Harsh Realities: Maintaining Indigenous Values in the Face of Poverty an Analysis of the Government of Nunavut and the Nisga‘A Lisims Government
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Harsh Realities: Maintaining Indigenous Values in the Face of Poverty An Analysis of the Government of Nunavut and the Nisga‘a Lisims Government by Ryan Francis Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Political Science) Acadia University Fall Convocation 2010 © by Ryan Francis, 2010 (ii) This thesis by Ryan Francis was defended successfully in an oral examination on September 10, 2010. The examining committee for the thesis was: ________________________ Dr. David MacKinnon, Chair ________________________ Dr. Kiera Ladner, External Reader ________________________ Dr. Phyllis Rippeyoung, Internal Reader ________________________ Dr. Cynthia Alexander, Supervisor _________________________ Dr. Malcolm Grieve, Head/Director (or delegate) This thesis is accepted in its present form by the Division of Research and Graduate Studies as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree Master of Arts (Political Science). ….………………………………. This thesis by Ryan Francis was defended successfully in an oral examination on September 10, 2010. The examining committee for the thesis was: Dr. David MacKinnon, Chair Dr. Kiera Ladner, External Reader Dr. Phyllis Rippeyoung, Internal Reader Dr. Cynthia Alexander, Supervisor Dr. David Malcolm Grieve, Head/Director (or delegate) This thesis is accepted in its present form by the Division of Research and Graduate Studies as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree Masters of Arts (Political Science). (iii) I, Ryan Francis, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis. ______________________________ Author ______________________________ Supervisor ______________________________ Date (iv) Table of Contents Introduction: Bracing for Impact………………………………..………...………………1 Chapter Two: Circles and Straight Lines: Understanding Indigeneity and Western European Philosophy…………………………………………………………………….16 Pre-contact……………………………………………………………………….18 Indigeneity……………………………………………………………………….21 Gender Relations………………………………………………………………....22 Elders…………………………………………………………………………….24 Culture and Language……………………………………………………………26 Land……………………………………………………………………………...28 Individualism and Citizenship…………………………………………………...30 Social Darwinism, Eurocentricism and Diffusionism…………………………...31 Post-contact……………………………………………………………………...34 Private Property………………………………………………………………….34 Gender Subordination…………………………………………………………...36 Indian Act………………………………………………………………………..37 Bill C-31…………………………………………………………………………39 Residential Schools………………………………………………………………42 Contemporary Struggles…………………………………………………………44 Storytelling………………………………………………………………………46 Cultural Disconnect……………………………………………………………...49 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….51 Chapter Three: A Commitment Reneged: Transitional Funding in the Government of Nunavut……………………………………………………………………….…….…...57 Pre-contact……………………………………………………………………….57 Post-contact and Relocation……………………………………………………..59 Suicide…………………………………………………………………………...61 Road to Nunavut…………………………………………………………………64 Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit……………………………………………………….…67 Dual-member Dual-gender Constituencies…………………………….………...68 Territory Elections…………………………………………………………….…70 Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit Katimajiit……………………………………………...74 Article 23……………………………………………………………….………..78 Bilingual Education……………………………………………………………...81 Language Protection……………………………………………………………..84 Land………………………………………………………………………….......85 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….…89 Chapter Four: Private Property Ownership: Economic Independence or Cultural Alienation……………………………………………………………………………......95 Pre-contact……………………………………………………………………….93 Ayuukhl Nisga’a………………………………………………………………….95 The Journey to Self-Governance………………………………………………...96 (v) Decision-making: Gender Equality……………………………………………...99 Sigidimhaanak and Simgigat……………………………………………...……103 Language……………………………………………………………………….105 Education………………………………………………………………………108 Modified Rights………………………………………………………………..112 Nisga’a Landholding Transition Act……………………………...……………117 Conclusion…………………………………………………………...…………125 Conclusion: Harsh Realities: The Government of Nunavut and the Nisga‘a Lisims Government Ten Years Later…………………………….