tin isotopes

Titel – Kritische Anmerkungen zum Fundkomplex der sog. Himmelsscheibe von Nebra

Zusammenfassung – Die „Himmelsscheibe von Nebra“ wurde 1999 angeblich als Bestandteil eines Hortfundes bei Raubgrabungen entdeckt. In aufwändigen und langjährigen Untersuchungen wurde versucht, sowohl die Zuweisung des angeblichen Fundortes als auch die Zusammengehörigkeit der Objekte unabhängig von den Angaben der Finder zu verifizieren. Eine kritische Betrachtung der publizierten Ergebnisse durch die Autoren lässt derzeit weder den Schluss zu, dass die in einer Nachgrabung untersuchte Fundstelle zutreffend wäre, noch dass das Ensemble selbst die Kriterien eines geschlossenen Fundes erfüllt. Vielmehr kann sich das Ensemble nach dem Grabungs- befund an der Fundstelle dort nicht in situ befunden haben. Die naturwissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen an den Objekten widersprechen eher einer Zusammengehörigkeit als dass sie eine solche bestätigen. Betrachtet man die Scheibe – wie dann geboten – als Einzelobjekt, lässt sie sich nicht in die frühbronzezeitliche Motivwelt einfügen, eine zeitliche Einordnung in das erste Jahrtausend v. Chr. erscheint am ehesten wahrscheinlich. Auf Grundlage dieser Gesamteinschätzung müssen sich alle bisherigen weiterführenden kulturgeschichtlichen Schlussfolgerungen und Interpretationen einer künftigen kritischen Diskussion stellen.

Schlagworte – Archäologie; Himmelsscheibe; Sternenscheibe; Nebra; Hortfund; Bronzezeit; Vorrömische Eisenzeit; Kelten; Ostalpines Kupfer; Bleiisotope; Zinnisotope

Anmerkung: Eine identische Fassung des Texts in deutscher Sprache finden Sie unter https://www.dguf.de/fileadmin/AI/ArchInf-EV_Gebhard_Krause_d.pdf

Introduction underlying sources were published only insuffi- ciently or not at all. Our following article cannot The so-called Sky Disk of Nebra (originally Klein- solve this particular deficit. However, irrespec- wangen, Unstrut Valley, Burgenland dist.) was tive of the publication situation it is indeed possi- already the subject of two controversial articles ble, above all on the basis of sources that are more in the Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt. An difficult to access, to take up anew and to explain essay by P. Schauer, who in 2005 regarded the the discussion about the location of the finds and object as a fake (Schauer, 2005), was countered in their direct association, a discussion which since 2008 by a reply from the working group of E. Per- 2008 has been regarded as concluded. nicka and H. Meller as a summary of all research results, with the conclusion that “The Nebra Sky Disk may be regarded as one of the best investigated Once again to the history and location of the archaeological finds in Germany” (Pernicka et al., find 2008, 346). “The participation of scientists from the different most disciplines in connection with criminal The Nebra Sky Disk came into the hands of ar- investigations taking all aspects into account resulted chaeologists only after a lapse of ca. four years af- in a complete network of indications for the authen- ter its discovery. The history of its discovery was ticity not only of the Nebra Sky Disk, but also for reconstructed according to information supplied the affiliation of the accompanying finds and for the by the first buyer and the finders of the object as unequivocal identification of the site...“. This article well as to observations of traces of damage on the concludes with a tabular overview, which weighs disc. At the same time, prior to the initial contact various arguments for the authenticity of the find with the finders, an excavation was carried out at complex. In the following years, however, the one of the places designated by the first buyer as

Received: 6 June 2020 Archäologische Informationen 43, Early View accepted: 12 Aug 2020 CC BY 4.0

published online: 3 Sept 2020 1 Weitere Aufsätze Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

a b

c d e

Fig. 1 Illustration of the damage to the disk caused by the illicit diggings. a) Interpretation by H. Meller (2004a, Fig. p. 22; 2010 Fig. 5). b) Direction of impact is recognisable in the traces of damage on the front side of the plate. The blue line corresponds to the position towards the ground surface, according to by Meller; the green line derives from the traces of damage. c) Condition assessed after salvage; alignment of the disk according to description of location (Meller, 2010, Fig. 12). d) Redrawing after conservation (Breuer, 2010, Fig. 3). e) Condition of the disk before its delivery to the Landesmuseum Halle (Photo H. Burri-Bayer). See also Fig. 9.

the discovery site, the Mittelberg. Although only cognised properly. Because there was such a strong layer remains of an Iron Age fortification are present on of dirt – certainly two millimetres thick – on it. Really the Mittelberg, no indications of any activity on or strongly encrusted“.2 In this crust the damages incur- use of the mountain during the 2nd millennium BC red by the digging tool are clearly visible as darker were detected.1 stripes. They are slightly curved due to the type and application of the tool. In his reconstruction of Original traces of diggings and damage to the disk the discovery H. Meller assumes that the severe da- during its retrieval mage to the edge was at the top and, thus, he aligns The disk was thickly encrusted with sediment the disk accordingly (Fig. 1a). And precisely this when it was found (Fig. 9). The finder described determined position was maintained for all future the condition as follows: „the green could not be re- illustrations of the object.3 However, considering

2 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

a b

c d

Fig. 2 Excavation of a looters’ pit on the Mittelberg near Nebra. Documents for presentation at the court hearing (estate expert opinion Josef Riederer, Archiv Archäologische Staatssammlung Munich). a) Investigation area excavated in the first planum. At the cut edge the approx. 15 cm thick humus layer is recognizable. b) Planum detail. The looters’ pit is clearly demarcated as a limited disturbed zone within a find context. c) Representation of the recent surface above the find. d) Projection of the sky disk into the deepest point of the find context without consideration of the supportive humus, in which according to the finders the upper part of the disk was located.

the traces left by the tool on the surface of the disk according to his statements) and thereby pulled the gold (Fig. 1c), this reconstructed position is not possi- sheet part diagonally upwards. In response to my ques ble, because the traces on the left half of the object tion, the „finders“ explained that they were sure that could only have been created from a position far the sun and thus the detached horizon had lain on top. below the ground surface. If the traces of damage They did not find any traces of the missing horizon. It are aligned so that they were created from above was already lost. The present damage to the edge was and from both sides at an equal distance from the on the side. They explain this damage as having been ground surface, the disc’s position upon discovery caused by a tree-plough during planting or similar ac- would have to be reconstructed in such a way that tions. When they removed the disk, the one gold star fell the missing horizon arc would be at the top and off.“4 This statement is completely consistent with the strong traces of damage on the sides (Fig. 1c). the traces of damage on the disc. In particular, it This was also the position that the finders put on should be pointed out that the traces of damage on record in 2003. The reason for their statement was the edges were still covered with sediment after the their hope that their cooperation would mitigate a disk’s discovery (Fig. 9 above). An autopsy in 2005 reduced sentence in the ongoing trial: „With regard revealed that this part was secondarily corroded.5 to the technique of excavation, Mr. Westphal said that That is, the damages to the disk had been caused, he had damaged only the „sun“. Upon the discovery he on the one hand, by the discovery of the object and, had hit the sun with his hoe (the „sun“ was at the top, on the other hand, by an unknown earlier event.

