Chumash Placenames

Clinmasli Placenames

RICHARD B. APPLEGATE

HE Chumash lived along the Southern nal Chumash population; his report gives the T Cahfomia coast between Malibu and precise locations of 29 coastal villages (Brown some point north of San Luis Obispo. Their 1967). Finally, Chester King, an archaeologist territory included the Santa Barbara Channel who used the same sources as Brown, together islands, and it stretched inland to the south- with the Harrington manuscript, provided me westernmost edge of the San Joaquin Valley. with his unpublished map giving detailed Over forty placenames of Indian origin survive locations of known Chumash villages. to commemorate the long Chumash occupa Harrington's manuscript is the primary tion of these lands. There are many other source for linguistic data on placenames, just Spanish and English placenames which appear as it is the primary source for almost all to be loan translations of a Chumash original. information on the Chumash languages. The In this paper, I discuss the pattern of one fortunate exception is Barbareno, for Chumash placenaming. Places are named for which Madison S. Beeler has produced a prominent geographical features and their grammar and lexicon based on his work fancied resemblances, for flora, fauna, and between 1954 and 1964 with the last fluent local conditions, and for legendary and speaker of Barbareiio. I have revised Har mythological incidents. I give priority to rington's phonetic transcription (which he those placenames still surviving, of course, but changed more than once during his work with the names of many places long since forgotten Chumash) to bring it into agreement with appear here too. It is not, however, my the phonetic system used by Beeler for Bar purpose to make an exhaustive list of place- bareiio—the transcription used by most lin names, nor to locate them precisely. guists currently working with American In dian languages. SOURCES For Harrington, the preservation of the Four sources have been particularly valu Chumash languages was a labor of love which able for data on Chumash placenames. For bordered on obsession. He did most of his the hnguistic aspect of the data, of course, I work between 1912 and 1922, when there have relied almost entirely on the voluminous were stiU some fluent speakers of Chumash manuscript material recorded by John P. left. Although it had been well over a century Harrington (1912-1922). Working a genera since the arrival of the missionaries, a few of tion earlier than Harrington, H. W. Henshaw Harrington's informants were able to recall a in 1884 compiled a lengthy hst of villages great deal of what they had heard of the old (Heizer 1955:194-200). Alan K. Brown, using people and their ways. In particular, Maria mission records and the reports of early Solares of Santa Ynez and Fernando Librado explorers, together with modem archaeologi of Ventura furnished valuable linguistic and cal findings, presents evidence on the aborigi ethnographic information. Harrington lav- 188 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY ished much time and attention on meticu were evidently fairly close to the central lously recording every syllable his informants languages; the speech of kastiq, at Castaic uttered. Lake, for example, seems to have differed Harrington was particularly interested in only slightly from Venturefio. But of Obis placenames. In addition to simply asking pefio, Maria Solares of Santa Ynez said that it about placenames or reehciting older lists, was "much trouble," and Cruzefio likewise such as Henshaw's, Harrington took his infor was quite divergent. mants around to get firsthand information on Harrington's informants were quite aware placenames. Some of his manuscript material of the differences among the various Chumash includes sketched maps and detailed accounts languages. For example, Maria Solares could of these trips. A typical field note entry often identify a particular bird name or plant reads: "napamu ? is the sharp hill immediately name as Barbarefio or Purisimefio, and then west of the southern end of the Solvang river give the Inesefio equivalent. Her editorial bridge. On top of this hill was an 'ûsakmu^ comment on Coyote's speech in one mytho [shrine]." logical text was masaqU\i' hi sisaâlapkaswa'^, 'his language is half Barbarefio.' Speakers were THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION equally aware of dialectal differences within Although the Chumash occupied the the same language. Thus, Maria Solares ob Channel Islands of Southern Cahfornia and served that the speech of soxtonokmu'^ and the mgged interior, their densest population kalawasatj differed noticeably, although both was along the coast. Accordingly, the five villages were Inesefio. And Fernando Librado missions founded among the Chumash are all claimed that the name of Wheeler Gorge, on or near the coast: San Buenaventura, Santa sisxulkuy, means 'one is seated on it' in the Barbara, Santa Ynez, La Purisima, and San Ojai dialect of Venturefio. Different versions Luis Obispo. These five missions were linguis of modem Matilija were maiilha in the Ojai tic focal points: the idioms spoken in their dialect and maiilaha in the coast dialect of vicinity must be regarded as distinct lan Venturefio. guages. At an early date, natives of the islands and the interior were brought to the missions, PLACENAMES IN where they generally merged with the local DIFFERENT LANGUAGES populations. Thus, Fernando Librado said Harrington's informants often knew the that in the old days each village had had its names of places quite distant. They cited such own dialectal pecuharities, but that the local placenames in much the same form aU over dialect of Ventura was adopted by those who the Chumash area, but occasionally dialectal came to the mission. differences appear. Thus, for Mount Pifios far Linguistically, Chumash territory can be in the interior, the Ineseno said 'îwhinmu^ divided into a fairly cohesive central area while the Venturefio said Hwihinmu; for a including Venturefio, Barbareno, Ineseno, and village in the Tejon region, the Inesefio Purisimefio (the languages spoken around the version kasinasmu'^ differs slightly from the four southern missions), a northern area local Castaic Venturefio form kasiiiasmu. represented by Obispeno, and the island area Whenever possible, I cite names in then- represented by Cruzefio, from Santa Cruz indigenous forms: e.g., Venturefio in the Island. Despite obvious differences, there was Ventura region, etc. some degree of mutual intelligibihty among When the informants were able to ety the central languages. The interior languages mologize distant placenames, names not in CHUMASH PLACENAMES 189 their own native languages, they sometimes More dubious are those cases in which an tended to recast such names into a more informant etymologized a name on the basis famihar form. Thus, the people of the coastal of what it sounds as if it ought to mean. village at La Quemada Canyon spoke a dialect Typical is an entry about kosoqoqô, a place of Barbarefio; they called their village sis uci', downstream from Santa Ynez. "The name 'the den of the woodrat.' But in Santa Ynez, sounds as if it meant 'among the lazy ones,' Maria Solares gave the name an Ineseno form, informant says somewhat amused after con sis aci^, with Inesefio ha-ci'^ for Barbareno siderable meditation," going on to add that hu-ci'^, 'the woodrat.' the name must be Purisimefio. The hazards of More unusual, placenames may violate this practice are obvious. Of Cuaslui Creek, language boundaries. A few names in Inesefio east of Los Alamos, an Inesefio informant said territory are clearly Purisimefio in form, for that it would mean something like 'where the example. The Inesefio called a village near the qwa'^ (a duck species) grows' (cf., lu-nah, 'to Mission Santa Ynez ''alaxulapu; in etymo grow'). It turns out that the original name logizing the name, Maria Solares said that was '•'awaPla^, a village on San Antonio Creek. "âlaxulalpul would mean 'the low bend' in At one point Harrington quotes a native of Ineseno. There is no question that ''alaxulapu the place as saying that it means 'sliding is Purisimefio, since Purisimefio regularly place,' but elsewhere he says '-'awaslay is drops the sound '1' in syllable-final position: Purisimefio for 'net sack with a wooden hence the correspondence of 'âlaxulalpul and