……………………………..127 References.......................................................................................................................136 Appendices......................................................................................................................151 Appendix A: Indigenous Tribes in and around Turtle Island Pre-Contact……………..151 Appendix B: Percentage of First Nations people who have knowledge of an Aboriginal language, by age groups, Canada, 2001 and 2006……………………………………...152 Appendix C: Percentage of Inuit population who reported Inuktitut as mother tongue and as home language, and knowledge of Inuktitut, Canada and regions, 1996 and 2006…153 Appendix D: Map of Nunavut………………………………………………………….154 Appendix E: Nisga‘a Nation Post-Nisga’a Final Agreement…………………………..155 (vi) Abstract Indigenous nations in the 21st century are faced with an unfortunate reality: how to maintain Indigenous values and improve their socio-economic position in society. Faced with increasing pressures by national and foreign governments, private sector industries looking to extract natural resources on Indigenous lands and community members in desperate need of employment, Indigenous governments must make difficult choices between values and poverty. This thesis will explore the Government of Nunavut and the Nisga‘a Lisims Government‘s struggles to accommodate these two choices. More importantly, the data will demonstrate that because the federal government has reneged on its commitment to provide long-term financial investments necessary for service delivery, the Inuit of Nunavut and the Nisga‘a Nation have been unable to maintain n their Indigenous values, and as a result, have not been able to improve their quality of life. (vii) Abbreviations AFN Assembly of First Nations BCTC British Columbia Treaty Commission CAP Congress of Aboriginal Peoples CE Council of Elders CLCA Comprehensive Land Claim Agreements CLEY Department of Culture, Language, Elders and Youth GHG Greenhouse Gases GN Government of Nunavut GNWT Government of the Northwest Territories IK Indigenous Knowledge IQ Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit IQK Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit Katimajiit IQT Inuit Qaujuimajatuqangit Tuttarviit IS Inullariit Society ITC Inuit Tapirisat of Canada ITK Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami LCA Land Claim Agreement MNC Métis National Council NAO National Aboriginal Organization NFA Nisga‘a Final Agreement NIC Nunavut Implementation Commission NLCA Nunavut Land Claim Agreement NLG Nisga‘a Lisims Government NOW Nisga‘a on Wireless initiative NTC Nisga‘a Tribal Council NTI Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated NUHRDS Nunavut Unified Human Resources Development Strategy NVHA Nisga‘a Valley Health Authority NWAC Native Women‘s Association of Canada NWMB Nunavut Wildlife Management Board NWT Northwest Territories RCAP Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police SCC Supreme Court of Canada TFN Tungavik Federation of Nunavut TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada UNBC University of Northern British Columba WSN Wilp Si‘ayuukhl Nisga‘a WWNI Wilp Wilx-o‘oskwkl Nisga‘a Institute (viii) Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who have made this journey possible. I would first like to thank my family, my parents Cynthia, Eddie, and my siblings Cody, Shea, Michaela, and Brigitta. I believe that every human being is influenced by those most close to them. I would not be the person I am today without their unconditional love and support. Your continuous support throughout this process has helped me through many long days and I thank you. I would also like to thank my friend, Dr. Don Julien. I was very honoured by your presence at my thesis defence and for delivering an opening prayer. I was deeply humbled by your presentation of an eagle feather at the conclusion of my defence. Words cannot describe my emotions at that moment. I am grateful to call you my friend and thank you for taking time out of your schedule to be with me that day. Oelalin. I would also like to thank my advisor, Dr. Cynthia Alexander, for her commitment and devotion during this process. I am thankful for your patience and understanding and look forward to working with you in whatever capacity I can in the future. I would also like to extend a special thank you to Jennifer for her unconditional support. The last six months have both an exhausting and rewarding experience. I am happy to have shared my journey with you. 1 Introduction: Bracing for Impact The journey for many Indigenous nations to reclaim and reassert their cultural independence after decades, and in some cases centuries, of emotional, physical, psychological, and sexual abuse suffered at the hands of Western Europeans has been challenging to say the least. Indigenous nations in the 21st century have been left with the burden of decolonizing centuries of assimilative and cultural genocidal policies imposed by successive colonial governments. In the post-contact era, the process in which Indigenous nations have begun to reassert their Indigeneity and break the culture of dependency that has plagued their communities has been a slow and painful one. Many Indigenous communities are faced