Biodiversity of the Water Reservoirs in the Vicinity of Usje Marl Quarry

S.Petkovski, (1); I.Mastoris, (2); N.B.Kormusoska, (3); (1) NGO BIOECO Skopje, Republic of Macedonia (2) TITAN Cement Company S.A., Athens, Greece (3) Cementarnica “Usje” A.D., Skopje, Republic of Macedonia

[email protected]

Abstract In line with the activities of WBCSD/CSI task force on biodiversity, Titan uses specific tools for screening Group quarries versus areas of high biodiversity value, like the EMERALD network of Macedonia. The water reservoirs (artificial lakes) inside the Usje Marl Quarry, in proximity with the Titan Cement Plant Usje (Skopje, Macedonia), were gradually ‘formed’ in the 1980’s, after excavating closed pits inside the mine plan area. Freshwater supply to these confined water bodies is due to precipitation and surface rainwater inflows. Plant and animal species have inhabited the area, including the lakes, by natural processes, except the fish stocking that was made by the sport fishermen employed with Usje. Currently, the area more or less resembles a natural wetland ecosystems. By initiative of Usje, and in line with Titan’s Corporate Social Responsibility Policy, an Investigation Study on Hydrology, Hydrogeology & Biodiversity was conducted. This paper is going to present findings and recommendations of the investigation related to biodiversity. Besides the check lists of recorded species, for certain taxonomic groups a “potential list of species” was prepared, as a tool for evaluation of the quality of habitats. Despite the inevitable environmental degradation, the degree to which the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and associated species have survived, even in a modified and reduced state, is surprising. According to the findings, the wetland vegetation of the reservoirs has been well developed, and algae are the dominant community in the lake, both in species richness and population density. The issue of concern identified during the survey was the lack of oxygen in the deep parts of the reservoirs, which does not favor the development of zooplankton, and benthic communities; this gradually results in an uneven population growth of algae, affecting the ecological balance of the aquatic ecosystem. A number of fauna species, like dragonflies, butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, were recorded during the investigation period, and the richness/diversity of such species was documented. However, it was evaluated that the site cannot be considered as ‘high biodiversity value area’. The reservoirs do not contain any endangered species of plants and animals, while the activities in Usje address minimal or no interference with the lakes and do not significantly contribute to the natural process of eutrophication characteristic for such still surface waters. Following the recommendations in the Study a combined set of mitigation/restoration measures were performed and will continue to apply, in order to enhance the water quality, and the ecological status of the ecosystem by slowing down the eutrophication process: • Cutting of about 80% of existing reed-beds before vegetation period start. • Introducing of 100 fingerlings of Silver Carp in the reservoirs (fish feeding on phytoplankton). • Reforestation of the area around the lake to reduce the impact of dust from the nearby quarrying activities.

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 1 Additional actions that are planned to take include: • Aeration of the reservoirs for introducing additional oxygen to the water. • Regular monitoring of: 1) Biological Quality Elements in the Water Bodies; 2) Terrestrial flora and fauna and 3) Surface and groundwater quality. General opinion of involved parties and authorities is that implementation of such project by the industry is a pioneering activity in the Country. In October 2011, Cementarnica Usje was awarded with First Price on the National competition for Corporate Social Responsibility in the category “Environment” by presenting the “Biodiversity of the Artificial Lakes in Cement Plant Usje”

Keywords: Marl Quarry, Biodiversity, Water Reservoirs, Eutrophication, Wetland Vegetation, WBCSD/CSI

