Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing Geology Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing Geology
Second Edition
With 453 Figures and 53 Tables
, Springer Dr. Ravi Prakash Gupta Professor ofEarth Resourees Teehnology Department ofEarth Seienees Indian Institute ofTeehnology Roorkee (Formerly, University ofRoorkee) Roorkee - 247667, India E-mail: [email protected]
Cover page: Doubly plunging folds in roeks of the Delhi Super Group (Landsat MSS4 infrared band image). Figure 16.24
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ISBN 978-3-642-07741-8 ISBN 978-3-662-05283-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05283-9
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2003 Softeover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 2003
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regula tions and therefore free for general use. Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information about dosage and application contained in this book. In every individual case the user must check such information by consulting the relevant literature. Production: PRO EDIT GmbH, 69126 Heidelberg, Germany Cover design: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Camera-ready by the author Printed on acid-freepaper 32/3141Re-543210 :Jo, m.s./e Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of this book appeared in 1991, and since then there have been many developments in the field of remote sensing, both in the direction of tech nology of data acquisition as weH as in data processing and applications. This has necessitated a new edition of the book. The revised edition includes new and updated material on a number of topics - SAR interferometry, hyperspectral sensing, digital imaging cameras, GPS princi pie, new optical and microwave satellite sensors, and so me of the emerging tech niques in digital image processing and GIS. Besides, a host of new geological ap plications of remote sensing are also included. The book has been thoroughly revised; nevertheless, it retains the originallong axis and style, i.e. discuss the basic remote sensing principles, systems of data ac quisition, data processing and present the wide ranging geological applications. The following individuals reviewed parts of the manuscript, suggested im provements and fumished missing links: R. P. Agarwal, M. K. Arora, R. Gens, U. K. Haritashya, K. Hiller, H. Kaufmann, D. King, J. Mathew, F. vander Meer, R. R. Navalgund, S. Nayak, A. Prakash, S. K. Rath, A. K. Saha, A. K. Sen, and A. N. Singh. I am greatly obliged to them for their valuable inputs and suggestions in ar riving at the final presentation. I deeply appreciate the infinite patience and endurance of Sarvesh Kumar Sharma in typing and computer-finishing the manuscript. Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu, for her encouragement and support, particularly in times when no end appeared in sight.
Roorkee Ravi P. Gupta November 2002 Preface to the First Edition
There has been phenomenal growth in the field of remote sensing over the last two to three decades. It has been applied in the fields of geology, mineral explora tion, forestry, agriculture, hydrology, soils, land use etc. - that is, in all pursuits of sciences dealing with the features, processes, and phenomena operating at the Earth's surface. The status of geological remote sensing has rapidly advanced and the scientific literature is scattered. The aim of the present book is to systemati cally discuss the specific requirements of geological remote sensing, to summarize the techniques of remote sensing data collection and interpretation, and to inte grate the technique into geo-exploration.
The main conceptual features of the book are:
- To combine various aspects of geological remote sensing, ranging from the laboratory spectra of minerals and rocks to aerial and space-bome remote sens ing. - To integrate photo-geology into remote sensing. - To promote remote sensing as a tool in integrated geo-exploration. - To elucidate the wide-spectrum geoscientific applications of remote sensing, ranging from meso to global scale.