mouth-ring.' An intermediate version of the âlaxulapu. More rarely, completely different modern name, closer to the original "âwasla^, names were applied to the same place. The was Guaslay; it was later changed to Cuaslui. most notable case is that of Santa Cruz Island. More dubious still are the cases of two or The mainland peoples all called the islanders, three or even more different etymologies at least the natives of Santa Cruz, chimas (the suggested for the same placename. The name term c^mas was not a designation for the of laxsakupi, a Purisimefio village, was said to Chumash nation as a whole). So, Santa Cruz mean variously 'where they light a fire,' 'gust Island was called michunas, 'the place of the of wind,' and 'there is danger ahead.' This is islanders,' but the islanders themselves called especially common with placenames on the it linniw, 'in the sea.' islands and in Purisimefio territory, since Harrington had to rely largely on informants ETYMOLOGIES who were no longer active speakers of the Etymologically, placenames range from languages of these areas. the obvious and transparent to the completely Finally, there is a sizeable residue of obscure. When the meaning of a placename is completely unetymologizable placenames. clear to anyone with a knowledge of Chu The manuscript often shows the entry "no mash, I simply translate the name with no etymology," indicating that Harrington must comment. Harrington himself in the manu have asked specifically what the name meant. script often did not bother to translate the LOAN TRANSLATIONS obvious. Less certain are those etymologies which the informants give with apparent At least three hundred placenames occur confidence, but which cannot be substanti in the Harrington manuscript. Of these, some ated on the basis of what else is known of forty survive in much their original form, with Chumash. These I translate more tentatively some phonetic modification and often with with the phrase 'is said to mean . . . .' some geographical perigrinations. For exam- 190 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY pie, 'ânyapax has become Anacapa due to a lary, differing grammatical prefixes in the cartographer's error (Gudde 1960:10), and various languages provide a clue. For example, Zaca Lake was named after '•'as'aka, now Zaca the article with nouns is si- in Venturefio, Station, some miles southwest of the lake. hu-l- or he-l- in Barbarefio, and ma- or ha- in In addition, an indeterminate number of Inesefio, hence, the difference between Bar modern placenames in Spanish and even barefio sis uci ? and Inesefio sis aci '•' for 'den of English seem to be translations of original the woodrat' at La Quemada. Chumash names. Thus, kas'ap kama, 'the FinaUy, the various languages show dis house of the jackrabbit,' is preserved in Liebre tinct phonetic differences. Thus, "âwha;^, Creek and Liebre Mountain between Gorman 'moon,' now Ojai, is Venturefio; in the other and Castaic Junction; liebre is Spanish for languages, the word occurs without the 'h' 'hare,' viz., 'jackrabbit.' La Hoya ('the dell') found in Venturefio: 'âway in Barbareno, Creek on the old Rancho San Julian was once ''away in Inesefio, "âwa"^ in Purisimefio, and malutiqipin, 'the dell.' But beyond such cases tawa'^ in Obispefio. in which the name is somewhat unusual, it is On the other hand, many placenames difficult to prove that a modern placename is cannot be ascribed to any one Chumash definitely a loan translation from Chumash. language in particular. For example, as a Thus, Sycamore Canyon in Santa Barbara was placename near Maricopa, kamup, 'cave,' called mixso 'place of the sycamore,' and Las would appear in this form in any of the Cruces Hot Springs was called âlapidi, 'the central languages. But when a name can hot one.' Due to the obvious presence of a definitely be ascribed to one language, I hot spring or many sycamores, as well as the identify it as such, abbreviated as V. Ventur popularity of this style of placenaming in efio, B. Barbarefio, I. Inesefio, P. Purisimefio, both Chumash and the invading languages, the O. Obispefio, C. Cruzefio, and C.V. Castaic modern names might well be independent Venturefio. inventions in such cases. THE PATTERN OF PLACENAMING THE CITATION OF PLACENAMES The pattern of placenaming was quite I have included all of the Chumash lan uniform among the various Chumash groups. guages in this samphng of placenames, al Placenames fall into several broad semantic though the three languages for which we have categories, with a certain inevitable overlap. the best documentation-Venturefio, Barbar Placenames may be general geographical terms efio, and Ineseno—are naturally cited most used in a specific local sense; they may refer often. Whenever possible, I identify place- to the presence of water, or to minerals, names by language, as indicated by differ vegetation, or animal life found in the area, or ences in vocabulary, grammatical forms, and even to local weather conditions. Descriptive phonetics. placenames may be based on fancied resem Vocabulary is a clue with kayiwis, 'the blances, on the lay of the land and unusual head,' now seen as Calleguas Creek northeast features of the landscape, or on directions and of Point Mugu. The form yiwis is clearly orientations. Some placenames refer to activi Venturefio, since all the other languages have ties within historical memory, while a large completely different words for 'head.' Simi number refer to legendary or mythological larly, xonxoni ata"^, 'tall oak,' now Jonata, is incidents. Many placenames defy etymology. clearly Purisimefio: xoni, 'to be high, tall,' The Chumash tended to use general terms occurs only in Purisimefio. Besides vocabu as the names of specific places. Thus, I. CHUMASH PLACENAMES kamatak, 'mud,' was the name of a particular various peoples can nearly always be trans spot at the mouth of a canyon west of Santa lated as 'inhabitant of plus some village Ynez, and ko''o'\ 'water,' was the name of name; the prefix used is related to the word Zaca Lake. These general terms may be for 'house,' 'ap, in most of the Chumash qualified, as in I. malaxcac'ax a'o'', 'cold languages: 1. 'alap-kalawasaij. 'people of kala- water,' a spring south of Santa Ynez, but wasoij,' east of Santa Ynez; B. 'anap-qasil, qualification is not the prevailing practice. 'people of qasil,' a village at El Refugio; V. The potential ambiguity here is not as great as 'atap-nmwu, 'people of nntwu,' a village at it seems, however, since within the sentence Mugu; C. 'ayet-swaxil, 'people of .swaxil.' a placenames as proper nouns behave differ village on Santa Cruz. Locally, these terms ently from the common nouns on which they refer very specifically to the inhabitants of a are based. particular village, rather than to a larger tribal Not only was the pattern of placenaming identity. For reference to other Chumash uniform among the various Chumash groups, groups, the names of a few important villages but certain popular names were applied to could sometimes be used, so that the Ineseno, more than one place. Thus, 'house of the sun' for example (at least at the time Harrington was the name of a cave in the Cuyama Valley did his field work), could refer to the Barbar and a mountain in Ventura, and three differ eno collectively as 'alap-kaswa', 'people of ent spots were called 'the nest of the eagle' in kaswa'.' and to the Venturefio as 'alap- their respective languages. Similarly, names nucqafiaqai'i, 'people of niiccianaqaii.' It such as 'hot water,' 'tule,' 'white clay,' and should be noted that kaswa' and micqanaqaii 'the pass' were widely applied. The willow is are in the immediate vicinity of their respec well represented: there is kastaytt, 'willow,'a tive missions, so this practice may be a late village at Santa Anita near Gaviota; mistayit, development. 'willow place,' west of Arroyo Burro in Santa But there are a few purely non-geograph Barbara; kaxaw, 'willow,' at Harmon Canyon ical collective terms for various ethnic groups, in Ventura, and pqawqaw, 'the willows,' on some applied to one's own group, some Santa Cruz Island. Placenames based on plant applied to other groups. The Ineseno called life (especially tules, sycamores, and willows), themselves s^hmala, a term without etymol on water (especially hot or bitter water), and ogy; the San Emigdio people called them on minerals (especially tar, mud, clay, and selves simply hulkuhku'. 