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A Albanian Muslim Volunteer Legion, Aerial Warfare, 123 278 by Allies in Europe, 61 Amritsar, 41, 42 by Germans in Poland, 123 Annihilation warfare by Germans in the Spanish Civil War, Germany in the USSR, 54 58, 59, 63 second Italo-Ethiopian War as seen by Italians in Abyssinia, 57, 125, by Germany, 55 145, 152, 157 Anti-Bolshevism, 14, 25, 30, 37, 40, by Italians in the Balkans, 156 53, 54, 73, 99, 155, 177, 227, 228, 230, 233 by Italians in the Spanish Civil War, 104, 146 Anti-Comintern Pact, 51, 171, 199, 211 by Japanese in China, 53, 65 Anti-partisan/counter-insurgency by liberal powers in their colonies, warfare, 14, 18, 31, 40–42, 78, 61, 149, 150 110–112, 114, 138, 146, 260, theory, 27, 56, 61, 62 262 Aesthetics, fascist, 126, 145, 147, 159 fascist and liberal/democratic Albania anti-partisan warfare, 138 Milizia Fascista Albanese (MFA), Germans in the Soviet Union, 269, 271–275, 280–282 15–17, 33, 37, 41, 65, 230, Partito Fascista Albanese, 270 233, 235 regular army, 271, 273, 275, 281 by Italians in Ethiopia and Yugoslavia, SkanderbegDivision (21st SS 17, 147, 154 SkanderbegDivision), 269, 285 by Italians in Libya, 150

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under 329 exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 M. Alonso et al. (eds.), Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27648-5 330 INDEX

by Italians in the Balkans, 11, 121, C 146, 158, 277 Castejón, Antonio, 77 Japanese in China, 3, 60 Cavallero, Ugo, 154–156, 166 role of technology, 125, 146, 150, Chemical warfare 151, 153, 158 absence in the Balkans by Italians, Antisemitic, 15, 16 156 Antisemitism, 29, 33–38, 40, 54, 230 in Abyssinia by Italy, 52, 57, 125, Asensio, Carlos, 77 153, 154, 159 Axis, 3, 6, 51, 108, 110, 111, 113, 121, in China by Japan, 53, 170, 198 124, 136, 154, 169, 172, 178, in Libya by Italy, 150 181, 183, 186, 187, 195–199, in Morocco by Spain, 31, 56 205, 207–209, 212–214, 245, China, 129 269, 274, 276, 281 Chinese Revolution 1911, 177 Ciano, Count Galeazzo, 103, 106, 107, 205, 270, 274, 281 B Civil war, 18, 19, 26, 43, 58, 74, Badoglio, Pietro, 55, 108, 109, 124, 97–100, 107–111, 113–116, 170, 150, 202 261, 262 Balbo, Italo, 144 Clausewitz, Carl von, 13–15, 30, 31, Balkan Wars (1912–1913), 61 42, 46 Bastico, Ettore, 106, 107 Clemenceau, Georges, 26 Belarus, 16, 37, 230, 231 Colonial warfare, 4, 26, 30, 31, 41, Berger, Gottlob, 276–278, 283 52, 57, 61, 63, 97, 145, 147–150, Biroli, Pirzio, 152, 153, 282 153, 157, 195 Blitzkrieg, 5, 62, 146, 173, 174, 196, transfer of methods to European 197, 200–207, 209–211, 213, theatres, 31, 52 214, 226, 227 Concentration camps and death camps adapted by Japan, 7, 214 historiography, 202 British, 136 model for Japanese, 174, 197, 205 Croatia/Croatian, 7, 247, 254, 260, in Soviet Union, 226, 227 261 Bombing of Rotterdam (1940), 37 German, 15, 16, 31, 38, 132, 134, Bosnia, 155, 245, 257 230, 232 Bosnian 13th Waffen Mountain Italian, 11, 109, 113, 122, 125, 127 Division of the SS Handžar, Japanese, 130 278, 279, 282–284 Jasenovac, 261 Bottai, Giusseppe, 28 Priština, 279 Brauchitsch, Walter von, 36, 37, 173, Spain, 12, 52, 79 203 Counter-insurgency. See Anti- Brigands’ War (1861–1865), 148, 157 partisan/counter-insurgency Britain, British empire, 2, 6, 27, 61–63, warfare 82, 136, 185, 211, 223, 226 Croatia, 115, 262, 276 INDEX 331