Introduction

The Usje Cement Plant located in Skopje, Macedonia is part of the large cement producing company Titan Cement Company S.A., which in 2009 was ranked 8th in the entire world for the award of “Top Company For Leaders” receiving global distinction regarding the development of human capital and leadership competencies. Titan is an independent cement and building materials producer with over 100 years of industry experience. Based in Greece the Group operates in nine countries owning 14 cement plants. The Cement Plant Usje started with production of cement in the year 1955, and the current process of production is realizing by 500 employees. The Cement Plant Usje has implemented a Quality System ISO 9001:2000 since July 2003. In May 2005 the Company was certified with Environmental Management System ISO 14001:2004, and currently is in a process of implementing the OHSAS 18001 standard for Health & Safety. TITAN is active both globally and locally in preserving and enhancing biodiversity. As a core member of the Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI), TITAN participates in the Biodiversity Working Group, initiated in 2009 and from October 2010 co-chairs the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)/CSI ‘Biodiversity & Land Stewardship’ task force. The WBCSD provides a platform for companies to explore sustainable development, share knowledge, experiences and best practices, and to advocate business positions on these issues in a variety of forums, working with governments, non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations. Potential ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss are material considerations for all investment decisions because companies and investors realize that these are fundamental for business success in a carbon and natural resource constrained world. Following the WBCSD/CSI task force on biodiversity conservation, in 2010 the Usje Cement Plant has conducted a project entitled as “Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity, Surveillance/Monitoring Plan and Mitigation/Restoration Measures for Biodiversity Conservation in the vicinity of the Titan Cement Plant Area with Focus on the Lakes in the Marl Quarry”. The Study was prepared by a team of biodiversity experts (Petkovski et al., 2010), and submitted to the Usje Cement Plant as an internal report. The results of this report are presented in this paper. In October 2011, Cementarnica Usje was awarded with First Price on the National competition for Corporate Social Responsibility in the category “Environment” by presenting the “Biodiversity of the Artificial Lakes in Cement Plant Usje” The investigated area includes two lakes with the surrounding terrains that are located in the courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant, in the neighborhood of the marl quarry. Geological structure of the area is mainly consisted of Upper Miocene marl rocks and clayey deposits. The origin of the lakes is artificial, created as a result of excavations in the past, in which water is accumulated by surface runoff and groundwater

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 2 springs. The waters of the two lakes are being used in the technological process of the Usje Cement Plant. The Large (upper) Lake is located at an elevation of 256 m asl. The diameter of the lake is about 130 m, water surface of 1.15 ha, and depth up to 6m. The Small (lower) Lake is located at an elevation of 245 m asl, with diameter of about 75 m, water surface of 0.26 ha, and depth up to 3 m. The water level of both lakes is fluctuating seasonally.

Methodology of work Field investigations and collection of samples from the lakes in the Courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant were performed during August, 2010. The taxonomy and nomenclature of plant species are in accordance with Prodromus florae peninsulae Balcanicae (Hayek 1924-1933), Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1964-1980) and Flora of Republic of Macedonia (Micevski, 1985-2005). The algal and macro-invertebrates samples from the bottom of the lakes were collected by Eckman-Birge Dredge. Phytoplankton and zooplankton samples were collected by hand-net. The taxonomy and nomenclature of algae follows Krammer & Lange-Bertalot (1986-1991). Identification and classification of fauna species follows the most contemporary publications on various taxonomic groups, as well as that of "Fauna Europaea" (http://www.faunaeur.org/). Bat species were recorded using a Batbox Duet Bat Detector. Small mammals were collected by traps. In addition, narrative records were used for the large mammals, as well as interviews with local citizens. The Evaluation of Biodiversity was conducted under the following criteria: species richness, legal protection, conservation status and geographical distribution/endemism. The species richness of the site is evaluated in comparison to species richness of other similar natural habitats, and/or with the species richness of certain taxonomic group on national level. The Legal protection of habitats/species was evaluated in accordance with the criteria of the EU Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC) and the EU Birds Directive (Directive 2009/147/EC). The conservation status of species was evaluated under the criteria of the IUCN Red List of Globally Threatened Species (2011), as well as the European Red Lists of: Vascular Plants (Bilz et al., 2011), Butterflies (Van Swaay et al., 2010), Dragonflies (Kalkman et al., 2010), Freshwater Fishes (Freyhof & Brooks, 2011), Amphibians (Temple & Cox, 2009), Reptiles (Cox & Temple, 2009), and Mammals (Temple & Terry, 2007). For evaluation of the geographic distribution/endemism of species, the degree to which species are characteristic on Local and National Level is considered as the most important criterion. Species for which the geographical distribution is restricted to a certain area are included in the category of "Endemic Species". Therefore, the definition of endemism is scale dependent. Within the scope of the present paper, endemism is defined at the Local (Local Area), National (Macedonia) and Regional Scale (Balkan Peninsula). Most of the endemic species on Local, National or Regional Scale are vulnerable to extinction due to their very restricted range size.

Results Assessment of Biodiversity The vegetation of the Titan Cement Plant Courtyard is represented by wetland vegetation in the shallow waters along the shoreline of the two lakes, while the surrounding area is mainly covered by ruderal vegetation. The Wetland Vegetation is represented by the Plant Community of Bulrush and Common Reed (ass. Scirpeto-Phragmitetum). This community comprises the largest belt along the lakes shoreline. The marsh vegetation is consisted of the following dominant plant species: Bulrush (Scirpus lacustris), Common Reed (Phragmites australis), Lesser Bulrush (Typha angustifolia), Rush (Juncus micranthus), Gypsywort (Lycopus europaeus) and Great Willowherb (Epilobium hirsutum).