3 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

It is possible that the horizon arc was lost during would be dated as „recent“, like the surrounding that particular event. The state of publication, ho- soil layer. The second possibility, however, could wever, does not allow a conclusive clarification of be that the disk was in a secondary position upon this question, since the illustrations of the restored its discovery. During the court hearings Josef Rie- disk do not provide sufficient information: only a derer already pointed out that if the disk had been faint formation of patina can be recognised in parts lying partly in humus and partly in completely dif- of the horizon arc.6 ferent soil, then corresponding differences in the In their testimonies the two finders made a se- patina should be apparent. On the contrary, the cond noteworthy statement, which had not been evenly thick encrustation of the disk indicates its taken into account in previous interpretations. In original location in a uniform soil layer.11 their first statement about the find it was record H. Meller was knowledgeable of the near-sur- ed:7 „Both declared that they had carefully uncovered face position of the disk since August 26, 2003. This the find, which lay about 3-5 cm below the ground sur- position has a key function with regard to both the face, with their hands“. This near-surface location of identification of the site as well as the unity of the the disk is further confirmed in the same protocol entire find complex. The subsequent interrogations by the object’s rapid exposure: „Mr. Westphal heard of the finders and the scientific investigations must a signal and then began digging up the find, believing always be seen against the background of this ini- that the disk itself was the lid of a bucket, for iron bucket tial situation. During the second court hearing on lids had often been found. Mr. Renner, who stood below the Nebra Sky Disc, the statements of the two find the slope and therefore had a better view of the find, by ers developed into opposite directions.12 Whereas then already uncovered a few centimetres, was of the the participant M. Renner described both the place opinion that it was made of another material and helped of discovery and the composition of the hoard as Mr. Westphal to „dig up“ the find.” being made up of different finds,13 in his rendition The position of the disk near the ground sur- H. Westphal developed the history of the disc’s dis- face was always emphasized by the finders, lastly covery even further. Here the influence on West- also in a testimony by Westphal in court on June phal of suggestive questions by archaeologists 3, 2005: „The disk stood vertically in the ground. The involved is clearly discernible,14 while at the same upper edge 3-5 cm below the ground. Above it was time the contradictions that arise in the details cast only little foliage.“8 In the year 2002 an illegal loot doubt upon the credibility of the story.15 The signi- ers’ pit on the Mittelberg, located inside the Old ficance of this problem is demonstrated by the fact Iron Age fortification complex was investigated. that in the course of the second hearing an attempt According to the first buyer of the disk, it was the was made to dispel the resulting confusion in court, site where the disk had been discovered. Indivi- which had arisen through two very different ac- dual details about the excavation can be found in counts of the find’s discovery and through the large various places; a final excavation report has not number of assessments – according to H. Meller, 22 been published so far.9 Therefore, in the following scientific expertise reports.16 reference must first be made to those documents that were used as illustrative material for the public hearings.10 Scientific investigations on soil samples The looters’ pit appears as a clear disturbance within a find complex Fig.( 2a-b). Both views re- As is the case with the documentation of the finds, present the condition of the first planum, which is currently there is still a great deficit in the publi- already approx. 15 cm below the ground surface. cation of the expertise assessments. The publica- To illustrate this, Fig. 2c shows schematically the tion of results of the expert investigations on the ‘recent’ earth surface that was removed. The verti- soil samples that were announced in the Archäolo- cal projection of the sky disk was not 3-5 cm below gisches Korrespondenzblatt in 2008 did not occur to the ground surface, as would correspond to the date. The soil assessments17 carried out by J. Adam, finders’ description, but – to demonstrate that the G. Borg and E. Pernicka and mentioned in court disk fit into the pit – at the deepest point of the find are available to the public through the documents complex. If the repeated assertion of the finders of J. Riederer and can be evaluated accordingly. In is followed, namely that the disk was discovered accordance with Riederer‘s assessments presented near the surface, then only one conclusion can be in court, it can be ascertained that the expert opin drawn from this excavation situation: one-third ions are neither suited for providing evidence for of the disk was embedded in a recent layer of soil. the authenticity of the find site, nor, as claimed, the Assuming that this location is authentic, the disk archaeological unity of the ensemble of finds.18 This

4 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk particular result was and still is perceived very di- Scientific investigations on the objects versely. In 2005 the court already went along with this assessment and formulated: “The Chamber as- Since it cannot be proven that the finds belong to- sumes, in accordance with the defence‘s request, that gether on the basis of the earth adhesions on the the soil adhesions on the disk do not prove beyond doubt objects, the results of the analyses of the metals that the disk actually originates from the Mittelberg“. gain a certain significance. They indicate at least Nonetheless the analyses remained the central ele- one tendency, namely, whether they are indica- ment in Meller‘s argumentation: „It is relevant that tive of a uniform material source, or they are very we can prove scientifically, basing on the soil adhesions, diverse. The results of the bronze analyses were that the swords, the sky disk and the accompanying published by Nickel & Pernicka (2003)22 and by finds belong together. And that all this fits perfectly Pernicka (2008; 2010). Thereby, the lead isotope with the Mittelberg.“ What is indeed remarkable analysis best identifies the underlying metal. Per- thereby is that the assessment by J. Adam, which nicka points out that the trace-element patterns is also central to the argumentation, already deter- are similar, whereas the lead isotopes are different. mined that in one case an object was not affiliated He concludes that the ore is from an East Alpine with the finds. In comparison with a soil sample deposit. The differences between the lead isotopes from the looters’ pit (VM 1), Adam examined three are interpreted to mean that lead isotopes can also samples of soil adhesions on the objects: Sp 1 (0.113 occur within deposits, e.g. Rudna Glava (Serbia) g from the disc), Sp 2 (0.217 g from the tip of the or the Erzgebirge.23 Further, a very different origin sword II), Sp 3 (0.049 g from the cutting edge of the of the objects could be responsible for these differ axe HK 2002:1649C). In the last sample, he found ences. In recent years, extensive analysis projects that „compared to VM1, Sp1 and SP2, some deviations have succeeded in sharpening the focus on the such as the finer grain formation, the absence of phyllite, main sources of raw copper. According to the re- lower proportions of phyllites, increased contents of gar- sults of the work groups of J. Lutz, Th. Stöllner and net and anatase can be explained not only by the small E. Pernicka, an ascription is made to the so-called amount of test material (0.049 grams). These results „Mitterberg copper“ results.24 Unfortunately, these point rather to a neighbouring find site, or at least to a results cannot be used for the immediate evalua deposition in other soil layers than those of the sky disk tion of the finds from Nebra, neither concerning and the sword“. the question of the production region of the objects In court Adam explained this information nor their dating. This problem is dealt with again once again, stating that the soil adhesions on below with regard to the question of archaeolo- the axe „were completely different, not affiliated“.19 gical interpretation. Due to the high productivity Hence, on the basis of this statement, one of the of this particular mining district, the Mitterberg axes must be excluded from the alleged find com- copper became the standard copper in use, main- plex.20 Consequently, all statements concerning a ly from the 17th/16th to the 13th/12th centuries, in possible underlying „hoard pattern“,21 basing on a large area between eastern Central Europe and the pairwise occurrence of swords, axes and arm Southern and Central Germany. Moreover, mining spirals, do not apply. In addition, it should be re- was still carried out in this district during the Late called that the completely different patina on the Bronze Age and in the 1st millennium BC.25 This flanged chisel points against the affiliation of this fundamental classification of the copper analyses object with the other finds. Yet, already the recog can neither clarify the question of the archaeologi- nition that one of the two axes cannot belong to cal unity of the find nor its provenance. the ensemble raises doubts about the history of Nonetheless, some details should be pointed the find’s discovery, as provided by the finder H. out here, which should be discussed in future in- Westphal in 2005 and classified as credible. It is vestigations. The data used were first published used as an essential argument for the affiliation by D. Nickel in 2003. What is striking here is a of the objects. This stands in contrast to the state- significantly increased zinc value in the disk (Zn ment made by M. Renner, who was also involved content according to RFA: 0.1–0.2 %; Zn content in the discovery. The fact that numerous contra- according to NAA 767 ppm). This increase stands dictions can be found in Westphal‘s history(s) un- as a first deviation from the other findings (Zn con- derlines the necessity of a critical attitude towards tent NAA mean value 35 ppm)26 and should be these statements. discussed in future investigations. It is interesting to take a closer look at the lead isotope analyses, which also show a clear deviation in the metal of the disk (Table 1). In the work by Nickel, the