Catholics, Catholicism, 246, 248, F 278 Fascism Domobranstvo (Home-Guards), 243, cult of velocity, 5, 27, 202, 204, 213 253, 256, 258 definitions, introduction, 1, 10, 242 Jews in Croatia, 242, 248, 249, 252, generic, 244 254, 260, 262 ideology, 11, 13, 26, 74, 78, 147, Roma in Croatia, 242, 245, 248, 224, 226, 229, 231, 232, 236, 260, 262 244, 245, 261 Serbs in Croatia, 262 Japan as a fascism, 3, 197 Ustasha Corps, 7, 8, 12, 15, 155, Nazi Party, 27, 28, 210, 225 243, 244, 252–254, 257, 258, New Fascist Man, 40, 125, 126, 260–262 144, 146, 159, 250, 251, 262 Ustasha ideology, 241, 245, 261 and technology, 145, 147 transnational fascism, 196 Fascist paramilitarism, 10, 32, 133, D 242–244, 250, 252–254, 261, D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 27, 28 262 Dávila, Fidel, 83–85, 106 Fascist warfare De Gaulle, Charles, 201 absence of, 36, 147, 160, 226 Di Savoia, Amedeo, 154, 164 definitions, 2, 4–6, 9, 11–14, 17, 37, Douhet, Giulio, 27, 56, 57, 61, 64, 41, 43, 51, 52, 98, 115, 145, 145, 146, 149, 201–203 147, 223, 226 Duce, 100, 106 and modernity, 269, 273, 285 not only restricted to military campaigns, 25 E population policy, 223 Economic exploitation of conquered role in the construction indoors territories and outdoors of national of China by Japan, 3, 178, 179 community, 1, 275 of Eastern territories by Germany, velocity/speed, 5, 32, 56, 174, 203, 15, 33, 36, 38, 54, 222, 223, 204, 274 227, 232 Finnish Civil War (1918), 73 Einsatzgruppen, 15, 34, 35, 39, 225, First World War/Great War, 4, 13, 15, 227–230 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 34, 36, 40, 41, ‘’/population 55, 62, 64, 132, 151, 197, 200, displacement 223, 225, 272 Albania, 281 German atrocities in France and Croatia, 241, 248, 250, 253, Belgium, 33, 132 257–259, 261, 263 individuals’ crisis, 30 Poland, 225, 231 military lessons, 27, 42 Soviet Union, 231 Fitzthum, Josef, 276, 278, 283, 284 332 INDEX

Franco, Francisco, 5, 9, 12, 13, 31, militarism and Nazism, 29 32, 47, 52, 53, 69, 73, 100–103, military culture 1918–1945, 222, 105–107 225, 227 franc-tireurs myth, 15, 33, 34, 36, 132 military culture before 1914, 132, Freikorps, 73 225 Fuller, J.F.C., 26, 201 military culture in First World War, Fumimaro, Konoe, 209–211 132 Futurism, 26, 27, 143, 144, 202 policy in Croatia, 245, 248, 252, 256, 258, 260 warfare in Italy, 112, 135 G Goebbels, Joseph, 35, 202 General Plan East, 222, 227, 231, 234, Göring, Hermann, 38, 41, 62, 222 235 Graziani, General Rodolfo, 109, 124, Genocide, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15–19, 125, 127, 140, 150–154 25, 36, 38, 39, 42, 46, 97, 123, Greece, 10, 40, 108, 126, 274, 280 244, 248, 251, 253, 260, 261, Guderian, Heinz, 28, 49, 199 263 Guerra celere. See Guerra di rapido Germany corso (1940), 62 Guerra di rapido corso, 56, 57, 101, Blitz, 62, 211 104, 106, 109, 115, 201, 203, Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), 211 131, 132, 225 German South-West Africa (Namibia), 131, 132 invasion and occupation of Belgium, H Netherlands and France (1940), Halder, Franz, 34, 35, 70, 212 25, 37, 62, 89, 181, 199, 200, Hankey, Maurice, 201 206, 208–210, 228 Heydrich, Reinhard, 34, 47 (1939), 2, 5, Himmler, Heinrich, 34, 226, 231, 259, 15, 29, 33–35, 62, 122, 173, 276–278, 283 174, 201, 203, 205, 206, 209, Hitler, Adolf, 3, 6, 9, 10, 14–16, 223–225, 228, 231, 235 27–29, 33–39, 42, 43, 100, 122, Generalgouvernement, 35 173, 181, 200, 201, 203, 205, invasion of the Soviet 207, 209, 213, 222, 226, 242, Union/Operation Bar- 256, 274, 278, 281 barossa (1941), 5, 6, 17, 28, Holocaust, 8, 38–40, 226, 247, 251, 37–39, 62, 74, 88–90, 122, 254 134, 173, 183, 236 criminal orders, 16, 37, 54, 122, 183, 228, 230, 232 I enforced famine of Russian Indiscriminate violence as a pre-emptive population, 39, 55 measure Luftwaffe, 34, 35, 57, 58, 62, 63 by Germans in the Soviet Union, 37 INDEX 333