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 3 The ruderal vegetation is the first to colonize disturbed lands. Ruderal plant species typically dominate the disturbed areas for a few years, gradually losing the competition to other native species. However, in extreme disturbance circumstances, such as when the natural topsoil is excavated, a single-species ruderal community, or like it is the case with the investigated area, a mixed-species ruderal community may be established. In the areas around the lakes and the marl-quarry have been recorded the following typical ruderal plant species: Cynodon dactylon, Atriplex rosea, Chenopodium botrys, Xanthium strumarium, Cichorium inthybus, Lycopus europaeus, Polygonum arenastrum, Setaria viridis, Raphanus raphanistrum, Dittrichia viscosa, Daucus carota, Erigeron canadensis, Solanum nigrum, Plantago major, Ecbalium elaterium, Convolvulus arvensis, Diplotaxis tenuifolia, Loesingia sp. and Verbascum thapsus. Scattered stems of trees of the following species are present on the terrain: Populus alba, Populus nigra, Populus tremula, Paliurus spina-christi, Ailanthus altissima, Salix alba, Ulmus minor, Cupresus arizonica. Altogether, the following 63 plant species have been recorded: Daucus carota, Artemisia scoparia, Achillea coarctata, Cirsium palustre, Cichorium inthybus, Cirsium arvense, Conyza bonariensis, Crepis foetida subsp. rhoeadifolia, Erigeron annuus, Conyza canadensis, Lactuca viminea, Onopordon acanthium, Picris hieracioides, Sonchus arvensis, Senecio vernalis, Loesingia sp., Xanthium strumarium, Dittrichia viscosa, Tussilago farfara, Anchusa officinalis, Diplotaxis tenuifolia, Chenopodium botrys, Atriplex rosea, Convolvulus arvensis, Ecbalium elaterium, Cupresus arizonica, Scirpus lacustris, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Robinia pseudoaccacia, Melilotus italica, Hypericum perforatum var. angustifolium, Juncus micranthus, Ballota nigra, Lycopus europaeus, Malva sylvestris, Epilobium hirsutum, Papaver rhoeas, Plantago lanceolata, Plantago major, Cynodon dactylon, Avena barbata, Bromus sterilis, Phragmites australis, Setaria viridis, Sorghum halepense, Dasypyrum villosum, Rumex arenastrum, Clematis vitalba, Nigella damascena, Raphanus raphanistrum, Paliurus spina-christi, Rubus sanguineus, Sanguisorba minor, Cruciata laevipes, Populus alba, Populus nigra, Populus tremula, Salix alba, Verbascum thapsus, Ailanthus altissima, Solanum nigrum, Typha angustifolia, Ulmus minor. Natural vegetation of the area that has been present in the past before the excavation activities was consisted of the Community of Oriental Hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) and Pubescent Oak (Quercus pubescens), (ass.Querco-Carpinetum orientalis). This Plant Community will be developed again, in long- term perspective, by natural successive processes. In both lakes, altogether presence of 68 algal species has been ascertained. The number of taxa is relatively large, having in mind the small diversity of substrates in the water bodies, as well as a single campaign of sampling. The largest number of taxa (64) belongs to the Class Bacillariophyceae, while small number of species (4) belongs to the Class Coscinodiscophyceae. In the Large (upper) Lake, presence of 43 algal species has been recorded, while in the Small (lower) Lake, 41 species. It is quite unusual that only 15 species are present in both lakes, having in mind the same origin of the lakes and the geology of the basic bedrocks. Obviously the ecology of the lakes is quite different that leads into various species content. The total list of algae of both lakes is consisted of the following species: Cyclotella meneghiniana, Cyclotella ocellata, Discostella pseudosteligera, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, Diatoma tenuis, Ulnaria acus, Ulnaria capitata, Ulnaria ulna, Tabularia fasciculate, Eunotia minor, Mastogloia elliptica, Mastogloia aff. smithii var. lacustris, Anomoeneis sphaerophora, Cymbella neocistula, Cymbella proxima, Cymbopleura amphycephala, Encyonopsis cesatii, Encyonopsis microcephala, Encyonopsis subminuta, Gomphonema capitatum, Gomphonema exilisimum, Gomphonema gracile, Gomphonema italicum, Achnanthidium minutissimum, Cocconeis placentula, Luticola nivalis, Amphipleura pellucida, Frustulia vulgaris, Brachysira aff. garrensis, Sellaphora capitata, Sellaphora aff. stroemii, Fallacia pygmaea, Pinnularia bertrandii, Pinnularia brebissonii, Diploneis oblongella, Adlafia bryophila, Caloneis silicula, Navicula cryptotenella, Navicula densilineolata, Navicula gregaria, Navicula lanceolata, Navicula radiosa, Navicula rostellata, Navicula veneta, Gyrosigma acuminatum, Craticula buderi, Amphora indistinct, Amphora pediculus, Halamphora oligotraphenta, Halamphora veneta, Nitzschia maculates, Nitzschia capitellata, Nitzschia aff. denticula, Nitzschia dubia, Nitzschia recta, Nitzschia reversa, Nitzschia sigmoidea, Nitzschia sublinearis, Tryblionella apiculata, Tryblionella gracilis, Tryblionella hungarica, Rhopalodia gibba, Rhopalodia gibba var. minuta, Rhopalodia gibba var. parallela, Epithemia adnata, Epithemia sorex, Cymatopleura solea, Surirella minuta.