5 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

Table 1 Lead isotope values of bronze objects from the Nebra find complex after Nickel (2003).

6 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

a d

b c

Fig. 3 Presentation of the lead isotope values of objects from the find complex Nebra. a) after Pernicka et. al., 2008. b) + c) after Nickel, 2003; d) dendrogram plot of a hierarchical clustering (average linkage) of the data in Table 1 (Nickel, 2003).

corrected mean values are given for the sky disc, The dendrogram of a hierarchical cluster analysis for the sample taken from the solid metal (sample (Average Linkage, Squared-Euclidian distances, FG-020984), which differ distinctly from the later n=17)27 for the three lead isotopes shown in Table publication by Pernicka (Fig. 3 a, b). Instead of des 1: 208Pb/206Pb, 207Pb/206Pb und 206Pb/204Pb ignating a sample by name, only the term „mean (according to Nickel, 2003) underscores the find value“ is used, without further explanation of how contexts in the scatter diagrams and displays two this is decided. There is no doubt, of course, that distinctly separate groups (Fig. 3d): (a) No. 3, 4 and the originally published values are correct, es- 14; (b) No. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16 and pecially since the analysed sample was obtained 17.28 The sky disk (No. 1) is very dissimilar to both from the non-corroded metal. Looking at the first of these groups. This picture also emerges when publication, then the clear difference between the alternatively other reliable cluster procedures, disk and the other objects is quite remarkable. Yet such as the Centroid Method or Ward’s Method, far more of note is that there is no recognisable are applied to the analysis data, thus substantia- connection with the other finds. The two scatter ting the stability of the group formation illustrated diagrams of the lead isotopes clearly show the ex- here (see e.g. Hair et al., 2010, 483-519; Legendre ceptional position of the Nebra disk (Fig. 3 b-c). & Legendre, 2012, 337-371).29 An association with

7 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

Fig. 4 Presentation of the tin isotope values of objects from Apa, Nebra and Denmark; 1) sky disk of Nebra, 2) chisels from the find complex in Nebra (after Brügmann et al., 2018, Fig. 2).

the other finds cannot be recognised. It is also note belong together. Likewise, there are no indica- worthy, however, that included among the three tions for dating. If one compares, for example, analyses with the lowest lead isotope values are the analytical values of Nebra with the Pb isoto- the aforementioned flanged axe I (2002:1649c), pe data of the bar-hoard from Oberding,32 i.e. a the chisel (2002:1649b) and an unidentifiable rivet typical Early Bronze Age hoard of raw copper, it (2002:1649ag) (Fig. 3a; Table 1). can be seen that the copper of the Nebra disk dif- In addition to the lead isotopes, the use of tin iso- fers in its concentrations from the variety of Early topes seems to supply an initial indication for ascri- Bronze Age copper in trade (Fig. 5). bing the alloying component tin to the tin deposits In addition to the copper, attempts were also in Cornwall.30 An extended study of artefacts was made to typify the gold contents in terms of pro- published in 2018.31 The tin isotopes of Apa swords venance and dating.33 The possible tendency of an are characteristically negatively correlated with the origin from Cornwall would be tempting from an lead isotopes. The analysis values of the swords archaeological point of view, considering the rich from the „hoard“ of Nebra just like other Bronze Early Bronze Age finds made there. However, this Age finds from the vicinity of the Apa swords, es- thought must be viewed critically.34 And since the pecially the swords of this eponymous hoard, show gold mining in the region is not limited to speci- good agreement (Fig. 4). In spite of the low total fic epochs, these investigations do not answer the number of samples, there is a tendency that a lar- questions posed here in the beginning. ger number of samples will be able to distinguish further groups. With regard to the investigation of lead isotopes, both the sky disk and the chisel are Archaeological and astronomical clearly out of place in this series of analyses. interpretations These brief references to the results of the bronze analyses show above all that they do not The origin of interpretations of the disk and the indicate that the disk and the accompanying finds accompanying finds was marked by a rapid pop

8 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

Fig. 5 Presentation of the lead isotope values of objects from the find complex Nebra.After Nickel (2003) and Pernicka (2017). ular presentation, whereas the underlying scien misinterpretations, some of which still hold to- tific analyses and publications took place later. day.37 Obvious errors in the first publication, such Deficits in publications – for example, the publi- as the hasty interpretation of an original deposi- cation of all finds in catalogue form was never tion of the finds in a stone box, were revised. Of carried out – makes critical analysis and evalua- the many aspects about the Nebra disc, only the tion of the objects difficult until today. The first interpretation concerning the change in its decor determinations about the affiliation and dating of ation is presented here. The first publication on the finds were already made in 2001, basing upon the production phases of the disk appeared in the photographs that were known at that time, 2004 in the catalogue of the exhibition „The Forged but without an archaeologist having seen the ori- Sky“.38 Theories on the history of religion already ginals beforehand.35 This was already apparent proposed there were presented in detail in 2010, a in 1999, when photographs of the finds were first summary of which is shown here in Fig. 6. There made known by Prof. W. Menghin, Director of by, the postulated period of the use of the disk the Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Ber- appears to play a central role, serving foremost to lin.36 The only person who was actually acquain- establish a reference to known Early Bronze Age ted with the original finds at that time was an art social structures, in particular to the formative dealer, who had directly sent his assessments to phases of a central „elite“. Since no corresponding the Berlin Museum. The decisive factor for this structures are known in the region of the discove- contact was surely that the art dealer had sold the ry of the Nebra disk during the period of its de- so-called „Berlin Gold Hat“ to the museum a few position, as suggested by the accompanying finds years before, and, thus, wished to offer an object (around 1600 BC/16th century BC), the earliest with the potential interpretation of being an as- plausible time of origin seems to be „the beginning tronomical calendar. of the 2nd millennium, the time of the Central German The succession in which the initially rough es- so-called ‘princely graves’. It was in this epoch that for timation was followed by a broadly popular pre- the first time technical and social conditions existed, sentation, while an exact scientific analysis was which enabled the production of a complex piece of undertaken only in a second step, led to various work like the sky disc. The maximum length of use-life