by Japanese forces in occupation/annexation of Croatia, Malaya/Singapore, 172, 17, 154, 157, 255, 259 176, 178, 181, 186 Repubblica Sociale Italiana, 17, 18, by Rebels in the Spanish Civil War, 40, 98, 108–111, 114, 115 5, 16, 76, 79, 81, 83, 85, 88 Royal Army, 11, 122, 123, 126, International Brigades, 52, 81, 82, 85, 127, 147, 271 99, 102 Second World War, 205 International law and the laws of war, 3, 11, 14, 19, 29, 31, 33, 121–124, J 127, 131, 132, 137, 183, 221, Japan, 130 235, 281 Japanese Army, 51, 123, 130, 214 Irregular war, 108, 109, 147, 225 (December Italy 1941), 5, 6, 211, 212 imperialism, 121, 124, 147, 275 First Sino-Japanese War (1894– invasion and occupation of Albania 1905), 169, 204 (1939–1943), 269–285 Group/Unit 731, 170 invasion of Abyssinia (1935–1936), invasion of China (1931–1945), 59, 5, 8, 11, 32, 43, 51, 52, 55–57, 64, 3, 53, 169–172, 177–183, 64, 65, 74, 97, 125–127, 133, 185–187, 197, 198, 204, 207, 144–146, 154–159, 202–204, 208 223 invasion of Manchuria massacre of Addis Ababa, 151 (1931–1932), 53, 128, massacre of Debre Libanos, 151 129 invasion of Greece (1940–1941), 6, Khalkhin Gol Battle (Nomohan 11, 17, 271, 274, 275, 280–282 Incident), 199 Second Sino-Japanese War invasion of the Balkans (1941), 11, (1937–1942), Nanjing 17, 40, 97, 125–127, 147, massacre, 53, 55, 59, 64, 154–156, 158, 159, 186, 211, 65, 169, 171, 175, 183 245, 271 invasion of French Indochina invasion of the Soviet Union (1941), (1940), 181, 208, 210 11, 15, 40, 41 Kwantung Army, 53, 184 Italian Civil War (1943–1945), 17, Malayan Campaign 41, 88, 114, 115, 126 Bataan Death March, 130, 170, italiani, brava gente myth, 40 184 Libya (1911–42), 8, 11, 12, 74, Burma-Siam Death Railway, 125–127, 148–150, 157 123, 130, 170 Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Sook Ching Massacre, 3, Nazionale (MVSN), 100, 111, 170, 172, 174–178, 181, 271, 273, 274 183–187 military culture before 1914, 148, Manila massacre, 170, 182 158 Philippines, 120, 130, 182 334 INDEX

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), M 202, 204 Madrid, 79 Singapore War Crimes Trial, 170, Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 26, 145, 175, 176, 183, 185, 186 202 ‘Three Alls’ policy, 129, 198 May, Karl, 276 Japanese Diplomatic Society, 208–209 Military necessity, 75, 77, 222, 223, 228, 231–235 Mobile warfare, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62, 102, 146, 197, 198, 202 K Mola, Emilio, 79, 80, 83 Kai-shek, Chiang, 177, 208 Molotov-Ribentrop Pact, 199, 205 kaky¯o shukusei, 174 Moscow, 212, 227, 230 Kawamura, Sabur¯o, 170, 174, Muslims, 285 177–181, 183 Mussolini, Benito, 3, 6, 9, 12, 17, 18, Keitel, Field Marshal Wilhelm, 122, 27, 28, 32, 40, 43, 52, 55, 56, 230 97–101, 103, 105–109, 113, 114, Kesselring, Field Marshall Albert, 134 124, 144, 145, 150, 151, 154, Kollegger, Willibald, 272–274, 280, 159, 202, 203, 205, 209, 242, 281 270, 274, 275. See also Duce Kommissarbefehl (Commissar Order). See Germany, invasion of the Soviet Union, criminal orders N Koo, Wellington, 204 Nasi, Guglielmo, 148–150, 153, 154 Kosovo, 269, 271, 275, 276, 278 National Socialism/Nazism. See Kvaternik, Eugen Dido, 246, 249, 256, Fascism 259, 261 Naval Warfare, 65, 104, 122, 211 Kvaternik, Slavko, 256 ‘New Man’, 252 Nine-Power Conference, 204