The book has been written to satisfy the needs of mainly graduate students and active research workers interested in applied Earth sciences. It is primarily concept oriented rather than system or module oriented. The organization of the book is detailed in Chapter 1 (Table 1.1). The book has three chief segments: (1) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the opti cal region; (2) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the microwave re gion; and (3) data processing, integration and applications. The idea for the book germinated as I prepared a course in remote sensing at the University of Roorkee for graduate students, during which extensive lecture notes were made. The book is an outcome of my teaching and research at the University ofRoorkee, and partly also at the University ofMunich. A wide-spectrum book in a field like remote sensing, where advancements are taking place at such a fast pace, can hardly be exhaustive and up-to-date. Although every effort has been made to incorporate recent developments, the priority has been on concepts rather than on compilation of data alone (SPOT data examples could not be included because of copyright limitations). x Preface
Sincere thanks are due to many individuals and organizations who have con tributed in various ways to the book. Particularly, I am grateful to Dr. Rupert Haydn, Managing Director, Gesellschaft fur Angewandte Femerkundung mbH, Munich, Germany, and formerly at the University of Munich, for supplying nu merous illustrations. He kindly provided many images for the book, and offered blanket permission to select illustrations and examples from his wide and precious collection. Dr. Haydn also spent valuable time reviewing parts of the text, offered fruitful criticism and is responsible for many improvements. Dr. Konrad Hiller, DLR Germany and formerly at the University of Munich, provided what was needed most - inspiration and warm friendly support. Many stimulating discussions with hirn promoted my understanding of the subject matter and led to numerous reforms. Without Konrad's encouragement, this book may not have seen the light of the day. I am grateful to a number of people, particularly the following, for going through parts of the manuscript of their interest, suggesting amendments and fur nishing several missing links: K. Amason, R. Chander, R.P.S. Chhonkar, F. Jas kolla, H. Kaufmann, F. Lehmann, G. Philip, A.K. Saraf, K.P. Sharma, V.N. Singh, B.B.S. Singhal, R. Sinha, D.C. Srivastava, U. Terhalle, R.S. Tiwari, L.C. Venkatadhri and P. Volk. Thanks are also due to Prof. Dr. J. Bodechtel, Institut für Allgemeine und Angewandie Geologie (Institute for General and Applied Geology), University of Munich, for his advice, suggestions and free access to the facilities at Munich. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Bonn, and the Gesellschaft für Angewandte Femerkundung mbH, Munich (Dr. R. Haydn) kindly provided financial support for my visits and stay in Germany, during which parts ofthe book were written. A book on remote sensing has to present many pietures and illustrations. A large number of these were borrowed from colleagues, organizations, instrument manufacturers, commercial firms and publications. These are acknowledged in the captions. For the excellent production ofthe book, the credit goes to Dr. W. Engel, Ms. I. Scherich, Ms. G. Hess, Ms. lean von dem Bussche and Ms. Theodora Krammer of Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Although a number of people have directly and indirectly contributed to the book, I alone am responsible for the statements made herein. It is possible that some oversimplifications appear as erroneous statements. Suggestions from read ers will be gratefully accepted. Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu for not only patiently enduring 4 years of my preoccupation with the book, but also extending positive support and en couragement. If this book is able to generate interest in readers for this newly emerging tech nology, I shall consider my efforts to be amply rewarded.