9 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

The initial image on the Sky Disc was crafted by inla- ying gold in the lustrous surface of the disc. It consisted of 32 stars, a crescent moon, and the full moon/sun, and is at first glance a deceptively simple composition. The stars are evenly distributed over the disc to represent the firmament. A cluster of seven stars which represent the Pleiades are the exception. These were already known in antiquity as calendar stars. They dis- appear on 10 March each year and re-emerge on 17 October, making it possible to calibrate the solar year. The Sky Disc fell into new hands and the original image was altered. Its new owners removed two stars and displaced another, while placing two horizon arcs on opposite edges of the disc. The size of the two arcs corresponds to the 82.5° of the horizon traversed by the sun between the summer and winter solstices. The slight shift of the arcs towards the top of the disc allows us to identify the upper rim as north and the lower as south. Thus, the crescent lies in the west, and the firmament is shown as if one was looking upwards, as in modern star maps. All of this points to the existence of the concept of the heaven as a hemispherical dome more than a millennium before Thales of Miletus. A feathered sky ship is fitted to the lower rim of the Disc. Such ships appeared as a religious symbol in the Scan- dinavian Bronze Age around 1600 BC. Its appearance on the Disc alludes to a new mythology which envisa- ged a boat transporting the sun by day and night. This iconographic shift indicates a radical change in the role of the Disc. It stopped being the bearer of knowledge and instead became an emblem of a new religion. It may be that the Sky Disc was now viewed by a larger public, but the owner who transformed its iconography must have belonged to the ruling elite.

The entire rim of the Disc was crudely perforated, da- maging both the boat and the horizon arcs. The perforations were used to mount the Disc on an organic back ing, possibly a standard, partially covering the motifs at the edge of the Disc, thus making them unreadable. The new religion had failed, and the Disc now served simply as a solar disc, a motif known in the whole of Bronze Age central Europe. It is probable that like the standards shown on Bronze Age Scandinavian rock art the sun disc standard was paraded in public.

In a final ceremonial act, the Disc was irrevocably removed from circulation and deposited in the earth on the summit of the Mittelberg hill. During this process the left horizon arc was ripped off making the Disc unusable. The precious double weapon assemblage which accompanied the Disc is a typical feature of lo- cal princely tombs. Thus, the Sky Disc represents the absent body of its last princely owner.

Fig. 6 The five phases of development of the Sky Disc imagery, as published in: Meller, H. (2013). The Sky Disc of Nebra. In H. Fokkens & A. Harding (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age. (p. 266–269, fig. 14.A2). Oxford: Oxford University Press: “Three types of gold were used for the inlays of the Disc. The horizon arcs and the displaced star (phase II) as well as the boat (phase III) were made of a different type of gold than the original sun, moon, and stars. The perforation of the Disc’s rim damaged the earlier inlays. The ‘eastern’ arc was probably torn off as part of the deposition ritual (phase V). © Landesamt für Denkmalpflege and Archäologie, Sachsen-Anhalt.” The description of the five phases within the figure above is an exact citation from fig. 14:A2 in this article. The description of phase I is further explained as: “A far more signiﬁcant event was probably the conjunction between their springtime disappearance and the 4.5 day-old crescent moon shown on the Disc. If this happened, the specialists who maintained the type of luni-solar calendar that was then current in the Near East inserted a leap month in order to adjust the shorter lunar to the longer solar year. Moreover, if the course of the moon runs above the Pleiades rather than, as usual, below, a lunar eclipse could be predicted in eight days time, something of no inconsiderable value for prehistoric people. The 32 stars probably stand for the 32 days which elapsed from the ﬁrst light of the previous month and the conjunction of Pleiades and crescent moon. The sophistication necessary to design and understand the Disc’s initial imagery was the result of widespread commercial and ideological contacts, and the emergence of a central European elite at the beginning of the Bronze Age. The patron who commissioned the Disc, and those who understood its meaning, must have belonged to the topmost group of this elite, who were buried in ostentatious barrows such as those in nearby Leubingen and Helmsdorf. The East Alpine copper used to make the Disc became available in the mid-eighteenth century BC, thus indicating the earliest period during which the Disc could have been created.”

10 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk would therefore have been ca. 400 years, the minimum BC into the Early Iron Age.45 There is a lack of com- length – ca. 100 years.“39 The 100 years are postulat parable studies on the younger Iron Age. Due to ed in view of the time during which the accom the many hundreds of years of exploitation of the panying finds were in circulation. same copper deposits, it is not possible to deduce a In 2010 the first phase of the disk was dated dating of the artefacts from the geochemical com- to the beginning of copper mining in the Mitter- position of the copper. berg region (Gem. St. Johann im Pongau, Land Returning to the history of the object, the Salzburg), „because according to Pernicka‘s analyses changes could have been made by the same the copper of the sky disk originates from the Mitter- craftsman within only a short time or a few years. berg“.40 Thereby, an older age of origin was kept One could argue that all changes were made em- as a possibility: „According to these considerations, ploying the same technique. This would be equally the beginning of the development of the Mitterberg possible, but just as little to be necessarily expected. copper and, thus, the production of the sky disk would The example of the history of the Nebra Sky have to be dated at the earliest to the 18th century BC, Disk reveals an underlying dilemma. Its postula- i.e. between 1750 and 1700 BC, whereby – as already ted astronomical interpretation46 always raises the noted – an earlier beginning of mining cannot be ruled question of the social, cultural and scientific -en out, in view of the methodical procedure and the cur- vironment of the time, a setting that must meet a rent state of research“.41 correspondingly high standard. Since such struc- However, an „indirect“ dating approach of the tures are lacking for the time of its potential de- disk through metal analysis should be criticized position, they must be reconstructed by means of methodically for two reasons. Firstly, as stated long dating ranges, etc. in such a way that they can above, there are doubts as to whether the copper be used as a basis for recreating an astronomical of the accompanying finds and the disk can be environment. This idea is already included in the attributed to the same ore source. Progress can first exhibition catalogue (Meller, 2004b), entitled perhaps be made here through in-depth studies. „The Body of the King“. Therein Meller alludes to the Basically, analyses of this so-called East Alpine princely tomb of Leubingen (ca. 1942 ± 10 BC) with copper indicate, however, that it will be hardly regard to the similar decoration pattern: „In Nebra, possible to achieve detailed results here. The desig the sky disk takes the place of the corpse with his golden nation “East Alpine copper” derives from Richard costume. Princely graves are not documented for the Pittioni‘s work group,42 and summarises the many time around 1600 BC. Assuming the structural simila- types of fahlerz copper, which contain lower rity of the finds from Nebra and Leubingen, one comes amounts of the trace elements nickel (Ni), arsenic to the conclusion that the hoard must be regarded as a (As) and antimony (Sb). Depending on the pro- continuation of the princely tombs“.47 portion or concentration of trace elements, which From an archaeological point of view, this can vary slightly in an order of magnitude, diffe- construct would be a singular example for which rent groups or variants can be identified which re- no comparisons could be made. The pattern of present a large part of the Stuttgart database43 and funerary furnishings would not be appropriate are difficult to classify chronologically, especially either, since at this high social level the appropriate the Early Bronze Age. Depending on how the limit equipment, a specially made ensemble of corres values for the individual elements are selected pondingly outstanding quality, would certainly for a search run in this database, quite different have been available. Here the two different axes, groups can be generated. Furthermore, consi- one of which is conspicuous owing to the severe dering the map images of its distribution on the damage to the cutting edge already in antiquity, basis of the great variability of this copper,44 one and the single chisel (without any other „metal- should become aware of the wide distribution of lurgical equipment“) seem just as randomly chosen the groups of the so-called East Alpine copper bet- as the arm spirals, which as a pair in a grave find ween southern France and the Carpathian Basin in would rather be indicative of the burial of a female. the South and southern Scandinavia in the North. The preceding considerations have concentra- The problems related to this wide geographical ted foremost on the archaeological association of dispersion lead to the second point, the length of the entire find ensemble and come to the result use-life of these alpine ore deposits. An estimation that the existence of a “closed find” in the sense of for the Mitterberg area shows that following the in- Oskar Montelius can hardly be proven. On this itial phase (19th/18th-16th century BC), mining flour basis, the disk would have to be evaluated and ished there during the 15th–13th centuries BC, but considered as an individual find. As a category also mining clearly continued from the 12th century of objects, similar large bronze discs are attes