'the people,' and the sand) seem to be the most likely to be applied cognate Obispeno term for the Obispeiio in much the same form to many places. These themselves was tityu tit-^'u, 'the people' (Kath- equivalent placenames are usually widely sep ryn Klar [n.d.] writes this as titu titu). It is arated, but Harrington makes special mention not likely that other groups used these names of two recurrent names within Ineseno terri in referring to the Ineseno, Emigdiano, or tory: there were two spots called ''aswa ', 'tule Obispeno. The Castaic people were called place,' and two called saxsilik, 'bog.' 'alkuli. at least by the Venturefio: the term With the single exception of michunas, may mean 'badger' in reference to their inland 'place of the islanders,' Santa Cruz Island, home. The coast dwellers by Santa Barbara Chumash placenames were not based on were called snniwic, 'he is of the sea,' and ethnic names. Instead of naming places after some version of this name seems to have been the peoples inhabiting them (cf., England, used by the Barbarefio themselves. The Santa 'land of the Angles'), the Chumash named Cruz islanders did not call themselves chimas, peoples after places. In fact, the names for as they were called by all of the mainlanders. 192 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY but used the term âyetlimuw, 'people of cal terms in placenames have left no trace. limuw,' Santa Cruz. Near Maricopa was kamup, 'cave,' and in a canyon east of Santa Ynez was a spring called I. "âqmilimu^, 'spring, drinking place.' The GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS northern mountains, especially those in San IN PLACENAMES Joaquin Valley drainage, were called milimol, meaning both 'mountain' and 'north.' The The absence of general quahfying geo falls in Santa Paula Canyon near Ventura were graphical terms in Chumash placenames is called V. 'âliwolxoyoyo, 'waterfall,' and V. striking. English usuaUy requires some general xonmoyoyo, 'gorge,' is one particular arroyo term such as 'mountain,' 'creek' or 'canyon,' in the Ventura region. The names of some 'point' or 'peak,' as in 'Frazier Mountain' or important passes follow this same pattern. 'Point Mugu.' In Chumash, such compounds San Marcos Pass was malames, 'the pass'; the of general geographical terms plus specific pass between Santa Ynez and Santa Rita was placename occur very seldom. It is possible to I. maliwey ~ 'âli\i>ey,'th e pass,' and the pass refer to the environs of a particular spot, say between the Simi and San Fernando Valleys the village of kaswa^ near the Mission Santa was V. kashiwey, 'the pass.' These latter two Barbara, as 'the canyon of kaswa^' or 'the are both based on a stem -wey, 'to be creek of kaswa^,' but more commonly the notched.' Chumash used the specific placename in a broader sense to include the immediate vicin MINERALS IN PLACENAMES ity as well. More commonly still, each village and distinct geographical feature had its own Placenames are often derived from some name. As the Harrington manuscript notes, mineral found locally. The only such place- "in ancient times there must have been name surviving is O. pismu^, 'tar, black stuff,' placenames all up and down the canyons." seen in several San Luis Obispo placenames as But some placenames are purely geograph Pismo (Klar n.d.). A possible loan translation ical terms which are used in a specialized is V. siyopyop, 'the tar,' now Canada de la sense. Of those placenames which have sur Brea near Ojai. A Barbarefio parallel is B. vived, one of the clearest examples is V. woqwoqo, 'tar,' a place at Moore's landing. muwu, both 'beach' in general and the name Other such items commonly named are mud, of a Venturefio village, now Mugu, in sand, and clay. White clay, for example, particular. Likewise, P. naxuwi ~ 'ânaxuwi, inspires three separate placenames. One of 'meadow,' is also specifically a village near these, on Santa Rosa Island, was C. pipiwi, modern Nojoqui. Another Purisimefio village 'the white clay'; it was a bed of white clay name, ''itiyaqs, was said to mean 'dell'; it exposed only at low tide, through which fresh survives in Ytias Creek on the Rancho San water seeped, whitish but drinkable. Julian. And I. malutiqiphi, 'the dell' (hterally, Goleta Slough was called tiptip, 'sahna, 'surrounded by rock'), is also specifically a salt flat,' and not surprisingly, the Venturefio place on the Rancho San Juhan. The designa equivalent V. sitiptip was apphed to Hueneme tion survives in loan translation as La Hoya lagoon. An important village on Santa Rosa ('the dell') Creek, west of Ytias Creek. These Island was called qsiwqsiw, 'droppings,' be seem to have been two distinct spots, rather cause of its proximity to a chff whitened by than one spot with two names. the droppings of countless seabirds. The The other examples of purely geographi Chumash called Santa Catalina Island buy a; CHUMASH PLACENAMES 193 huya means 'soapstone,' from which they B. âlsoti, 'bitter one.' A swamp north of fashioned many articles. helo^ in Goleta Slough was called B. ûksulo^, 'stink water,' and Mud Creek north of Santa WATER IN PLACENAMES Paula was once V. kaâlusyoxoc kaô, 'mud An important class of placenames deals died water.' with water. The availability of water, and its While the water placenames so far men quality, is a vital consideration in a region tioned are flatly prosaic, there are some more where many watercourses are dry during part fanciful ones too. A place below the Miravel of the year. The only certain water placename Rancho in Santa Ynez, said to be a spring in still surviving is taxiwax, 'leak,' modem Taji- the form of a devil, was I. s'o^ kuku, 'devil's guas Creek, said to be named for a dripping water.' A sprmg in Santa Barbara was called rock. The same root is seen in mis taxiwax, B. si))o'^ laslia^, 'water of the coyotes,' and in 'where it leaks,' modern San Marcos, and in Ventura was V. siyo kinik, 'water of the httle saputiwax, 'it seeps,' a spot near Santa Ynez. kilik (a hawk species),' with kinik as a It is possible that somis could be interpreted diminutive form of kilik; it was said that as V. so mis, 'water of the scrub oak'; the gavilancitos (Spanish 'little hawks') drank original ômis was near Ojai, while modern there. A more unusual water placename is I. Somis is east of Saticoy. It is also possible maô'^ a'ôqôs, 'the water of the sea otter.' It that P. lompo'^ ~ ?olompo^ now Lompoc, is a was said that the otters on their way to and water placename; it is said to mean 'stagnant from the islands created a spring of fresh water,' in reference to a former lake south of water in the sea, unmixed with brine, and that the river near Lompoc. the old Chumash seamen used to stop there in A few water names simply refer to water the channel to drink. itselfi Thus, Zaca Lake was koô'', 'water,' PLANT NAMES IN PLACENAMES and a village on Mescahtan Island in Goleta Slough, B. helo'^, 'the water,' was remarkable A large number of placenames are based in that it had a fresh water spring while all on plant names. Whenever an explanation of around was brine. The constancy of the such names was offered, it was nearly always supply is mentioned in C. silimihi, a village on that the plant in question was found in Santa Rosa Island whose name is said to mean abundance at the spot. Thus, for a spot near 'always water' (but the name is also given as the Mission Santa Barbara called âxtayuxas, siliwihi), and silpoponomu"^ is said to mean 'islay,' Harrington's entry says that there "was 'where it runs constantly m all seasons' in the a mata [patch] of islay there formerly just in Refugio dialect of Barbarefio, as the name of the gap. Hence the name." a village in San Antonio Canyon. Several of these plant placenames still At least three different spots derive theh" survive, some quite clear, and others more names from the presence of hot springs, such problematic. The Purisimefio village name as V. kaMisaw ka'ô, 'hot water,' a hot spring xonxoni ata^, 'tall oak,' survives in the at Sulphur Mountain above Santa Paula. A Rancho San Carlos de Jonata, and P. lospe number of placenames refer to the poor gave its name to Lospe Mountain near Guada quahty of the water. 