Roorkee, lune 1991 R. P. Gupta Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Definition and Scope ...... 1 1.2 Development of Remote Sensing ...... 1 1.3 Fundamental Principle ...... 3 1.4 Advantages and Limitations ...... 4 1.5 A Typical Remote Sensing Programme ...... 6 1.6 Field Data (Ground Truth) ...... 9 1.6.1 Timing ofField Data Collection ...... 9 1.6.2 Sampling ...... 10 1.6.3 Types ofField Data ...... 11 1.6.4 GPS Survey ...... 14 1.7 Scope and Organization ofthis Book ...... 16
Chapter 2: Physical Principles
2.1 The Nature ofEM Radiation ...... 19 2.2 Radiation Principles and Sources ...... 20 2.2.1 Radiation Terminology ...... 20 2.2.2 Blackbody Radiation Principles ...... 20 2.2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum ...... 23 2.2.4 Energy Available for Sensing ...... 24 2.3 Atmospheric Effects ...... 24 2.3.1 Atmospheric Scattering ...... 25 2.3.2 Atmospheric Absorption ...... 26 2.3.3 Atmospheric Emission ...... 28 2.4 Energy Interaction Mechanisms on the Ground ...... 28 2.4.1 Reflection Mechanism ...... 28 2.4.2 Transmission Mechanism ...... 30 2.4.3 Absorption Mechanism ...... 32 2.4.4 Earth's Emission ...... 32 XII Contents
Chapter 3: Spectra of Minerals and Rocks
3.1 Introduction ...... 33 3.2 Basic Arrangements for Laboratory Spectroscopy ...... 34 3.3 Energy States and Transitions - Basic Concepts ...... 36 3.3.1 Electronic Processes ...... 36 3.3.2 Vibrational Processes ...... 39 3.4 Spectral Features ofMineralogical Constituents ...... 39 3.4.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Region (VNIR) (0.4-1.0 ).tm) ...... 39 3.4.2 SWIR Region (1-3 ).tm) ...... 39 3.4.3 Thermal-IR Region ...... 42 3.5 Spectra of Minerals ...... 44 3.6 Spectra of Rocks ...... 45 3.6.1 Solar Reflection Region (VNIR + SWIR) ...... 45 3.6.2 Thermal-Infrared Region ...... 48 3.7 Laboratory vs. Field Spectra ...... 49 3.8 Spectra of Other Common Objects ...... 50 3.9 Future ...... 52
Chapter 4: Photography
4.1 Introduction ...... 53 4.1.1 Relative Merits and Limitations ...... 53 4.1.2 W orking Principle ...... 54 4.2 Cameras ...... 55 4.2.1 Single-Lens Frame Cameras ...... 56 4.2.2 Panoramic Cameras ...... 58 4.2.3 Strip Cameras ...... 58 4.2.4 Multiband Cameras ...... 58 4.3 Films ...... 59 4.3.1 Black-and-White Films ...... 59 4.3.2 Colour Films ...... 64 4.4 Filters ...... 68 4.5 Film-Filter Combinations for Spectrozonal Photography ...... 69 4.6 Vertical and Oblique Photography ...... 70 4.7 Ground Resolution Distance ...... 71 4.8 Photographic Missions ...... 72 4.8.1 Aerial Photographic Missions ...... 72 4.8.2 Space-bome Photographic Missions ...... 72 4.8.3 Product Media ...... 74 Contents XIII
Chapter 5: Multispeetral Imaging Systems
5.1 Introduction ...... 75 5.1.1 Working Principle ...... 75 5.2 Factors Affecting Sensor Performance ...... 78 5.2.1 Sensor Resolution ...... 80 5.3 Non-Imaging Radiometers ...... 81 5.3.1 Terminology ...... 81 5.3.2 Working Principle ...... 82 5.4 Imaging Sensors (Scanning Systems) ...... 83 5.4.1 What is an Image? ...... 83 5.4.2 Imaging Tube (Vidicon) ...... 84 5.4.3 Optical-Mechanical Line Scanner (Whiskbroom Scanner) ... . 86 5.4.4 CCD Linear Array Scanner (Pushbroom scanner) ...... 88 5.4.5 Digital cameras (CCD-Area-Arrays) ...... 92 5.5 Space-bome Imaging Sensors ...... 97 5.5.1 Landsat Programme ...... 97 5.5.2 IRS Series ...... 105 5.5.3 SPOT Series ...... 108 5.5.4 MOMS Series ...... 110 5.5.5 JERS-l (Fuyo-l) OPS ...... 111 5.5.6 CBERS Series ...... 112 5.5.7 RESURS-l Series ...... 112 5.5.8 ASTER Sensor ...... 113 5.5.9 MTI ...... 114 5.5.10 Space Imaging/Eosat - Ikonos ...... 115 5.5.11 DigitalGlobe - Quickbird ...... 115 5.5.12 Other Programmes (Past) ...... 116 5.5.l3 Planned Programmes ...... 119 5.6 Products from Scanner Data ...... 121