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 4 The Macro-invertebrates of the benthic community in the lakes are represented by 17 species, of which one aquatic gastropod (Planorbarius corneus), two oligochaetes (Tubifex tubifex, Lumbriculus variegates), one caddis fly (Brachycentrus maculatus ), two dragonflies (Anax imperator, Ischnura elegans) one pond- skater (Gerris lacustris), nine dipterans non-biting midges (Chironomus riparius, Polypedilum convictum, Polypedilum pedestre, Polypedilum bicrenatum, Parachironomus varus, Glyptotendipes barbipes, Paratanytarsus lauterborni, Cricotopus sylvestris, Corynoneura scutellata) and one mosquito species (Culex pipiens). From ecological point of view, the qualitative analysis shows dominance of species closely related with the submerse vegetation, rather than those related with sandy and muddy lake bottom. In the shallow littoral zone of both lakes, in the bottom mud, among the reed roots extremely reduced benthic community of macro-invertebrate fauna has been ascertained consisted of the species: Planorbarius corneus, Tubifex tubifex, Chironomus riparius, Ischnura elegans and Ischnura elegans. All these species are highly tolerant to water pollution and typical for small eutrophic lakes. In the deeper bottom area of the lakes (2-2.5 m depth), the benthic macro-invertebrate fauna is almost lacking. The only recorded species at this depth were the highly tolerant Oligochaetes: Tubifex tubifex and Lumbriculus variegates. In the deepest bottom area (3-6 m depth), no presence of any benthic macro- invertebrate species has been ascertained. The stratification structure of the benthic macro-invertebrate fauna clearly verifies the unfavorable ecological conditions in the deeper bottom areas of the lakes. The Crustaceans (Crustacea) are among the best biological indicators for the status of zooplankton communities in standing water ecosystems. For the purposes of this study only the representatives of the classes: Branchiopoda (Gill-footed Crustaceans), Maxillopoda (freshwater copepods) and Ostracoda (Ostracods) were investigated, while the Class Malacostraca (Higher Crustaceans) was not included, since representatives of this class were not recorded in the Lakes. Quite similar with the benthic community, the zooplankton community is also poor in species richness and populations abundance. Altogether, presence of only 15 species has been recorded, of which: nine Cladoceran Branchiopods (Bosmina longirostris, Simocephalus vetulus, Simocephalus expinosus, Scapholeberis mucronata, Scapholeberis rammneri, Moina micrura, Alona rectangula, Pleuroxus (Tilopleuroxus) aduncus, and Chydorus sphaericus), four Cyclopoid Copepods (Macrocyclops albidus, Megacyclops viridis, Acanthocyclops robustus, and Diacyclops bicuspidatus) and two Ostracods (Cypria ophtalmica, Cypridopsis vidua). In the Large (upper) Lake presence of only three species has been ascertained with exclusively low abundance: the Cladoceran Branchiopod Chydorus sphaericus, the Cyclopoid Copepod Acanthocyclops robustus and the Cypridoid Ostracod Cypria ophtalmica. Both species Acanthocyclops robustus and Cypria ophtalmica are not typical euplanktonic organisms; they are rather nekton-benthic representatives that inhabit the bottom in the zone of submerse vegetation. On the other hand, the species Chydorus sphaericus is quite common species in springs and ground waters (wells and the interstitial of the bottom substrate). The species prefers cold waters with low content of oxygen, which directly leads to conclusion that in both lakes some sublacustrine springs exist. In the Small Lake, the zooplankton community is with higher species diversity, represented by 12 recorded species, notwithstanding the fact that this species diversity is far below the species diversity present in natural small lakes, wetlands, ponds and temporary pools. The population density of all recorded species was quite low as a result of unfavorable ecological conditions. Of the total number of 12 ascertained species, eight species belong to the Class Branchiopoda. All these species are quite common, with wide range of distribution and tolerant to various ecological conditions. Of the Class Maxillopoda only two species of Cyclopoid Copepods have been recorded (Acanthocyclops robustus, Megacyclops albidus). Both are cosmopolitan thermophilous species, quite frequent during the summer season in small and larger stagnant, permanent freshwater bodies with dense submerse vegetation. The Class Ostracoda (Ostracods) also, only by two cosmopolitan species was represented (Cypridopsis vidua, Cypria ophtalmica). Both species have widest distribution range and are the most frequent species among all ostracods. The results of the comparative (summer and autumn) analyses of the zooplankton, both in the Large and the Small Lake also indicate that the resilience of the ecosystems (i.e., their ability to compensate for environmental perturbations) has been exceeded and the process of ecological change will become more