11 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

a b

d e f g

Fig. 7 a)-b) Gold bowl from Zurich Altstetten (photo Swiss National Museum Zurich); c) Motifs on the sword of Allach-Untermenzing, 5th century (Gebhard & Krause, 2016 Fig. 4); d) Celtic gold coin of the 2nd century BC. Sontheim, dist. Unterallgäu (State Archaeological Collection MK-K3273); e) Neuses, quinarius (State Archaeological Collection MK-K 1277); f) Neuses, quinarius (State Archaeological Collection MK-K 1245); g) Albstadt, rainbow cup (State Archaeological Collection MK-K 1422 d). ted predominantly in the field of ethnology, for schendorf (Gem. Neckenmarkt, Bez. Oberpullen- example in Siberia as so-called “shaman mirrors” dorf, Burgenland) can be named as comparable, (also with perforations at the edges) or as parts possibly musical, instruments in the archaeologi- of metal drums (kettle gongs). The two objects of cal collection.48 This simple basic form, however, Balkåkra (Gem. Ystads, Skåne, Sweden) and Ha- does not suffice to make a valid argument here.

12 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

Thus, in the omission of a possible classification One of the oldest examples of the motif „sun/ by means of metal composition analyses, only the full moon and moon“ to name here, is that on the iconography remains as an evaluative criterion Late Bronze Age bowl from Zurich Altstetten for culture-historical classification. The common (Fig. 7 a–b). In this context the knob decoration on interpretation is that the representation on the the surface can be interpreted as a „starry sky“. Also disk would reflect complicated astronomical phe- noteworthy are the „sun/full moon and moon“ motifs nomena. Their understanding is based on the exi- and the single arcs on the bottom of the bowl. stence of a social structure that formed a kind of The short sword from Allach, pointed out here „kingdom“ (Meller & Michel, 2018). as an example for the entire category, shows – The astronomical interpretation of the disk was aside from the identical pictorial program of „sun/ convincingly contradicted from different sides full moon, crescent moon and stars“ on the reverse with good arguments. Since 2007, Emília Pásztor side – also the element of a flat arc emphasized at and Curt Roslund have been able to show that the both ends (Fig. 7c).55 The wide opening and flat „stars“ depicted on the disk are evenly distribu curvature of this arc – referred to in the following ted and do not represent a concrete image of the as „celestial arc“ – eliminate it as being the con- sky.49 Compared with ethnographic examples, the crete representation of a „torque“.56 The complex authors emphasize an underlying mythological, symbolism, which itself deserves an individu- shamanistic world of thought, indeed, almost the al study in view of the numerous attestations of opposite of a concrete astronomical interpretation. these motifs, above all on Celtic coins, will be Iconographically, the type of representation briefly sketched in the following. Thereby, the „Sun, Moon and Stars“ is plenteously attested question must also be posed as to whether the throughout time, from antiquity to modern times. ambiguity of the motif [sun/full moon] can al- Especially in the Middle Ages there are some very ways be clarified in individual cases. The depict similar representations, which show the sun and ion together with stars and crescent moon render the moon as the divine celestial bodies.50 In anti- probable, at least in the case of the sword from quity they were the symbols of power of Roman Allach, that rather the representation of nocturnal emperors; in the Middle Ages they underline in events is meant. this tradition the dominion of Christ over the The connections become clearer when consider cosmos by day and by night.51 At first glance, the ing the images on Celtic coins of the second and depictions seem astonishingly similar to the disk first century BC. On the small “rainbow cups” of Nebra. One difference, however, can be seen there are both wide open arcs with spheres below in the representation of the sun, which is always in the form of the „Sky Arc“ in Allach (Fig. 7d),57 marked by distinct rays. This characteristic is ab- as well as arcs that are more closed, which could sent in Nebra. In previous publications the fea- be called the representation of torques. The dis- ture is not clearly defined as “sun” or “full moon”, tinction between „celestial arc“ and “torque” seems which is why the interpretation of the golden cir- apparent despite the similarity of the motifs, cular disk as representing a full moon should be since, for example, in Bohemian coinage, both mo- further investigated.52 tifs can appear on the same object.58 The fact that the interpretation of the abstract motifs is quite complex and often does not permit a clear interpreta- Celestial conceptions in the first millennium BC tion in individual cases may be due to the production of the coins. Usually, the motifs on the coins It was already pointed out above that in addition are viewed as an ever more abstract development to the medieval and the ethnographic examples of the original models, such as the further develop- of mythical representations of celestial bodies and ment of the Biga. Recognisable in coin images is celestial phenomena, the iconography of the first that the „sky arcs“ do not mean the representation millennium BC offers a directly comparable ap- of a „torque“. For example, quinarii decorated with proach.53 This world of imagery, which handed a stylised human head (Büschelquinare) contained down foremost in Celtic settlement areas, is based in the coin treasure from Neuses a.d. Regnitz on complex myths and beliefs, which developed as (Gem. Eggolsheim, Upper Franconia) can be cited a multi-layered religion throughout the first mil- here (Fig. 7e-f).59 There the slightly curved arc with lennium in Central Europe and in the Late Iron spherical ends appears in combination with a large Age. It can be circumscribed above all by traditions dot below, whereas one variant also displays an arc of Gallo-Roman times; yet despite many pertinent formed by seven dots. Both variants differ clearly studies, it is only rudimentarily understood.54 from a „torque“ representation. The small rainbow