Chapter 6: Geometrie Aspeets of Photographs and Images
6.1 Geometrie Distortions ...... 123 6.1.1 Distortions Related to Sensor System ...... 125 6.l.2 Distortions Related to Sensocraft Altitude and Perturbations .. . 128 6.1.3 Distortions Related to the Earth's Shape and Spin ...... 131 6.l.4 ReliefDisplacement ...... 132 6.2 Stereoscopy ...... 136 6.2.1 Principle ...... 136 6.2.2 Vertical Exaggeration ...... 137 6.2.3 Aerial and Space-bome Configurations for Stereo Coverage ... . 138 6.2.4 Photography vis-a-vis Line-Scanner Imagery for Stereoscopy .. 140 6.2.5 Instrumentation for Stereo Viewing ...... 140 6.3 Photogrammetry ...... 142 XIV Contents
6.3.1 Measurements on Photographs ...... 142 6.3.2 Measurements on Line-Scanner Images ...... 144 6.3.3 Aerial vis-a-vis Satellite Photogrammetry ...... 145 6.4 Transfer ofPlanimetric Details and Mapping ...... 146
Chapter 7: Image Quality and Principles of Interpretation
7.1 Image Quality ...... 147 7.1.1 Factors Affecting Image Quality ...... 148 7.2 Handling of Photographs and Images ...... 151 7.2.1 Indexing ...... 151 7.2.2 Mosaic ...... 152 7.2.3 Scale Manipulation ...... 153 7.2.4 Stereo Viewing ...... 153 7.2.5 Combining Multispectral Products ...... 153 7.3 Fundamentals ofInterpretation ...... 154 7.3.1 Elements of Photo Interpretation ...... 155 7.3.2 Geotechnical Elements ...... 157
Chapter 8: Interpretation of Data in the Solar Reflection Region
8.1 Introduction ...... 161 8.2 Energy Budget Considerations for Sensing in the SOR Region . 162 8.2.1 Effect of Attitude ofthe Sun ...... 162 8.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Meteorological Conditions ...... 165 8.2.3 Effect of Topographic Slope and Aspect ...... 165 8.2.4 Effect of Sensor Look Angle ...... 167 8.2.5 Effect of Target Reflectance ...... 168 8.3 Acquisition and Processing of Solar Reflection Image Data .... . 168 8.4 Interpretation ...... 169 8.4.1 Interpretation ofPanchromatic Black-and-White Products ...... 169 8.4.2 Interpretation of Multispectral Products ...... 174 8.4.3 Interpretation of Colour Products ...... 177 8.5 Luminex Method ...... 180 8.6 Scope for Geological Applications ...... 180
Chapter 9: Interpretation of Data in the Thermal-Infrared Region
9.1 Introduction ...... 183 9.2 Earth's Radiant Energy - Basic Considerations ...... 184 9.2.1 Surface (Kinetic) Temperature ...... 185 9.2.2 Emissivity ...... 190 9.3 Broad-Band Thermal-IR Sensing ...... 190 Contents xv
9.3.1 Radiant Temperature and Kinetie Temperature ...... 191 9.3.2 Aequisition ofBroad-Band Thermal-IR Data ...... 192 9.3.3 Proeessing ofBroad-Band TIR Images...... 194 9.3.4 Interpretation ofThermal-IR Imagery ...... 195 9.3.5 Thermal Inertia mapping ...... 198 9.3.6 Seope for Geologieal Applieations- Broad-Band Thermal Sensing ...... 201 9.4 Temperature Estimation ...... 206 9.4.1 Use ofLandsat TM Data for Temperature Estimation ...... 206 9.4.2 Use ofLandsat-7 ETM+ Data for Temperature Estimation .... 209 9.5 Thermal-IR Multispeetral Sensing ...... 210 9.5.1 Multispeetral Sensors in the TIR ...... 211 9.5.2 Data Correetion and Enhaneement ...... 213 9.5.3 Applieations ...... 214 9.6 LIDAR Sensing ...... 215 9.6.1 Working Prineiple ...... 215 9.6.2 Seope for Geologieal Applieations ...... 216 9.7 Future ...... 216
Chapter 10: Digital Image Processing of Multispectral Data
10.1 Introduetion ...... 217 10.1.1 What is Digital Imagery? ...... 217 10.1.2 Sourees of Multispeetral Image Data ...... 219 10.l.3 Storage and Supply ofDigital Image Data ...... 220 1O.l.4 Image Proeessing Systems ...... 220 10.l.5 Teehniques ofDigital Image Proeessing ...... 222 10.2 Radiometrie Image Correction ...... 224 10.2.1 Correetion for Atmospheric Contribution ...... 224 10.2.2 Correetion for Solar Illumination Variation ...... 226 10.2.3 Correetion for Topographie Effeets ...... 226 10.2.4 Sensor Calibration ...... 228 10.2.5 De-striping ...... 229 10.2.6 Correetion for Periodie and Spike Noise ...... 231 10.3 Geometrie Correetions ...... 232 10.3.1 Correction for Panoramie Distortion ...... 232 10.3.2 Correetion for Skewing Due to Earth's Rotation ...... 232 10.3.3 Correetion for Aspeet Ratio Distortion ...... 233 10.4 Registration ...... 233 10.4.1 Definition and Importanee ...... 233 10.4.2 Prineiple ...... 234 10.4.3 Proeedure ...... 235 10.5 Image Enhaneement ...... 238 10.6 Image Filtering ...... 242 10.6.1 High-Pass Filtering (Edge Enhancement) ...... 243 XVI Contents