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 5 rapid. Unless appropriate measures are undertaken, swift succession of the marsh ecosystems into a transitional swamps will occur, which will cause a series of irreversible changes. During the field investigations presence of four species of dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) has been recorded. In the benthic community larvae of two species have been recorded, one dragonfly (Anax imperator) and one damselfly (Ischnura elegans), as well as presence of three species of flying specimens two of which were dragonflies (Anax imperator, Crocothemis erythraea) and one damselfly (Sympecma fusca). The Dragonfly & Damselfly fauna on National Level is relatively well investigated. According to data given by: Campion (1918), Filevska (1954), Bucholz (1963), Karaman (1969, 1981, 1987, 1992), Peters & Hackethal (1986), Adamovic (1990), Boshamer et al. (2006), Kitanova et al. (2008), Micevski et al. (2008), Jovic (2008), and Jovic & Mihajlova (2009), the Dragonfly & Damselfly fauna on National Level is represented by 62 species. The Potential List of Dragonflies and Damselflies in and around the lakes located in the Courtyard of the Titan Cement Plant is prepared on the basis of published data for the presence of Dragonflies and Damselflies in the Skopje Valley, given by the above mention authors and analysis of the scientific collection deposited in the Macedonian Museum of Natural History. Consequently, the potential list of species for the courtyard of the Cement Plant and the surrounding areas is raised up to 33 species, of which 15 damselfly species: Calopteryx virgo, Calopteryx splendens, Pyrrhosoma nymphula, Erythromma viridulum, Coenagrion scitulum, Coenagrion ornatum, Coenagrion puella, Enallagma cyathigerum, Ischnura pumilio, Ischnura elegans, Lestes barbarous, Lestes virens, Lestes parvidens, Sympecma fusca, Platycnemis pennipes; and 18 dragonfly species: Aeshna mixta, Anax imperator, Onychogomphus forcipatus, Lindenia tetraphylla, Cordulegaster heros, Cordulegaster bidentata, Libellula fulva, Libellula depressa, Orthetrum cancellatum, Orthetrum albistylum, Orthetrum brunneum, Orthetrum coerulescens, Crocothemis erythraea, Sympetrum striolatum, Sympetrum fonscolombii, Sympetrum sanguineum, Sympetrum depressiusculum, Sympetrum meridionale. The Butterfly fauna on National Level is relatively well investigated, but not the whole territory is covered by precise data. Fragmentary data exists in numerous published articles, as well as precise data for certain areas, like it is the case with the National Parks. The only synthesized data for the whole territory of the country, including the Skopje Valley are given by: Thurner (1964) and Schaider & Jaksic (1989). According to Schaider & Jaksic (1989), the Butterflies and Skippers on National Level are represented by 199 species. The Potential List of Butterflies and Skippers in and around the Courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant for the purposes of this project was prepared on the basis of published data for the presence of Butterflies and Skippers in the Skopje Valley, given by: Thurner (1964) and Schaider & Jaksic (1989), analysis of the scientific collection deposited in the Macedonian Museum of Natural History, as well as on the basis of visual records and collected specimens during the field investigations. The potential list of Butterflies raises up to 77 species, of which 10 species belong to the Family Hesperiidae (Skippers): Pyrgus malvae, Pyrgus armoricanus, Pyrgus cinarae, Pyrgus sidae, Spialia orbifer, Carcharodus alceae, Erynnis tages, Thymelicus lineolus, Thymelicus flavus and Ochlodes venatus; four species to the Family Papilionidae (Swallowtail butterflies): Papilio machaon, Iphiclides podalirius, Zerynthia polyxena and Allancastria cerisyi; 14 species to the Family Pieridae (Whites): Aporia crataegi, Pieris brassicae, Pieris napi, Pieris balcana, Pieris rapae, Euchloe ausonia, Pontia daplidice, Anthocharis cardamines, Anthocharis gruneri, Colias alfacariensis, Colias crocea, Gonopteryx rhamni, Leptidea sinapsis and Leptidea duponcheli; 15 species to the Family Lycaenidae (Blues, Coppers and Hairstreaks): Lycaena phlaeas, Lycaena dispar, Lycaena alciphron, Lycaena thersamon, Nordmannia ilicis, Syntarucus pirithous, Cupido minimus, Everes decoloratus, Celastrina argiolus, Pseudophilotes schiffermuelleri, Iolana iolas, Plebejus argus, Agrodiaetus thersites, Meleageria daphnis and Polyommatus icarus; 34 species to the Family Nymphalidae (Brush-footed butterflies): Nymphalis polychloros, Nymphalis antiopa, Inachis io, Vanessa atalanta, Vanessa cardui, Aglais urticae, Polygonia c- album, Argynnis paphia, Argynnis Pandora, Mesoacidalia aglaja, Fabriciana niobe, Issoria lathonia, Brenthis hecate, Brenthis daphne, Melitaea didyma, Melitaea trivia, Melitaea phoebe, Melitaea cinxia, Limenitis reducta, Brintesia circe, Hipparchia syriaca, Hipparchia statilinus, Hipparchia fatua, Chazara briseis, Pseudochazara anthelia, Melanargia galathea, Melanargia larissa, Maniola jurtina, Hyponephele