13 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause cups in the depot of Albstadt (Gem. Alzenau, Lkr. of their frequent occurrence on coins, the motifs Aschaffenburg, Lower Franconia) display the pe- seem to be concentrated in the Celtic area, but ex- culiarity that the arc is rendered in a zigzag line amples in the zone north of the low mountain ran- (Fig. 7g).60 Together with the elements from the in- ge can also be noted, i.e. the discovery area of the terior, the spherical ends form a line, which in turn Nebra Sky Disc. This zone is characterised by the runs above a serrated baseline. The brief descrip- fact that during the first millennium both the ma- tion of these associations shows that the celestial terial culture, such as fibula forms, as well as mo- symbols upon the sword of Allach were common tifs from the „Celtic“ area were adapted. It should knowledge that had been understood over a long be mentioned, also with regard to the noticeably period of time. simple craftsmanship of the „Himmelsscheibe“, that The fact that motifs of the night with stars and there is a remarkable difference in the quality of the moon crescent are extremely frequent in the design throughout. A typical example of the ad- Late Iron Age seems particularly remarkable, and option of individual motifs are the decorations on at the same time this is proven by historical sour- the Holstein belts (Fig. 8).66 These combine most ces as well.61 In essence they describe – in additi- of the aforementioned elements: serpents, arches on to the continuing sun symbolism62 – above with spherical ends, arcs with different numbers all the symbols of the night, which played a spe- of dots below, encircled knobs with a corona (sun cial role in the ancestral history of the Celts and symbols), as well as half-arches with external da- therefore are present in the Celtic lunisolar calen- shes. Whether these motifs carried the same mean dar, too. Accordingly, the representation of time on ing in the North as in the „Celtic“ area cannot be the calendar of Coligny (Dép. Ain, Reg. Auvergne- deduced, but the peripheral position of a singular Rhône-Alpes) begins with the winter half-year, and object like the Gundestrup cauldron shows that the months are divided into a dark and a bright this cannot be entirely excluded. half.63 It would therefore be logical to view the cir- Considering this symbolic material, which cular disk on the sword of Allach as a bright full emerged after the cultural break at the beginning moon rather than a sun. The Celtic celestial symbo- of the Urnfield period, in comparison with the lism found on numerous everyday objects was for Early Bronze Age trove of motifs, a clear contra- its beholders a well-known part of a very complex diction emerges. Wolfgang David already poin- mythological world view, which is only vaguely ted out that the disk of Nebra would appear as known to us through written sources. It is the result a completely foreign body in the symbolic mate- of the manifold cultural history of the first millen- rial of that time.67 It is also noteworthy that the nium BC, which is characterized by strong Mediter- abstract representation of the sun is in the fore- ranean influences and shows socio-cultural pheno- ground in the pictorial programmes used from mena similar to advanced civilizations, especially the advanced and late 2nd millennium BC, with in the Iron Age through the development of settle- motifs such as bird barks with suns, sun chariots ment centres. The realistic depictions at the end of and the Nordic „sun ship“,68 or the predominant the 1st millennium BC, outstandingly preserved on circle decoration on gold objects.69 The symbols the Gundestrup cauldron, also fit into this tradition. on the sky disk of Nebra, oppositely, appear as Depicted there is a figure with deer antlers, which a nocturnal-oriented subject, thus corresponding mark it as not being a human being, who presents to the cultural environment of the 1st millennium a torque in the right hand and a horned serpent BC. At this point, the contribution to the discus- („ram stroke“) in the left hand.64 There is unanimous sion of the disk by Paul Gleirscher should be re- agreement that the god Cernunnos is depicted here, called, who in 2007 discussed the arc symbol on a deity who is also connected with the narrative of the disk as a representation of a sickle and at the Celtic ancestry of Dis Pater, in analogy to Julius same time pointed out that in view of the unclear Caesar. This ancestral history of a „nocturnal/sky“ conditions of the disc’s discovery a Late Bronze god corresponds with the choice of the symbol of a Age dating is quite conceivable.70 At the same snake („earth/night“) and the opposite of the time Gleirscher reminded of the lunar reference torque („arch of heaven“): that is, “night” from sunset of sickles and quoted B. Hänsel, who viewed to sunrise and “day” from sunrise to sunset.65 these as attributes of a night or moon deity.71 This Summarizing these brief explanations, „Sun/ closes the circle to the above-mentioned early Full Moon, Stars, Moon“ in connection with „Celes- Latène swords, whose lunar circle reference em- tial Arcs“ belong to the widespread symbolic mate- phasized by the full and crescent moon72 directly rial of the first millennium BC, with a clear empha- links the Nebra Sky Disk. sis in the Late Hallstatt and Latène periods. In view

14 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

Fig. 8 The symbolic repertoire of the so-called “Holsteiner Gürtel“ adopts and combines motifs of the Celtic area. a)-b) Hamburg- Altengamme, on the right in the picture; c) Hornbeck Grave 709, Duchy of Lauenburg. d) Malente, Kr. Ostholstein. All photos not in a fixed scale. – (a Photo Archäologisches Museum Hamburg; b Heynowski, 2017, p. 182; c Heynowski 2017, p. 184).

Conclusions must be justified. The differences result from the following arguments: In the previous considerations it could be shown 1. The near-surface discovery of the disk speaks that since the last article in the Archäologisches Kor- against its in situ location, which at the same respondenzblatt in 2008 a divergent interpretation time places the affiliation with the accompa- of the disk and its accompanying finds can and nying finds in question.

15 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

Fig. 9 Above: The Nebra sky disk. Below: Bronze Age swords, axes and armor allegedly found together with the Nebra Sky Disk. Condition before the finds were handed over to the Landesmuseum Halle.The correspondence of the photos with the originals was notarized on 25.1.2002. Photo: Hildegard Burri-Bayer.