10.6.2 Image Smoothing ...... 248 10.6.3 Fourier Filtering ...... 248 10.7 Image Transformation ...... 250 10.7.1 Addition and Subtraction ...... 253 10.7.2 Principal Component Transformation ...... 255 10.7.3 Decorrelation Stretching ...... 258 10.7.4 Ratioing ...... 258 10.8 Colour Enhancement ...... 262 10.8.1 Advantages ...... 262 10.8.2 Pseudocolour Display ...... 263 10.8.3 Colour Display ofMultiple Images- Guidelines for Image Selection ...... 263 10.8.4 Colour Models ...... 264 10.9 Image Fusion ...... 267 10.9.1 Introduction ...... 267 10.9.2 Techniques ofImage Fusion ...... 267 10.10 2.5-Dimensional Visualization ...... 270 10.10.1 Shaded Relief Model (SRM) ...... 271 10.10.2 Synthetic Stereo ...... 271 10.10.3 Perspective View ...... 272 10.11 Image Segmentation ...... 274 10.12 Digital Image Classification ...... 274 10.12.1 Supervised Classification ...... 276 10.12.2 Unsupervised Classification ...... 281 10.12.3 Fuzzy Classification ...... 282 10.12.4 Linear Mixture Modelling (LMM) ...... 283 10.12.5 Artificial Neural Network Classification ...... 283 10.12.6 Classification Accuracy Assessment ...... 284
Chapter 11: Hyperspectral Sensing
11.1 Introduction ...... 287 11.2 Spectral Considerations ...... 289 11.2.1 Processes Leading to Spectral Features ...... 289 11.2.2 Continuum and Absorption Depth - Terminology ...... 290 11.2.3 High-Resolution Spectral Features - Laboratory Data ...... 291 11.2.4 Mixtures ...... 294 11.2.5 Spectral Libraries ...... 296 11.3 Hyperspectral Sensors ...... 296 11.3.1 W orking Principle of Imaging Spectrometers ...... 297 11.3.2 Sensor Specification Characteristics ...... 299 11.3.3 Airborne Hyperspectra1 Sensors ...... 300 11.3.4 Space-bome Hyperspectra1 Sensors ...... 300 11.4 Processing ofHyperspectral Data ...... 302 11.4.1 Pre-processing ...... 302 Contents XVII
11.4.2 Radiance-to-Reflectance Transformation ...... 304 1l.4.3 Data Analysis for Feature Mapping ...... 307 11.5 Applications ...... 311
Chapter 12: Microwave Sensors
12.1 Introduction ...... 317 12.2 Passive Microwave Sensors and Radiometry ...... 317 12.2.1 Prineiple...... 317 12.2.2 Measurement and Interpretation ...... 318 12.3 Aetive Mierowave Sensors - Imaging Radars ...... 320 12.3.1 What is aRadar? ...... 320 12.3.2 Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) Configuration ...... 321 12.3.3 Spatial Positioning and Ground Resolution from SLAR ...... 325 12.3.4 SLAR System Specifieations ...... 328 12.3.5 Aerial and Space-borne SLAR Sensors ...... 329
Chapter 13: Interpretation of SLAR Imagery
13.1 Introduetion ...... 337 13.2 SLAR Image Charaeteristies ...... 337 13.2.1 Radiometrie Characteristics ...... 337 13.2.2 Geometrie Charaeteristics ...... 342 13.3 SLAR Stereoseopy and Radargrammetry ...... 345 13.4 Radar Return ...... 346 13.4.1 RadarEquation ...... 346 13.4.2 Radar System Faetors ...... 347 13.4.3 Terrain Factors ...... 350 13.5 Processing ofSLAR Image Data ...... 355 13.6 Polarimetry ...... 357 13.7 Fie1d Data (Ground Truth) ...... 358 13.7.1 Corner Refleetors (CRs) ...... 359 13.7.2 Scatterometers...... 359 13.8 Interpretation and Seope for Geo1ogica1 Applications ...... 359
Chapter 14: SAR Interferometry
14.1 Introduetion ...... 367 14.2 Prineiple of SAR lnterferometry ...... 367 14.3 Configurations ofData Aequisition for lnSAR...... 369 14.4 Baseline ...... 372 14.5 Airborne and Spaee-borne InSAR Systems ...... 373 14.5.1 Airborne Systems ...... 373 XVIII Contents