'Bitter water' is the lupe. The name is said to mean 'flower field' name of three springs; one of these names (Gudde 1960:174); spe is 'flower' in Purisi may have survived in loan translation, since a mefio. Near Santa Maria, a village name P. canyon east of Summerland was once called Miswey, 'in the tarweed,' left its mark in the in Spanish El Amargo, 'the bitter,' formerly Rancho Suey and Suey Crossing. Further 194 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY south, there was another âliswey (apparently mexmey, and taqs). The best known of these not a village) wliich now appears in a slightly is kaswa'', 'tule,' a village near the Mission altered form as Lisque Creek, northeast of Santa Barbara. Los Olivos. A few placenames are based not just on Surviving Venturefio village names are V. the occurrence of the plant, but are more sitoptopo, 'the carrizo patch,' now Topatopa descriptive. Jonata is a surviving example, Creek and Topatopa Mountains, and kamulus, from P. xonxoni ata^, 'tall oak.' Other exam 'juniper,' now Camulos, said to be named for ples are V. kalnaxalkay kakm'v, 'offset oak,' a a lone juniper near the Santa Clara River. hill near Santa Ana with an oak slightly down Kroeber (1916:61) claims that ta''apu, now from its top, and V. kanwaya .kakuw, 'httle Rancho Tapo north of Simi, means 'yucca,' hanging oak,' where there used to be a small although none of Harrington's informants live oak hanging over a bluff on the Ventura could etymologize the name. River. A more problematic name is V. suwalaxso, now Big Sycamore Canyon below Point ANIMAL NAMES IN PLACENAMES Mugu. The name may be a loan translation, smce xso is 'sycamore' in Venturefio. In Animal names occur frequently in place- addition, the landgrant on which suwalaxso names. Such placenames may be simply the was located is called Guadalasca, a word name of the animal, but more often than with without etymology in Spanish; Brown (1969: placenames based on plants, animal place- 48, note 17) suggests that Guadalasca is a names may be quite fanciful. They also tend Hispanicization oil suwalaxso. A possible loan to be less recurrent than are plant names, translation is Sycamore Canyon in Santa Bar although there are three widely separated bara, once mixso, 'place of the sycamore.' spots all caUed 'the eagle's nest.' The standard Of the many other placenames based on explanation of animal placenames is that the plant names, none have survived. On the animal in question was common at that spot. boundary between Purisimefio and Obispefio The entry for V. cap 'ipoyok, 'the house of territory was a village near Santa Maria, called the poyok (a fish species),' is typical: "half in Purisimefio 'âxwaps, 'in the nettles.' The way between Cafiada de los Sauces and El name also occurs in the San Luis Obispo Rincon there was a rock beneath the surface baptismal registry as 'Tgmaps,' 'Camapse,' etc. of the sea where the fish called in Venturefio (Brown 1967:15), obviously based on the poyok abounds." Obispefio form of the word, xmaps, 'nettle.' The animal placenames surviving in their Other examples of simple plant names in original fomi are somewhat problematic. An clude: win'ia, 'red pine,' also Santa Rosa important village upstream from the Mission Island; kasowsow, 'pespibata patch,' a village Santa Ynez was kalawasaq, said to mean 'the in Piru Canyon; V. kac'ik^'inhin, 'pine,' a sheh of the turtle'; this name now appears as village on Las Virgenes Creek uiland from Calabazal Creek, a folk-etymology based on Malibu; and C.V. mat'apxwelexwel. 'village of Spanish calabaza, 'squash, gourd.' Near the the Cottonwood,' at tlie mouth of Grapevine head of Pirn Creek is Mutau Flat and Mutau Canyon, in the San Joaquin Valley. Creek. One of Harrington's informants Many of the same plant names recur in claimed that a settler named Mutau was placenames scattered all over Chumash terri murdered there, but Chester King (personal tory. Particularly popular are the willow, the communication) identifies the spot with the sycamore, and various species of tule {swa'^. Venturefio village maiapxaw, 'village of the CHUMASH PLACENAMES 195 fox.' The name of Arroyo Sequit, between was called C. piâwa phew, 'the house of the Point Mugu and Zuma, was etymologized as pehcan.' V. setjis, 'beachworm.' While setjis fits the There are also more unusual animal place- modem placename very nicely, older records names. A deep narrow canyon in the moun all agree in showing something hke lisiksi for tains above Santa Ynez was called I. sxel- the name of a village at the mouth of Arroyo mesmu'^ acili, 'jumping across place of the Sequit (Brown 1967:44). One of Harrington's antelope.' At the mouth of de la Cuesta informants, asked about lisiksi, repeated it as Canyon, south of Buellton, was I. s'uw maca;^, lisiqsihi. Brown suggests that Lachusa Canyon 'the bluejay eats.' A spring on the Rancho and Lechuza Point, southeast of Arroyo Viejo north of Ventura was called V. kasoxsol Sequit, may be folk-etymologies of lisiqsihi, kawi, 'urine of the deer.' The old people used based on Spanish lechuza, 'barn owl.' to come from far away to drink and bathe at But other animal names survive in loan this spring, whose waters they regarded as translation. In addition to V. kasap kama, 'the curative. The Harrington manuscript even house of the jackrabbit,' now seen as Liebre contains the text of a prayer made at kasoxsol Mountain and Liebre Creek {liebre is 'hare' in kawi, along with the appropriate offering of Spanish), there are: 'ânaqpuw, 'wildcat,' now sheU beads, for the recovery of a sick relative. Gato ('cat') Canyon, west of Santa Barbara; WEATHER IN PLACENAMES qwa^, 'a duck species,' now La Patera, 'a place where ducks (Spanish pata) gather' (Gudde A few placenames make mention—direct 1960:162), perhaps the earlier name for or indirect—of the weather at various places. Goleta Slough; and V. situlierft 'the mountain Two of these, Anacapa and Saticoy, stiU lion,' now Lion Creek, just south of Ojai. survive in much their original form. Harring In addition to the simple animal names ton's informants etymologized the name of which have survived in some form, such as V. Anacapa Island, ânyapax, as 'mirage, illu situierh, there are many others of which no sion.' Russel Ruiz of Santa Barbara (personal trace is left. These include: step, 'flea,' a vil communication) points out that during warm lage on San Antonio Creek; P. noqto ~ ônoq- clear weather, when the thermal inversion to, 'eel,' a village on Pedernales Creek; mikiw, layer is low, to an observer on the mainland 'place of the mussel,' one of the villages at the island seems to dance and flicker on the Dos Pueblos; and V. sihawha\{>, 'the foxes,' a horizon like a mirage. The Santa Cmz is spot near Ojai. On the beach at Arroyo Burro, landers, with a different perspective, simply the village of skonon, 'worm,' was said to be called the tall center island of Anacapa named after worm tracings in the rocks. luqtiqay, said to mean 'big, high like a peak.' More complex animal names usually refer The etymology of Saticoy is more prob to the animal's habitat. This may be the nest lematic. Evidently influenced by the Hispani- of a bird, as in the three spots all named 'the cized version of the name, Harrington's infor eagle's nest,' or in V. kaspat kaxwa, 'nest of mants all gave satilioy as the placename, for the heron,' east of the Rancho Santa Ana. which they could suggest no convincing ety The den of a rodent is referred to in B. Us mology. But a generation earlier Henshaw uci'^, 'den of the woodrat,' a village at Arroyo quotes from Juan Estevan Pico a version of Quemada. With other animals, the recurrent the name which can only be interpreted as phrase is 'the house Câp) of . . . ,' as in V. hp sa'âqtilioy (Heizer 1955:96). In Inesefio, wi, 'house of the deer,' a village inland from there is a verb aqti-lcoyi, which means 'to be Mugu. The island at the east end of Anacapa sheltered from the wind, set back from the 196 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY wind.' While I have not seen this verb in the naming involves descriptive geographical Venturefio manuscripts, it does not seem names. Such descriptive names may be based unreasonable to suggest that the Venturefio on fancied resemblances, on the lay of the placename might mean something like 'a place land, or on directions and orientations. sheltered from the wind.' At least a dozen placenames apparently Other weather placenames have left no based on fancied resemblances are body part trace. Just south of Ventura at sap watuhuy, terms, such as kastiq, 'the eye, the face,' a 'house of the rain,' the surf was said to be village at Castaic Lake. Also still preserved are much louder than elsewhere on the coast. The V. seqê, 'kneecap,' now Sespe, and V. sih, old people said that when the sea roared at 'the eyelash,' the name of a horizontally sap watuhuy for two or three days, it was a striated mountain and a nearby village east of sign of rain soon to come. A couple of names Ojai, now seen as Sisar Creek and Sisar Peak. refer to the wind. At Gaviota was a cave North of Maricopa, sxeneri, 'shoulder,' is called husap husaxkiw in some dialect of preserved in loan translation hi an old Spanish Barbarefio, 'the house of the wind,' in refer placename La Paleta, 'the shoulder blade.' ence to the strong winds which blow tlirough Similar names of which no trace is left Gaviota Pass. An ancient sycamore tree on include: B. snoxs, 'nose,' a bluff in the hills San Antonio Creek north of Ventura was behind Santa Barbara; V. 