16 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

2. Neither the analyses of the remaining soil restoration reports to the publication of all scien- adhesions nor the geochemical analyses of the tific analyses, were better accessible. It is to be ho- metals (copper, gold) support a possible co- ped that this will still take place and that a factual herence of the finds. publication of the find will appear for use for fur- 3. According to the court expertise report, in ther scientific analysis, inasmuch as the meanwhile view of the analysis of soil remains, one of exuberant interpretative and mythological publi- the axes should be regarded as not belonging cation on the disk is already far removed from the to the find complex. This statement is further principles of serious scientific presen ta tion and confirmed by the metal analyses. optimal communication to the public.74 The termi- 4. The chisel must also be regarded as not belong nology used, such as „kingdoms“, „armies“ or „first ing to this find complex. state“, has long left the real foundations of archae- Hence, it must be concluded that the objects in- ological and culture-historical research.75 In any volved cannot and do not represent a “closed find”. case, this form of mediation does not serve to con- Two conceivable scenarios for the discovery of vey a consistent historical picture of a prehistoric the Nebra disk result from the analyses of the find epoch to the public. situation, as specified in the following: (A) The disk was found on the Mittelberg in the humus area directly below the ground sur- Background of the manuscript until its printing face, because it was already there in a second ary position. This complies with the older The manuscript published here was submitted traces of damage and the description of the to the journal Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, discovery of the disk by the finders. A secon- RGMZ in Mainz (Germany) on November 8, 2018, dary position such as this excludes the unity where it was initially accepted. We (the authors) of the entire find. The disk would thus be a chose this journal, because it was the place of the single find within an Iron Age fortification. first discussion on this theme in S 2005( chauer, (B) The disk was found at a different site than 2005), and also the place in which was later an- the place investigated, directly below the sur- nounced (2008) that in short all natural scientific and face, in a uniform sediment. The older dam archaeological data would be presented there in age occurred in situ without the object being monographic form (Pernicka et al., 2008). The pub displaced substantially from its original loca- lication of these data has not occurred to this day. tion. An affiliation of further finds, insofar as Our (the authors) manuscript has gone through the these cannot be excluded (as is the case with usual review process and was evaluated by several the axe), would be possible. Since the archaeo peer reviewers, who are competent in the areas of logical association of the finds cannot be ana- the Bronze Age, Iron Age and Archaeometry. The lytically proven, and since this scenario does results of the review process were communicated not correspond to the „valid“ history of dis to the authors, considered and applied most of the covery provided by the finders, the unity of comments. Thereby, some remarks on natural sci- the find is not substantiated. entific aspects of the manuscript were quite scien In both scenarios, the disk must be regarded as tific resembling analytical discourse, which the an individual object in itself with regard to da- authors intended to pursue in a research group, but ting, whereby it should be noted that no compar after publication of the manuscript. This reasoning able symbolic material can be drawn forth for did not meet with complete consensus of reviewers. its classification in the Central European Early The final version of the manuscript was submitted Bronze Age.73 Far more, if the origin from the Mit- to the editor on August 9, 2019; no further action for telberg could be confirmed, a dating also within publication was undertaken. At the same time the the context of the Iron Age fortification as well as directorship of the RGZM changed. A new decisi- in the iconography would be obvious. Thus, the on about publication of the manuscript led the new construct presented so far would lack meaning editor to request a further summarising assessment and function on any basis. of the manuscript, but to be carried out by members These concluding remarks are intended to make of the RGZM. This group was in favour of publi clear in summary that the interpretation presented cation. Nonetheless, no preparations were initiated; here could only make use of accessible sources. the manuscript was left undone. After months-long However, the state of documentation is frequently waiting the authors decided to withdraw the ma- incomplete. Many details could be presented even nuscript from publication in the Archäologisches more precisely if the necessary sources, from the Korrespondenzblatt and instead submit it to Archäo-

17 Rupert Gebhard & Rüdiger Krause

logische Informationen. The authors are very grateful 9 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 29-31; Pernicka u.a., 2008, 342- for all the ideas, suggestions and comments given 346; Meller, 2010, 36-39. by peer reviewers. The fact that no general consen- 10 The documentation was given to the author by Prof. sus can be drawn from the many reviews lies in the Josef Riederer (†) in 2016. They were placed at his disposal polarising theme itself as well as in the deficit of for the purpose of making the geological assessment. publications, even after 20 years. 11 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 40.

12 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 27-28. Translation: Emily Schalk, Berlin 13 Renner, 2005, 15-22.

14 Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sach- Notes sen-Anhalt (2006). Fundort Mittelberg: Der Finder der Him- melsscheibe sagt aus (Video, 13:01 min). https://www. lda-lsa.de/filme/die_himmelsscheibe_von_nebra/fund- 1 Meller, 2010, 36-39. A final report on the excavation has ort_mittelberg/ [9.6.2020]. not been submitted to this day. 15 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 29. 2 Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sach- sen-Anhalt (2006). Fundort Mittelberg: Der Finder sagt 16 J. Riederer, in Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 308. aus. (Video, 13:01 min). http://www.lda-lsa.de/filme/ 17 die_himmelsscheibe_von_nebra/fundort_mittelberg/ Pernicka u.a., 2008, 342-349. [14.10.2018]. 18 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 32-37. 3 First maintained by Meller, 2002, S. 9, Fig. 2. 19 Assessment J. Adam (Unterlagen J. Riederer); Gebhard 4 “In Bezug auf die Technik der Ausgrabung sagte Herr West- & Krause, 2016, 33. phal, er hätte nur die „Sonne“ beschädigt. Hier hätte er bei Auf- 20 Due to the deficient publication situation, the axe cannot findung (die „Sonne“ lag seinen Angaben nach oben) mit der be identified beyond doubt in archaeological publications, Hacke auf die Sonne geschlagen und das Goldblechteil schräg as there is no catalogue of the contents with inventory nach oben weggezogen. Auf meine Nachfrage erklärten die „Fin- numbers. In the study by Nickel (2003, Fig. 2-1) the axe is der“, dass sie sich sicher seien, dass die Sonne und damit der designated “Beil 1 2002:1649c” (sample no. FG-020682) and abgefallene Horizont oben gelegen hätten. Von dem fehlenden is the shorter of the two axes (in Meller, 2010, Fig. 24 upper Horizont hätten sie keine Spuren gefunden. Er sei schon weg ge- center, designated “Beil 2”). wesen. Die jetzige Randbeschädigung hätte sich seitlich befunden. Sie erklären sich diese Randbeschädigung aus Verletzungen 21 Meller, 2010, 57. durch einen Baumpflug beim Anpflanzen oder ähnlichem. Beim 22 Until 2016 Nickel’s study was also accessible under ‘Ni- Herausnehmen sei der sich dort befindliche lose Goldstern abge- ckel 2003’ in the following list of references in the internet fallen”. Protocol about the site and situation of the discove- link: http://www.cez-archaeometrie.de/dipl-diss/dary of the Sky Disk of Nebra August 26, 2003. Law firm Prof. nickel-2003.pdf. Dr. Müller. Participant Prof. Dr. Müller, lawyer Buchholz, finders of the disk Mr. Westphal und Mr. Renner, and Dr. 23 Pernicka, 2010, 731. H. Meller, A. Flügel. Protocol by Dr. H. Meller, counter 24 Lutz et al., 2010; Lutz, 2016; Pernicka et al., 2016. signed by A. Flügel. 25 Lutz, 2011. 5 Investigation protocol by R. Gebhard on June 7-8, 2005 (documentation: Archäologische Staatssammlung Mün- 26 Nickel, 2003, Tab. A-3-1; Tab. A-3-2; Tab. A-3-6. No Zn chen): The damages to the edges do not show ‘fresh me- was detected in 14 samples. The mean value pertains to the tal’. Traces of patina are in the darker dents and scratches; 9 samples, in which Zn could be detected. An intarsia inlay crystal is distinctly visible on one raised splinter on the shows a divergent higher value (Probe FG-020686). splintered inner side. („Die Beschädigungen am Rand sind 27 nicht metallfrisch. In den starken Dellen und Kratzern gibt es The calculations were performed using the function Patinaspuren, an einem „abgehobenen“ Span deutlich ausge- „hclust“ of R 4.0.0. prägtes Kristall auf der abgespannten Innenseite.“). 28 The numbering follows in the sequence of the analysed 6 This zone is quite recognisable in the lower left page for samples shown in Table 1, with No. 1 = FG-020984 Him- the month of April in the Archäologischer Kalender Sachsen melscheibe to No. 17 = FG020703 Spiralring. Anhalt 2005 (ISBN 3-910019-79-2). An interpretation basing 29 We would like to take this opportunity to thank the edi- upon the images is difficult, because in the course of pre- tor Frank Siegmund for further comments. serving the disk, especially the reverse side, soil residues 30 were hardened as well, and the patina became completely haustein et al., 2010. detached in places from the underlying surface. 31 Brügmann et al., 2018, Fig. 2. The illustration ibid. left 7 In this protocol Meller (2010) presented the ‘contents’, corresponds with the illustration here, Fig. 3b (Pernicka et in which he omits the details discussed here. al., 2008 and Pernicka, 2010). 32 8 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 27. Hearing protocol RA Thom- Pernicka, 2017, Fig. 3; Tab. 2. men. 33 Ehser et al., 2011.