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 6 lupine, Coenonympha pamphilus, Pararge aegeria, Lasiommata megera, Lasiommata maera and Kirinia roxelana. During the field investigations only 14 species have been recorded, of which two skippers: Spialia orbifer, Carcharodus alceae; and 12 butterflies: Papilio machaon, Pieris brassicae, Colias crocea, Lycaena phlaeas, Meleageria daphnis, Polyommatus icarus, Polygonia c-album, Issoria lathonia, Melitaea phoebe, Chazara briseis, Maniola jurtina, Lasiommata megera. The reason that only small number of Butterfly Species has been recorded during the field investigations is not only the lack of spring samplings, but also the poor species diversity of plants and uniform habitat types. Consequently, the Courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant do not offer favorable conditions for development of larvae of butterflies (lack of host plants) as well as for feeding of flying individuals (lack of flowering plants). In such conditions, the species listed in the potential list could be mainly recorded by individual roaming specimens from the surrounding semi natural and natural areas. Presence of two fish species has been recorded in the lakes of the Usje Cement Plant Courtyard: Pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) and Prussian Carp (Carassius gibelio). In the Large Lake both species were present, while in the lower, Small Lake only the species Pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) has been recorded. Since the origin of the lakes is artificial both fish species are introduced. The introduced species are not native to the country and scientifically are classified as Alien Species. According to Kottelat & Freyhof (2007), the Prussian Carp is usually considered as native from Central Europe to Siberia, nevertheless it was introduced from Eastern Asia. Today, the Prussian Carp is widespread and commonly stocked together with the Carp (Cyprinus carpio), which is transported throughout Europe. The Prussian Carp inhabits a wide variety of still water bodies and lowland rivers. It is very tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and pollution. The species is usually associated with submerged vegetation or regular flooding. The feeding larvae and the juveniles of the Prussian Carp inhabit high-complexity habitats like reed belts. The species is omnivorous that feeds on zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, aquatic plant materials and detritus. The Prussian Carp was earlier treated as a wild or feral form of the Goldfish (Carassius auratus). The Pumpkinseed is native to North America, in Great Lakes, St. Lawrence and upper Mississippi drainages. It was widely introduced in temperate waters, in Europe in 1880s as pond and aquarium fish. Now, it is widespread throughout Europe, from Portugal to Southern Ukraine, especially in the Mediterranean Countries. The Pumpkinseed inhabits a wide variety of slow-flowing to still waters, such as large rivers, lakes, ponds, canals and backwaters. The Pumpkinseed fish feed on a wide variety of invertebrate fauna. During the field investigations of the lakes and the surrounding area, only three amphibian species have been recorded: Marsh Frog (Pelophylax ridibundus), Common Tree Frog (Hyla arborea) and Green Toad (Pseudepidalea viridis), as well as five reptilian species: Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata), Balkan Wall Lizard (Podarcis taurica), Erhard’s Wall Lizard (Podarcis erhardii) and Grass Snake (Natrix natrix). On the basis of records for amphibians and reptiles for the Skopje Valley given by Karaman (1922, 1928, 1931, 1937, 1938, 1938, 1939), Dimovski (1960, 1963, 1964, 1966) and Petkovski et al. (2000/2001), the potential list of Amphibians of the investigated area is encircled to nine species: Salamandra salamandra, Triturus macedonicus, Lissotriton vulgaris, Bombina scabra, Bufo bufo, Pseudepidalea viridis, Hyla arborea, Rana dalmatina and Pelophylax ridibundus; and for Reptiles to 16 species: Eurotestudo hermanni, Testudo graeca, Emys orbicularis, Mediodactylus kotschyi, Anguis fragilis, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta trilineata, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis erhardii, Dolichophis caspius, Platyceps najadum, Zamenis longissimus, Elaphe quatuorlineata, Zamenis situla, Natrix natrix and Vipera ammodytes. Concerning the birds, within the investigated area presence of the following 29 bird species has been recorded: Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Teal (Anas crecca), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus), Rock Dove (Columba livia), Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto), Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur), Scops Owl (Otus scops), Little Owl (Athene noctua), Common Swift (Apus apus), Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), Hoopoe (Upupa epops), Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis), Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Skylark (Alauda arvensis), Swallow (Hirundo