'âlqilkowi, 'white of called V. ka'âqtawaq, 'north wind.' The 'wind the eye,' named after a white rock, now Little sycamore,' or 'wind tree,' as Harrington called Sycamore Canyon near Malibu; and kaielew, it, rustled constantly. Russell Ruiz (personal 'tongue,' a village near a sharply protmding communication) adds that this tree was also rock in Piru Canyon. called 'the talking tree'; one who listened Of other placenames based on fancied intently at the talking tree would hear the resemblances, the only one to survive is I. voices of his ancestors in the tree's murmur. stuk, 'wooden bowl,' now Stuke Canyon just The Harrington manuscript also contains east of Cachuma Canyon. The village of stuk weather lore not directly related to place- lay in a hollow in the mountains said to names. In reference to seheq, Santa Ynez resemble a bowl; this site is now known as La Peak (also important mythologically), there Jolla Basin. Black Mountain, south of Ojai, are two versions of a rain sign. In one version, was called kaxus, 'bear,' because of its color. it is a sure sign of rain when even the smallest A hill in Cafiada de Corral just east of cloud appears above seneq. According to the Refugio, thought to resemble the prickly other version, when the gathering clouds pear, was called kaxi, 'prickly pear.' Near come down until they touch the peak of Nojoqui is a long low hill like an overturned seheq, then rain will follow. Much the same boat, called I. mastomol axuxaw, 'the boat of belief surrounded Anacapa Island: when the Coyote,' and a domed rock in Santa Barbara clouds come down and wreath the tall island was B. sixvn hulaslla^, 'storage basket of of Anacapa, this means rain if the wind is Coyote.' from the south, and a strong wind if the wind The overall lay of the land may be is from the west. In either case, it was said, described. The only such placename to be Chumash seamen would head for shore once preserved is 'ânapamu-', 'rising place,' the the clouds touched Anacapa. name of a liill both in Santa Ynez and Santa Barbara; Anapamu is now a street name in DESCRIPTIVE PLACENAMES Santa Barbara. Of such placenames not pre A particularly common pattern of place- served, perhaps the best known is the name of CHUMASH PLACENAMES 197

the mission village at Ventura: micqanaqari, many placenames in this rather miscellaneous 'place of the jaw.' This name is attributed to a category have survived, unless perhaps Monte- shaman who saw the descending ridges on cito is a loan translation of B. helxelel, 'the either side of the mouth of the Ventura River big rock,' on Hot Springs Creek. Typical of as the jaws of a great coyote. Further up such placenames is heqep, the name of a stream, the ridge between the river and village near the Cuyama River. Maria Solares Cafiada Larga was referred to as 'the tongue etymologized the name as 'slab.' "It is a spot of Coyote.' that's not worth anything," she said, "I don't A well-known Inesefio village was kasa- know how those poor people lived there. qunpe4en, 'a long thing ends,' situated at the There was nothing but rocks at the place with mouth of a canyon north of Santa Ynez. A the chffs all around." She added that the deep canyon on Ahsal Creek south of Santa people of heqep were known as sorcerers, and Ynez was saqlalams, 'it is tucked in.' A village that they spoke a language very different in San Emigdio, at a sharp bend in the from Inesefio. canyon, was called taslipun, said to mean 'to Other examples of this style of place- crook the arm.' The name of the village near naming include B. âputiwayanamu'^, 'stream- the Mission San Luis Obispo was tilhini, said mg down place,' a rock by El Capitan where to mean 'isolated,' because of its location the waves dash high against the cliffs and between two creeks. Two similar placenames stream back down. A well-known village in are I. miswaskin, 'where it spreads out,' the central Santa Barbara, '''alpince''', is etymolo lower reaches of Santa Agueda Creek, and gized as 'a thmg that is spht,' "because there mismatulc, said to mean 'expanse' in the Dos were acorns of live oak and white oak that Pueblos dialect, a village at the mouth of opened themselves readily." In addition, there Arroyo Burro near Santa Barbara. were: qasil, a village at EI Refugio, said to Placenames may describe some more par mean 'beautiful' in the Dos Pueblos dialect; B. ticular aspect of a spot, although the surviving âlwaialam, 'congested one,' a weed-choked examples are uncertain. For humaliwo, now lake at La Patera; âlul, EI Tranquillon Malibu, Beeler (1957) suggests the etymology Heights near Point Conception, said to mean '(the surf) sounds loudly all the time,' based 'conspicuous,' and V. ka'âlisaw kasup, 'hot on the stem iwo, 'to sound,' and a prefix mal- earth,' a place near Simi. which can refer to the terrain. One of A few placenames refer to directions or Harrington's informants offered the explana orientations. One of these still surviving is tion that humaliwo means 'a port of theirs,' 'âqicurn, fu-st Hispanicized to Quichuma, and presumably in some dialect of Venturefio. now Cachuma; âqicum was said to mean 'a This etymology is unconvincing on linguistic constant sign' in Ineseno, because the canyon grounds, but Chester King (personal com in which it lay leads straight on toward San munication) points out that the mouth of Emigdio. Modem Caheguas Creek, northeast Mahbu Creek is an excellent launching spot. of Mugu, is named for V. kayiwis, 'head,' West of Mahbu, Zuma Creek and Zuma Beach which one informant claimed was being used derive their name from sumo, a village at the in the sense of 'principal place,' just as a chief mouth of Zuma Canyon. One informant might be referred to as 'the head.' In Carpin- claimed that the name means 'abundance' in teria, the village name misopsno was said to the Mahbu dialect, in reference to the easy mean 'correspondence,' because it is at the abundance of food in the area. coast end of a pass leading from koyo, now Other than Malibu and Zuma, none of the Casitas Canyon; koyo itself is said to mean 198 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

'beginning,' in reference to the pass toward less than thoroughly convincing etymology Carpinteria. suggested for kuyam, now Cuyama, is 'repose' In Santa Barbara, B. heliyik, 'the center,' (kuyam, 'to sit, wait'), since "pifion gatherers was one of the villages on Goleta Slough, went there to rest." The word also means although as the westernmost of these (Brown 'clam.' 1967:30, map), it was hardly the geograph There are other such placenames for ical center. The largest village on Santa which the name is clearly connected with the Cruz Island was C. nimatlala, also said to function. Some of these are of religious mean 'center.' The westernmost village on significance. In Alamo Pintado Canyon north Santa Cruz was C. lalale, 'west,' and at the of Santa Ynez, in a very large old sycamore other end of the island San Pedro Point was tree—the Alamo Pintado—was a hanging re caUed C. caqusquy, 'it points toward luqtiqay pository for the belongings of the dead. The (Anacapa).' tree, and the whole vicinity, was cahed I. âlaliwayan, 'one that hangs.' Another well- LOCAL FUNCTIONS AS PLACENAMES known repository for the belongings of the Some placenames make reference to spe dead was the point across the river immedi cialized functions of various locahties, either ately northwest of Ventura, called V. cwasti- economic or cultural. There are clear exam wil, 'shrine.' Fernando Librado mentioned ples of such names still