L O Leningrad, 39, 227, 229, 231 Opera Nazionale Balilla, 28 Liddell Hart, B.H., 26 Living Space (Lebensraum, spazio P vitale), 11, 14, 29, 33, 36, 37, 39, Patrick, Mason, 61 52, 121, 147 Paveli´c, Ante, 241, 243–246, 249, 250, China, as viewed by Japan, 128 254–256, 258, 259, 262, 276 Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Perceptions of bolshevization Sphere, 53, 121, 124, 141, 210, of East Asia, 177, 187 212 of Spain, 53 Soviet Union, 177, 222 Phleps, Lieutenant General Artur, 283 Ludendorff, Erich, 13, 14, 26, 27, 31, Primo de Rivera, Miguel, 31, 75 64 Prisoners of war INDEX 335

execution and mistreatment, 16, 17, Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), 5, 32, 37, 52, 53, 65, 75, 77, 78, 7, 12, 13, 16, 18, 31, 32, 34, 81, 82, 85, 87, 105, 120, 122, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 123, 129, 130, 183, 184, 231, 74, 89, 97, 101, 107, 115, 133, 257 146, 207 orders for good treatment, 85, 232 Aragon Offensive (March–April 1938), 83–85, 87, 107 Battle of Málaga (February Q 1937), 82, 100, 101, 105, Queipo de Llano, Gonzalo, 76 106 Battle of Madrid (1936–1939), R 57, 58, 75, 79–81, 88, Racial ideology, 35, 122, 123, 178, 101, 103, 104 222, 224, 227, 232 Battle of Teruel (December Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), 1936–February 1937), 81, 34, 291 83, 88 Roatta, General Mario, 11, 100–102, (April 127, 155–157, 166 1937), 63, 104 Romania, 6, 30, 81, 261, 284 International intervention by Iron Guard, 242 fascist powers, 51, 100, Russian Civil War (1917–1923), 73, 98 107, 115 International intervention by S fascist powers, Aviazione Sandžak, 275, 278 Legionaria, 7, 100, 104 SA (Sturmabteilung–Nazi stormtroop- International intervention ers), 28, 133, 242 by fascist powers, Corpo Schlieffen Plan, 197 Truppe Volontarie, 81, 100, Second World War, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 101, 105–107 12, 18, 25, 88, 97, 100, 111, International intervention by 115, 121, 125, 126, 131, 144, fascist powers, Condor 146, 154, 169, 170, 178, 186, Legion, 7, 34, 59, 63, 105 195–197, 200, 202, 222, 224, war in Morocco (1921–1927), 31, 233, 235 56, 69 Shingap¯oru Daikensh¯o, 174, 185, 186 Speer, Albert, 201, 222 Showa Study Group, 208 Squadristi, 10, 242 Siege mentality, 15, 78, 113, 137 Slovenia, 17, 120, 126, 128, 154, 157, SS (), 7, 15, 16, 34, 36, 158 39, 222, 225, 226, 228, 229, 259, Spain 260, 276, 277, 278, 281, 282 Blue Division, 6, 39 Stalingrad, 201, 232 Foreign Legion, 31, 32, 81, 87 Suzuki S¯osaku, 174, 183 336 INDEX

T W Togliatti, Palmiro, 110 Waffen-SS, 15, 42, 112, 134, 213, T¯oj¯o, Hideki, 53, 173, 210 272, 277, 278, 281, 283, 285 Totalitarianism, 9, 250 War aims, 124, 275 Total war, 2, 13, 14, 19, 25–27, 43, Wehrmacht, 14–16, 29, 34, 35, 37, 56, 59, 64, 73, 78, 99, 107, 146, 39, 41, 42, 54, 55, 58–60, 62, 65, 149, 186, 197, 198, 201, 214, 90, 93, 112, 121, 122, 133, 135, 223, 228, 230, 234, 236, 274 172–174, 179, 181, 183, 186, Transfer of war cultures/perceptions 197, 200, 227, 256, 260 from China to Singapore/Malaya, conflicts with Nazi organizations, 170, 172 226 from Manchuria/China to Japan’s nazification, 234 following wars, 53 officer corps, 234 from Morocco to the Spanish Civil War, 31, 53 military lessons obtained by fascist Y regimes regarding wars by other Yamashita, Lieutenant-General fascisms, 65, 207, 211 Tomoyuki, 3, 129, 170, 172, 173, Treaty of Versailles, 28 178, 181–185, 187 Trenchard, Hugh, 27 Yonai, Mitsumasa, 209 Tripartite Pact, 120, 173, 197, 205, Yugoslavia, 10, 108, 126, 150, 157, 210, 211 158, 245, 249 Tsuji, Masanobu, 172, 174, 177, 178, communist partisans, 247, 254, 260, 184, 185, 187 277, 279, 282 Tržaˇcka Raštela, 258 Serb Chetniks, 247, 249, 254, 257, 258, 277 U Ukraine, 33, 39, 227, 231, 233 Crimea, 33, 231 Z United States, 6, 61, 184, 211, 212, Zhukov, Georgy, 199, 201 223, 226 Zogu, Ahmed, 270