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 7 rustica), House Martin (Delichon urbica), Pied/White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), Blackbird (Turdus merula), Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio), Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Magpie (Pica pica), Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Carrion/Hooded Crow (Corvus corone cornix), Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Karaman (1928), for the lowland area of the Skopje Valley, including the surrounding hilly terrains, presence of 208 bird species has recorded, of which 70 species were nesting, 110 wintering and 28 species which appear only during the migration period. Micevski (1990), for the City Park in Skopje gives records for the presence of 98 bird species, of which 41 wintering bird species, 26 species that appears only during the migration periods and 15 nesting bird species. Velevski (2004-2005), in his study on the Composition and characteristics of the bird fauna in the extensively managed plantations of vineyards and orchards at the Vodno Mountain, presence of 89 bird species has recorded, 56 of which are nesting bird species. Additional data on birds of the Skopje Valley are given by: Stresemann (1920), Fehringer (1922), Karaman (1931, 1937, 1938, 1948, and 1949-1950), Matvejev (1948), Makatsch (1950), Dimovski (1955, 1967, and 1972). On the basis of these records, the potential list of bird species for the investigated area has been prepared, which includes 89 bird species: Ixobrychus minutes, Ardea cinerea, Ciconia ciconia, Anas crecca, Anas platyrhynchos, Anas acuta, Aythya ferina, Aythya nyroca, Mergellus albellus, Circus aeruginosus, Accipiter nisus, Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus, Falco columbarius, Falco subbuteo, Perdix perdix, Coturnix coturnix, Rallus aquaticus, Porzana porzana, Porzana parva, Gallinula chloropus, Vanellus vanellus, Columba livia, Columba oenas, Streptopelia decaocto, Streptopelia turtur, Cuculus canorus, Otus scops, Athene noctua, Apus apus, Tachymarptis melba, Alcedo atthis, Merops apiaster, Coracias garrulous, Upupa epops, Picus viridis, Dendrocopos major, Melanocorypha calandra, Calandrella brachydactyla, Galerida cristata, Alauda arvensis, Riparia riparia, Hirundo rustica, Delichon urbica, Anthus spinoletta, Motacilla cinerea, Motacilla alba, Motacilla flava, Troglodytes troglodytes, Erithacus rubecula, Luscinia megarhynchos, Oenanthe oenanthe, Oenanthe hispanica, Turdus merula, Turdus pilaris, Turdus philomelos, Turdus viscivorus, Cettia cetti, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, Acrocephalus arundinaceus, Phylloscopus collybita, Muscicapa striata, Ficedula albicollis, Panurus biarmicus, Aegithalos caudatus, Parus palustris, Parus lugubris, Parus cristatus, Parus caeruleus, Parus major, Sitta europaea, Certhia familiaris, Lanius collurio, Garrulus glandarius, Pica pica, Corvus monedula, Corvus frugilegus, Corvus corone cornix, Corvus corax, Sturnus vulgaris, Passer domesticus, Passer montanus, Fringilla coelebs, Carduelis carduelis, Carduelis cannabina, Emberiza cirlus, Emberiza cia, Emberiza schoeniclus and Miliaria calandra. The fauna of mammals of the investigated area also shows highly restricted value, represented by 11 species: Common Mole (Talpa europaea), Serotine (Eptesicus serotinus), Noctule (Nyctalus noctula), Kuhl's Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus kuhlii), Savi’s Pipistrelle (Hypsugo savii), Common Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii), Natterer's Bat (Myotis nattereri), Daubenton's Bat (Myotis daubentonii), Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris) and Lesser Mole Rat (Spalax leucodon). Investigations and published data on mammals for the Skopje Valley are rather scarce and widely scattered. Information on bats are summarized by Krystufek et al. (1992) and data on insectivores and rodents by Petrov (1992). Additional data are given by Hackethal & Peters (1987), Petkovski and Krystufek (1998), Krystufek and Petkovski (1989, 1990, 2002, 2006) and Petkovski (2010). Not all existing information on the mammals of the Skopje Valley is published. The main source for unpublished data is the mammal collection of the Macedonian Museum of Natural History in Skopje. Based on records compiled of the above mentioned authors and unpublished data, as well as the field investigations, the potential list of mammals for the investigated area is encircled to the following 29 species: Erinaceus roumanicus, Crocidura leucodon, Crocidura suaveolens, Neomys anomalus, Talpa europaea, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, Rhinolophus hipposideros, Eptesicus serotinus, Nyctalus noctula, Pipistrellus kuhlii, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Myotis capaccinii, Myotis emarginatus, Myotis mystacinus, Myotis nattereri, Myotis myotis, Myotis daubentonii, Hypsugo savii, Miniopterus schreibersii, Vulpes vulpes, Martes foina, Mustela nivalis, Arvicola terrestris, Microtus levis, Apodemus sylvaticus, Mus macedonicus, Micromys minutus, Spalax leucodon and Lepus europeus.