surviving. One of the that in the old days no one would touch the northernmost Purisimefio villages was P. kas- articles left at these mortuary shrines, partly mali, 'it is the last,' now Casmaha. Harring out of respect for the dead, but also out of ton's entry says simply "kasmali means 'last' fear that the offerings might have been because it was the last rancheria where their magically poisoned. dialect and friendship extended." The modern On the Santa Ynez River was a hill known placename Sisquoc derives from P. "âsuskaw"^, as ûsakmu'^, 'shrine,' literally 'casting place said to mean 'stopping place.' North of Point (for offerings).' And to the north was a shrine Conception was xalam, 'bundle,' now Jalama mountain called ôwotoponus, 'adorned (with Creek. As the manuscript says: "It was a plumes),' in reference to the feathered pole gathering place. People would bundle up their which customarily marked shrines and sacred things, and take them there temporarily— places. The ridge of the sacred mountain hence the name." On the mainland, the îwhinmu^. Mount Pifios, bore an entire row closest point to the islands was V. wenemu, of these feathered poles. A mountain seen 'sleeping place,' now Hueneme; after their from the village of huwam. El Escorpi6n at periodic trading expeditions to the mainland, the westem extreme of the San Fernando the islanders used to spend the night at Valley, was cahed V. cwaya cuqele, 'the wenemu before heading back to Santa Cruz in feathered banner is waving.' According to the morning calm. The return trip was said to Henshaw (Heizer 1955:158, note 68), sorcer take about three hours. ers used the cuqele for summoning up the wind. An Obispefio placename still surviving is nipumu"^, 'village,' now Nipomo (Klar n.d.), Deep in the interior were the two sacred although another entry claims that "ânipomo mountains îwhinmu'^ and tosololo. Mount means 'promontory' in Purisimefio. If the Pifios and Frazier Mountain. Chester King name of the village was O. nipumu^, 'village,' (personal communication) reports that this then this is one of the clearest cases of a region was considered to be the center of the general term used in a specific local sense. A world, and that it was one of the last CHUMASH PLACENAMES 199 strongholds of native sorcery. Between '-'iwhi- could refer either to actual specialized func nmu^ and tosololo was a plain called '•'antap, tions or to legendary incidents. Those which now Cuddy Valley. It was said that spirits lit look as if they do not necessarily refer to the their fires and began to dance there at dusk, legendary past include: I. âmaxalamis, 'at the making a whizzing sound. The primary mean fiesta,' a village at Los Cigarros, north of ing of 'ântap is 'initiate, member of a secret Santa Ynez; âxwawilasmu^. El Capitan, said society'; in many ceremonials the '•'antap to mean 'dancing place' in some dialect of would swing the bullroarer to warn the Barbarefio; V. kamaxakmu, 'bark-stripping uninitiated of supernatural goings-on. As a place,' east of Ventura; and C.V. ka'âqtahan- placename, 'ântap was also apphed to a ravine mu, 'cooling off place,' now El Monte near immediately behind the town of Ventura. Castaic. Many of the participants in ceremonies made their ritual entry onto the dancing ground LEGENDARY PLACENAMES from the ravine ântap, and the common A good number of placenames look as if people were well advised to avoid this area they might refer to specific incidents which during ceremonial occasions. had passed into legend, or even into an Of economic import is the name of a oblivion relieved only by the name itselfi village on Santa Cruz Island, 'âlalakayarhu, Harrington's informants etymologized such said to mean 'it is piled up,' because at harvest names freely, but could not offer stories to time this was supposed to be a very weU substantiate the names. No doubt many of provisioned village. This same explanation these would fall into place in the light of the might apply to C.V. kasihasmu, 'where much tantalizing bits of stray information which the is stored,' a village at the mouth of Pastoria Harrington scholar can expect to stumble Canyon in the San Joaquin Valley. Two across without warning. widely separated coastal villages are called Surviving names of this type include V. sisolop, 'mud,' one at Ventura and the other 'âwhay, 'moon,' now Ojai, and 'âiaka, ety at Cafiada del Cojo just below Point Concep mologized as Purisimefio for 'in the bed,' now tion, but the name is also said to mean Zaca Station. The placename matilha, now 'port.' Chester King (personal communication) Matilija, is said to mean 'division' in the Ojai points out that both of these villages must dialect, but it is not at all clear in what sense have been trade centers, according to archaeo this translation is to be taken. Modern Te- logical evidence. In particular, the sisolop at pusquet, the name of a creek and a mountain Ventura was the western terminus of the east of Santa Maria, might derive from the trade-route from the San Joaquin Valley. By name of a Purisimefio viUage âlaqupsqen ~ the village of miciw at San Onofre, near laqupsqe, 'one that gives out,' although the Gaviota, was a spot called walapmu^, landing name is also etymologized as coming from place,' because "the ocean is very calm tapuxtey, said to mean 'go in and touch it.' there." North of Santa Ynez was a plain Other placenames which seem to refer called I. ânamiqhni'^, 'crushing place'; many to potentially legendary incidents include: stone traps were set there for ground squir îlwi\i>i, 'getting lost,' a place in the Santa rels, in which the squirrels were caught when Ynez Range; V. sap tutu, 'house of the they removed the acoms propping up stone squint-eyed man,' at the confluence of the slabs. Ventura River and Cafiada Larga; I. diâmu'^, Other placenames of this type, with no 'groaning place,' on the Rancho San Juhan; V. story recorded to substantiate the name. kawaciwsmu, 'archery-match place,' on Santa 200 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Paula Creek; V. kaâpiwil 'îni, 'fire is bom,' a was likewise called V. kaâp siîsa\i>, 'house of slope south of Ventura; and B. siyaxsaptuwas, the sun,' although there is no story to back up 'they went up together,' a hill in Santa the name. Barbara. The story of the 'two thunders,' two boys MYTHOLOGICAL PLACENAMES who became the two thunders, is widespread in Cahfomia. According to the Chumash, the Some placenames appear to be mythologi mother of the Two Thunders, a mortal cal in origin; a great many others are men woman, came from the village of homomoy a tioned in various myths. few miles east of Santa Ynez. This village Point Conception figures prominently in name is based on momoy, 'Jimson weed, Chumash mythology. The version of the name toloache,' used to induce visions. And the given as kumqaq is etymologized as 'the aunt of the two thunders lived at serieq ravens come,' although the commoner version mountain, Santa Ynez Peak. The name of the humqa4 defies etymology. It was said that the mountain is etymologized as either 'by the soul at death passed by Point Conception on woman' (êneq, 'woman') because the aunt its way to similaqsa, the westem land of the hved nearby, or else as the aunt's own dead. Ravens came from the other world, the personal name. Less convincingly, another spirit world, and pecked out the eyes of the informant claimed that serieq means 'sign,' in soul as it passed kumqa4- The groping soul reference to the belief that clouds over serieq plucked two poppies, which it put into its prefigure rain. empty sockets with which to see until it Chismahoo Mountain, northeast of Car reached the spirit world. There it got new pinteria, is also important mythologically. eyes of blue abalone. The name dismuhu is said to mean 'it streams The sun was an important figure mytho out,' and it figures in the story of man's logically. A cave on the Cuyama River was emergence into the world. This information called mas'ap aqsi, 'the house of the sun' (an does not appear in the Harrington manuscript, Inesefio rendering of the mdigenous name?). but was related by Russell Ruiz (personal In it were life-sized animals tumed to stone. communication). Man was created on mi- As the Harrington manuscript says, "at that chimas, Santa Cruz Island: the mother god place there were the following animals turned dess sup ('earth') dropped some chilicothe to stone: Eagle, Hawk, Bear-the