14.5.2 Spaee-borne Systems ...... 374 14.5.3 Ground Truth and Corner Refleetors ...... 376 14.6 Methodology ofData Proeessing ...... 377 14.7 Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR) ...... 381 14.8 Faetors Affeeting SAR Interferometry ...... 382 14.9 Applieations ...... 383 14.10 Future ...... 392
Chapter 15: Integrating Remote Sensing Data with Other Geodata (GIS Approach)
15.1 Integrated Multidiseiplinary Geo-investigations ...... 393 15.1.1 Introduetion ...... 393 15.1.2 Seope ofthe Present Diseussion ...... 395 15.2 Geographie Information System (GIS) - Basies ...... 395 15.2.l What is GIS? ...... 395 15.2.2 GIS Data Base...... 397 15.2.3 Continuous vs. Categorieal Data ...... 398 15.2.4 Basie Data Struetures in GIS ...... 399 15.2.5 Main Segments of GIS ...... 400 15.3 Data Aequisition (Sourees of Geo-data in a GIS) ...... 400 15.3.1 Remote Sensing Data ...... 400 15.3.2 Geophysical Data ...... 400 15.3.3 Gamma Radiation Data ...... 403 15.3.4 Geochemical Data ...... 404 15.3.5 Geologieal Data ...... 404 15.3.6 Topographical Data ...... 404 15.3.7 Other Thematie Data ...... 405 15.4 Pre-proeessing ...... 405 15.5 Data Management ...... 413 15.6 Data Manipulation and Analysis ...... 413 15.6.1 Image Proeessing Operations ...... 413 15.6.2 Classification ...... 416 15.6.3 GIS Analysis ...... 420 15.7 Applications ...... 424
Chapter 16: Geological Applications
16.1 Introduction ...... 429 16.2 Geomorphology ...... 431 16.2.1 Tectonie Landforms ...... 433 16.2.2 Volcanie Landforms ...... 434 16.2.3 Fluvial Landforms ...... 435 16.2.4 Coastal and Deltaic Landforms ...... 441 Contents XIX
16.2.5 Aeolian Landforms ...... 442 16.2.6 Glacial Landforms ...... 444 16.3 Structure ...... 445 16.3.1 Bedding and Simple-Dipping Strata ...... 448 16.3.2 Folds ...... 450 16.3.3 Faults ...... 456 16.3.4 Neovolcanic Rift Zone ...... 460 16.3.5 Lineaments ...... 460 16.3.6 Circular Features ...... 477 16.3.7 Intrusives ...... 480 16.3.8 Unconformity ...... 480 16.4 Lithology ...... 481 16.4.1 Mapping ofBroad-Scale Lithologie Units - General ...... 481 16.4.2 Sedimentary Rocks ...... 482 16.4.3 19neous Rocks ...... 486 16.4.4 Metamorphie Rocks ...... 490 16.4.5 Identification of Mineral Assemblages ...... 493 16.5 Stratigraphy ...... 497 16.6 Mineral Exploration ...... 498 16.6.1 Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration ...... 498 16.6.2 Main Types of Mineral Deposits and their Surface Indications ...... 501 16.6.3 Stratigraphical-Lithological Guides ...... 502 16.6.4 Geomorphological Guides ...... 502 16.6.5 Structural Guides ...... 503 16.6.6 Guides Formed by Rock Alteration ...... 505 16.6.7 Geobotanical Guides ...... 515 16.7 Hydrocarbon Exploration ...... 519 16.8 Groundwater Investigations ...... 523 16.8.1 Factors Affecting Groundwater Occurrence ...... 524 16.8.2 Indicators for Groundwater on Remote Sensing Images ...... 526 16.8.3 Application Examples ...... 526 16.9 Engineering Geologicallnvestigations ...... 536 16.9.l River Valley Projects - Dams and Reservoirs ...... 536 16.9.2 Landslides ...... 539 16.9.3 Route Location (Highways and Railroads) and Canal and Pipeline Alignments ...... 542 16.10 Neotectonism, Seismic Hazard and Damage Assessment ...... 542 16.10.l Neotectonism ...... 543 16.l 0.2 Local Ground Conditions ...... 551 16.10.3 Disaster Assessment ...... 555 16.11 Volcanic and Geothermal Energy Applications ...... 555 16.11.1 Volcano Mapping and Monitoring ...... 555 16.11.2 Geothermal Energy ...... 560 16.12 Coal Fires ...... 563 xx Contents
16.13 Environmental Applications ...... 571 16.13.1 Vegetation ...... 572 16.13.2 Land Use ...... 573 16.13.3 Soil Erosion ...... 575 16.13.4 Oil Spills ...... 576 16.13.5 Smoke from Oil Well Fires ...... 581 16.13.6 Atmospheric Pollution ...... 583 16.14 Future ...... 583
Appendices ...... 585
References ...... 593
Illustrations - Location Index ...... 623
Subject Index ...... 627