34 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 38.

18 Critical comments on the find complex of the so-called Nebra Sky Disk

35 Cp. Meller, 2010, 24-25: note of May 10, 2001. The extent 62 Green, 1986, 39-71. to which the interpretation applied is shown by the state- 63 Mac Neil, l 1928; Olmsted, 1992; Caesar, Bell. Gall. 6,18. ment that the “amateur documentation of moderate quality” (“Amateuraufnahmen mäßiger Qualität”) even already met 64 High resolution depiction: https://samlinger.natmus. the determination that the disk would be made of bronze dk/DO/asset/5324 [9.8.2019]. Cp. Olmstedt, 1979. with a tin content of 5 %. 65 For the symbolism of serpents, cp also the shield of 36 Cp. Meller, 2010, 25: Document note Dr. Muhl, Decem- Auchmaleddie and Coveney: Uckelmann, 2010, 557-560. ber 6, 1999. In addition, photos in this convolute, in which On the origin of the Late Bronze Age, see Gebhard, 2010. the entire ensemble including the disk can be seen, are still 66 unknown today. Heynowski & Ritz, 2010; Heynowski, 2017. Cp. especially Hucke, 1962, Abb. 1,2; Fig. 2,10; Fig. 3,8; Fig. 8,2; Hingst, 37 Meller, 2002, 18, Figs. 21. 1962, Fig. 5,1; Fig. 7,1-3; Hingst, 1989, 57-67.

38 Meller, 2004a, 28-30. 67 Cf. also David, 2010.

39 Meller, 2004a, 30. 68 Kaul, 2010, 532-535; Meller, 2010, 65-66.

40 Meller, 2010, 62. 69 Gebhard, 2001, 12-14.

41 Meller, 2010, 62 70 Gleirscher, 2007, 30-32.

42 For the different groups of East Alpine copper and their 71 Hänsel, 1997, 20. evaluation, see details in Krause (2003, 166-169). 72 Fitzpatrik, 1996, 388-389. 43 Krause, 2003, 27-29 with a CD-Rom with all data in the da- 73 tabank. David, 2010, 480-481. David already points this out with relation to the Latène period. 44 Krause, 2003, Fig. 136-138. 74 Meller & Michel, 2018. 45 Pernicka et al., 2016, 25-29 mit 28, Tab. 2; Stöllner, 2015, 75 illmann 103; Stöllner, 2015a; Pernicka & Lutz, 2015, 109. U. W , Hochkultur aus dem Nichts. Die Zeit, 19.9.2018. T. Harmsen, Sonne, Mond und Sterne und der 46 Rohde, 2014 offers a critical approach to the topic of ar- Staat. Interview with H. Meller. Berliner Zeitung, 22.9.2018. chaeo-astronomy. J. Wätzold, Kult mit Menschen-Opfern: Geheimnis um Himmelsscheibe von Nebra gelöst (…Erster Staat in Euro- 47 Meller, 2004b, 96. pa lag in Sachsen-Anhalt), Bild, 21.09.2018. 48 Zipf, 2004, 74-76.

49 Pásztor & Roslund, 2007, 270 with Figs. 2-3; Pásztor, 2011; Pásztor, 2014; Pásztor, 2015a; Pásztor, 2015b. References

50 Bönisch, 2007, 164-169. Böhnisch, E. (2007). Ein Limosiner Kruzifix aus 51 Bönisch, 2007, 164. der Holzkirche des 13. Jahrhunderts in Horno/ 52 Meller, 2010, 44-48; 59-69. Z Niederlausitz. In Kersting, Th. & Volkmann, A. (Hrsg.), Kirchen des Mittelalters in Brandenburg und Berlin: 53 Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 31. Archäologie und Bauforschung. Publikation zur Fachtagung 54 Cf. e.g. Green, 1986; Olmsted, 1979; Olmsted, 1994. des Brandenburgischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologischen Landesmuseums, des Landesdenkmalamtes 55 Dannheimer, 1975, 59 f.; Fitzpatrick, 1996, 382 f.; Deut- Berlin und der Archäologischen Gesellschaft in Berlin und scher, 2012, 283-285. Gebhard & Krause, 2016, 31. Brandenburg e.V., in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Landkreis 56 The first detailed analysis by Streber (1862, 640-641). A Teltow-Fläming in Luckenwalde, 14. bis 16. November 2006. similar problem in interpretation already arose with the (S. 156-183). Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag. golden “diadem” of Vix, whose spherical ends correspond with a torque, but are not clearly identifiable. Noteworthy there is also Mediterranean influence in the details, such as Breuer, H. (2010). Untersuchung der Maßverhältnisse the Pegasus ascending between the spheres and arc (Rol- der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra. In Meller & Bertemes, ley, 2003; Verger, 2009, 297). 2010, 91-96.

57 Ziegaus, 1993, 92 No. 274. Brügmann, G., Berger, D., Nessel, B. & Pernicka, E. 58 Paulsen, 1933, Taf 19,404: front: arc motif; reverse: tor- (2018). Chemische Zusammensetzung und Zinn- ques; for the torque images, cp. ebd. Pl. 10, 222-225; for the und Bleiisotopenverhältnisse in Schwertern des arc and serpent images as, independent symbols accompa- Typs „Apa“ und assoziierten Bronzeobjekten aus nying the horse, cp. ebd. Pl. C, 41; 47-49. Apa, Nebra und Dänemark. In Glaser, L. (Hrsg.), 59 Overbeck, 2016, 68 No. 298; 72 No. 336. Archäometrie und Denkmalpflege. Jahrestagung. Kurzfassung der Vorträge und Poster. Hamburg: 60 Kellner, 1990, 219 No. 2300. Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron. http://www. 61 Caesar, Bell. Gall. 6,14.6: „multa praeterea de sideribus at- archaeometrie.de/Downloads/Tagungsband/ que eorum motu […] disputant et iuven tuti tradunt.“ AuDHamburg2018Proceedings.pdf [13.6.2020].

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