bear was seeds and man sprang up from these. Soon seated, the form of a bear, with water mankind multiplied to the extent that the tricklmg from his mouth. It's good water; one collective tumult kept sup awake at night. She can drink it. Lion, Coyote-Coyote is with made a rainbow bridge which arched above drawn apart from the others . . . . " Just how the fog from Mount Diablo, the highest point neatly this cave name fits into Chumash myth on Santa Cruz, to dismuhu on the mainland. emerges elsewhere in the manuscript, in a text She warned the people not to look down on the sun. The sun was a very old man, a from the rainbow bridge, and she sent them widower with two daughters who wear skirts across to dismuhu, where they streamed out of Uve rattlesnakes. "The house of the sun is to populate the world. Those who looked very large. There m the miluk [interior] are down fell into the sea and became dolphins. snakes, bears, lions-he has them all, tame, As for the name of Mount Diablo on right in the same house where he hves and Santa Cruz, it does not occur in the manu eats. These are his animals, masqohqo'^ [his script with any such specific designation. But pets]." Northwest of Ventura, Red Mountam there is mention of a place called siwoi, CHUMASH PLACENAMES 201

sometimes identified as the Santa Barbara the principal Barbarefio viUages. Femando islands in toto, sometimes identified as a Librado, who claimed to be a descendant of sacred place either on one particular island or matipuyawt, added that the people of suku else perhaps in the spirit world. A hne quoted still spoke much Cruzefio even in mission from a prayer is kalcalulkuw hi siwoi, 'I am in days. awe of siwot'; another is siwot kalcamifi, In speaking of michimas, Santa Cmz, 'siwoi is my body.' This siwoi may be Mount Maria Solares mentioned a race of giants who Diablo; the name might be connected with waded over to the islands in ancient days. woi, 'chief "The fu-st people were tall-they did not have Another place associated with the mother to use tomol [boats], but crossed to the goddess sup is La Cumbre Peak behind Santa islands walking. And the old men told her Barbara (Russell Ruiz, personal communica that people had found bones on Santa Rosa tion). This mountain was called tiptipsup, said Island very big, and at mikiw [Dos Pueblos], to mean 'high high earth,' and in the 1800s, big bones, yards long, but of people." before the peak was renamed La Cumbre ('the The male principle complementary to the summit'), its original Chumash name was mother goddess sup was "âlapay, 'the one folk-etymologized to Tiptop Mountain. above,' known as the sky father or the cosmic serpent (Russell Ruiz, personal communica ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA tion). He was embodied in the Milky Way; IN THE MANUSCRIPT lightning was his tongue, and he gave the gift The Harrington manuscript contains a of fire to man. The cosmic serpent was said to great deal of ethnographic information not have spent some years on earth in a cave in always etymologically related to the place- the Santa Ynez Valley. The Harrington manu names cited. This ethnographic data deals script mentions the serpent only passingly, with various aspects of mythology, legend, but it elaborates on the location of the cave. customs, material culture, and practical lore This cave is in the northern chff of the hill about the environment. A samphng of this ânapamu'^ 'rising place,' on the south side of material, at least that which concerns particu the Santa Ynez River just southwest of lar places, might be in order. Solvang. The name of the cave is not given. A dietary taboo emerges in an entry on There was a shrine on top of this hill, an îwhinmu'^, Mount Pifios. Maria Solares re ûsakmu'^; in the old days it was marked by a called camping at îwhinmu^ once during her feathered pole. The name ûsakmu'^ was also childhood, pifion gathering. One man of the applied to this spot as a general placename. party told her not to eat any meat there, Certain places were regarded with a cer because it was a dry camp. Fernando Librado tain degree of awe and fear as supernaturally also mentioned this taboo against meat-eating charged and potentially dangerous. Thus, when no drinking water is available. speaking of San Cayetano Mountain, north Legends preserve some evidence of popu east of Santa Paula, an informant ety lation movement, particularly from the is mologized the name waha'âs as "it is very lands to the mainland. Thus, according to ominous; you don't dare call out or anything, tradition, the viUage of suku at EI Rincon was for that canyon is very "âlitiswic [supernatu founded by matipuyawt of Santa Cruz Island; rally charged]." Harrington noted that when matipuyawt, whose name is said to mean 'one asked about lisamu, his informant "knows to be respected' in Cmzeno, was the brother that it is a place by the coast up by San Luis of the woman who founded syuxtun, one of Obispo. Also that it is a sacred place. People 202 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY went there only when they wanted to usakstis Los Prietos y Najalayegua on the upper [sacrifice] ." The whole vicinity of the sacred reaches of the Santa Ynez River; and was- mountain 'iwhinmu'^ was heavily forested na ~ âwasna, now Huasna, north of Santa with pifion pines, but on the mountain itself Maria. Of the many unetymologizable place- the Chumash would not gather the nuts. The names which have left no trace, a few follow: summit of ''iwhinmu' had a shrine which no 'ânaxacux, a village on Salsipuedes Creek, Indian would approach except to make sacri south of Lompoc; -'axsali, a village near fice, and the manuscript alludes to some Maricopa; kenepstin. Oak Park in Santa Bar misfortune said to befall anyone who talked bara; loxostoxni, a vihage at Trancas Canyon, while going up one of the sacred mountains to west of Point Dume; miciw, a village at San sacrifice. Onofre, east of Gaviota; milium, a spring in Some of the ethnographic information the Cuyama Valley; qoloq, a village at Carpin concerns sorcery; it is mentioned quite often. teria; suluplup. Pyramid Peak behind Santa The village of heqep in the Cuyama region Barbara; tuqan, San Miguel Island; 'upop, a was known for witchcraft, Maria Solares said. village at Cafiada del Cojo Viejo, near Point "The people of heqep were very wicked, very Conception; and wanam, Laguna Blanca in much given to witchcraft. Almost every per Santa Barbara. son in heqep was a sorcerer." Three Ven No doubt a deeper knowledge of the turefio informants had all heard of a cave Chumash languages would clarify some of occupied by a bear doctor; one informant these opaque placenames. But even to Har "heard that in that cave a bear medicine man rington's most inventive informants, many lived and would sally forth from there as far placenames were blanks for which they could as Ventura to frighten the people. Nobody suggest no etymology. ever entered the cave. The cave was on the inland side of a ridge." They gave no name for THE GRAMMAR OF PLACENAMES the cave, but it is on V. cap si'îsaxi', 'house of For those with some linguistic inclination, the sun,' now Red Mountain northwest of a sketch of the grammatical devices used in Ventura. In reference to the southernmost placenaming might be in order. Just as the village on Santa Rosa Island, nilalhuyu, Hen semantic pattern of placenaming was uniform shaw reports Juan Estevan Pico's claim that it among the various Chumash groups, the gram "was a town celebrated for sorcery; no matical composition of placenames was quite women or children were ahowed in this town, uniform too. Placenames may be basically only men" (Heizer 1955:197). However, nouns, basically verbs, or whole phrases. Brown (1967:11, note 14) reports that this Nouns as placenames show the simplest claim is discredited by mission baptismal pattern. These may be just a bare noun stem, records. as in I. stuk, 'wooden bowl,' a village upriver from Santa Ynez; V. muwu, 'beach,' a village PLACENAMES WITHOUT ETYMOLOGIES at Mugu; or a noun with the third person There are many placenames for which no possessive prefix s-. These usually belong to etymology is recorded or suggested. At least the class of inalienably possessed nouns which five of these still survive: takuy^, now Tecuya never appear without some possessive prefix: Creek and Tecuya Mountain near Grapevine B. s-'âxpilil, 'its root,' a village near Goleta; Canyon; teqeps, now Tequepis Canyon, south and V. s-'êqiie, 'its kneecap,' now Sespe. of Lake Cachuma; simiyi, now Simi Vahey; Occasionally a noun occurs with the snaxalayiwis, now Najalayegua m the Rancho definite article; this is an integral part of the CHUMASH PLACENAMES 203

placename, since the articles otherwise do not splits in two,' a village in Santa Barbara; V. occur with placenames and proper names. The ka-s-tixwan-uc, 'it is scratched,' a hill in article is ma- in Inesefio: ma-sul-sulul, 'the Ventura. Verbs may take the agentive prefix shale bed,' a white bluff by the river; he-l- or â/-, 'one which does.' Examples include: B. hu-l- in Barbarefio: he-l-'ô'^, 'the water,' a "âl-watalam, 'one that is congested,' a weedy village on Goleta Slough; and si- or Is/ plus lake at Goleta; 1. ''al-ali-wayan, 'one that some vowel in Venturefio: sa-'^-aqti-lioy, 'a hangs,' the Alamo Pintado near Santa Ynez. thing sheltered from the wind,' now Saticoy. They may also take the indefinite subject The locative prefix mi- may occur with marker am-, often in conjunction with the nouns, as in V. mi-c-qanaqaii, 'place of his agentive prefix 'âl-: I. 'âl-am-kuyam, 'what jaw,' a village at Ventura; and mi-chimas, they get on top of,' now Los Olivos. 'place of the islanders,' Santa Cruz Island. The locative prefix mi- may occur with The agentive prefix "âl-, 'one which does,' verbs: I. mi-s-waskin, 'where it spreads open,' seems to have a locative force with nouns in upriver from Santa Ynez, but the suffixed placenames: P. âl-s-âkay -^> "âdaka, 'in its equivalent -mu'\ 'place where,' is much more bed,' now Zaca Station; P. "âl-swey —> "âlis- common; V. wetl-mu'^ -^> wenemu,'sleeping wey, 'at the tarweed,' which is now called place,' now Hueneme; I. ka-s-pax-mu', 'its Lisque Creek. turning place,' near Santa Ynez; C.V. ka- The verbal prefix ka- with nouns seems to siiiay-s-mu —> kasiiiasmu, 'where much is make them into one word sentences; this stored,' a village at the mouth of Pastoria predicative prefix is particularly common in Canyon. placenames: ka-mulus, '[it is] the juniper,' Phrases as placenames are fairly common. now Camulos; ka-s-tiq, '[it is] its eye, face,' Usually they are possessive phrases: the pos now Castaic. Sometimes nouns in placenames sessed noun with possessive prefix 5- is fol are reduplicated; reduplication is an extreme lowed by the possessor noun, as is usual in ly common process in Chumash, and it occurs Chumash: I. ma-s-'âp ha-qsi, 'the house of the in grammatical environments of all sorts. sun,' literally 'the his house the sun,' in the Usually with nouns, reduphcation simply has Cuyama Valley; V. ka-s-oxsol ka-wi, 'urine of a plural force, but it may have more a the deer,' a spring near Ventura. The pos collective sense in placenames, such as B. sessed noun may be derived from a noun with woq-woqo, 'much tar,' a place by Moore's -mu'\ as in I. s-xel-mes-imi-' ha-ciU, 'jumping Landing; and V. ka-xso-xô, '[it is] the across place of the antelope,' a narrow canyon sycamore grove,' near Ventura. above Santa Ynez. Verbs in placenames only rarely show the Verbal phrases may also function as place- bare verb root without some prefix. The few names. The verb precedes the subject noun, as examples uiclude: taxiwax, 'to leak,' now in I. s-'ûw ma-cay), 'the jay eats,' a canyon Tajiquas Creek; and taslipun, 'to crook the south of Santa Ynez; and V. c-waya cuqele, arm,' a village in San Emigdio. Otherwise, 'the feathered banner waves,' a mountain west nearly verbally based placenames show some of the San Fernando Valley. The verb is often prefix or derivative suffix. The predicative subject to relativization, as in 1. ma-l-iton prefix ka- is common with all verbal place- ha-'ô'^, 'water that is bitter,' a spring; and V. names. ka-'âl-isaw ka-ô, 'water that is hot,' a hot Verbs are very often prefixed with s-, the spring. It may also be truncated, as in B. third person singular subject marker (and [.?]-t/A:5 hu-l-ô'^ ^ '•'uksulo'^, 'that water possessive marker in nouns): B. s-yux-tun, 'it stinks,' a spot in Goleta Slough. 204 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

The irregular treatment of some place- bolism plus irregular vowel harmony shows up names indicates that Chumash speakers might m V. âl-koi-^ 'ônkoi, 'at the little soap- have regarded them as unanalyzable units, or root,' a village near the Rancho Santa Ana. at least as less subject to analysis than many It may be that some of these apparently other placenames. These placenames may irregular placenames represent an older stra show extreme truncation or irregular phono tum of Chumash settlement. Much the same logical developments which blur morpheme process operates in the phonological reduc boundaries. As examples of extreme trunca tion of many old placenames in English, such tion, some names are phrases in which most as Wessex or Plymouth, which are no longer or all inflectional affixes are lost, particularly segmentable for many speakers. the article with nouns: I. [s]-kum [ha] -qaq —^ kumqaq, 'raven comes,' Point Con ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ception; and V. [ka]-s-'''ap [ka]-wi —^ âpwi, In the course of this research, I have 'house of deer,' a village name. learned a great deal from extensive talks with Morpheme boundaries are blurred by the several people also familiar with the Chumash propagation of vowel harmony into affixes and with the Harrington manuscript. They are which normally do not exhibit vowel har Madison S. Beeler, University of Cahfornia, mony. Thus, wliile the low vowels /e a o/ in Berkeley, working primarily with Barbarefio, stems and certain prefixes all agree, other but also Cruzefio and interior Chumash; prefixes are immune to vowel harmony. But Thomas Blackburn, Cahfomia Polytechnic Po occasionally in placenames, the non-harmonic mona, who wrote his dissertation on Chumash predicative prefix ka- and the agentive prefix oral tradition; Chester King, University of âl-[do] show vowel harmony: I. ka- California, Davis, an archaeologist who has ô''' ^> ko'ô'^, 'water,' now Zaca Lake; I. worked in the Santa Barbara area; and Russell ka-s-tepet —^ kestepet, 'it rolls,' a hogback Ruiz, Santa Barbara historian, who is intense hill; and V. ka-xso —> koxso, 'sycamore,' a ly interested in all things Chumash. My thanks spot in Ventura. A couple of other place- to Shirley Silver, Sonoma State University, names which irregular phonological develop who first suggested that I write this paper. ments have made less transparent are: wayan- mu^—^ wayamu'-", 'hanging place,' an inland California State University plain; and '''al-am-iqim-mu^ —^ "ânamiqimi^, San Jose 'where they cmsh,' a plain near Santa Ynez. For these two, the regular development would REFERENCES be *wayanumu'^ and *'âlamiqimimu^, with Beeler, M.S. an epenthetic vowel between the two nasal 1957 On Etymologizing Indian Place Names. consonants and no vowel harmony in the Names 5:236-240. suffix -mu'^ in the second placename. 1966 Hueneme. Names 14:36-40. Further, many placenames in Venturefio Brown, A. K. (and a few in the other languages) show a 1967 The Aboriginal Population of the Santa process of diminutive consonant symbohsm Barbara Channel. University of California (Harrington 1974:9); here, 1 ^ n, x ^ q, Archaeological Survey Reports No. 69. and s, c, and s ^ c, as in V. c-âx- Berkeley. pilil—^ caqpinin, 'little root,' near Cafiada Gudde, E.G. Larga; and V. si-xwaps-^ ciqwapc, 'little 1960 California Place Names. Berkeley: Univer nettle,' now Cafiada Larga. Consonant sym sity of California Press. CHUMASH PLACENAMES 205

Harrington, J. P. Mission Indian Vocabularies of H. W. 1912- Unpublished manuscript materials, parti- Henshaw. Anthropological Records 15(2). 1922 cularly Box 726, Bundle 4, on Inesefio placenames; Box 747, Bundle 20, on Klar, K. Ventureiio and island placenames; and n.d. Pismo and Nipomo: Two Northern Chu Box 748, unnumbered bundle, on Barbar mash Placenames. Names (manuscript in eno placenames. Manuscripts on file at the press). Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Kroeber, A. L. Sibilants in Ventureiio. International Jour 1974 1916 California Placenames of Indian Origin. nal of American Linguistics 40:1-9. University of California Publications in Heizer, R. F. American Archaeology and Ethnology 1955 California Indian Linguistic Records: The 12(2).

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