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 8 Evaluation of Biodiversity Species Richness Altogether presence of 231 species has been ascertained, of which: 63 plant species, 68 species of algae, 50 invertebrates and 50 species of vertebrates. The potential lists of species were prepared for comparative analysis of the level of habitats degradation. Legal Protection The Habitat Type under the Code “7230 Alkaline Fens” that includes the Plant Community of Bulrush and Common Reed (ass. Scirpeto-Phragmitetum) is included in the list of Natural and semi-natural habitat types of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation (Annex I of the Habitats Directive). EU Habitats Directive provides a strict legal protection for 14 species (Annex IV), of which two species of amphibians (Pseudepidalea viridis, Hyla arborea), four species of reptiles (Lacerta viridis, Lacerta trilineata, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis erhardii) and eight species of mammals (Eptesicus serotinus, Nyctalus noctula, Pipistrellus kuhlii, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Hypsugo savii, Myotis capaccinii, Myotis nattereri, Myotis daubentonii). The species Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii) is also included in Annex II of the Habitats Directive (Animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation). The EU Birds Directive provides legal protection for three species of birds, included in the list of Annex I (Classify as Special Protection Areas - SPAs, the most suitable territories for species in need of special habitat protection): White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), and Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio). Conservation Status Only the species Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii), recorded within the territory of the Usje Cement Plant Courtyard is included in the IUCN European Red List of Threatened Species within the category Vulnerable (VU), on both levels, European Continent and on the territory of the EU 27 Countries, as well as on the IUCN Red List of Globally Threatened Species in the same category. The Reptiles: Hermann's Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata), Erhard's Wall Lizard (Podarcis erhardii) and Balkan Wall Lizard (Podarcis tauricus) are endemic to the Balkans, vulnerable to extinction due to their restricted range size. Overall, it was evaluated that the site cannot be considered as “high biodiversity value area”. Threats to Biodiversity Generally speaking, the communities of flora and fauna that inhabit a particular area are adapted to the ecological conditions of that area. Disturbances to one or more of these ecological parameters can be directly manifested within the community, initially by a reduction in the abundance of the most sensitive species, which act as primary bio-indicators of ecological change. Later, the populations of these sensitive species may disappear completely, being displaced by other species that possess less stringent habitat requirements or are superior competitors. These processes may occur slowly and, in their initial phases, may be practically unnoticeable, first appearing within lower organisms (zooplankton, benthos). The main threats concerning the terrestrial fauna are related with degradation, fragmentation and uniformity of their natural habitats. As it was mention above, the vegetation cover is consisted mainly of ruderal plant community, which is not sufficient to obtain: host plants, feeding plants, nesting sites and shelters for numerous animal species. Regarding the aquatic fauna, the main threat is the ecological status of the aquatic ecosystems. The water quality in the lakes is extremely below the standards for population development of many significant species and communities, which should be present in the lakes. Regarding the current situation of the Lakes located in the Courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant there is no doubt that the concentrations of numerous chemical parameters are dramatically high for natural freshwaters and above the mortality standards for aquatic fauna.

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 9 During the day, most natural surface freshwaters maintain at least 70% oxygen saturation, with super saturation often occurring. Depending on the density of plankton and other aquatic organisms, nighttime oxygen levels can be reduced to 25% saturation or less, resulting in oxygen stress. All samples taken from the deep waters of both lakes in the Usje Cement Plant were with highly reduced oxygen saturation and were below the recommended 30-day mean standards (5.5 mg/l) for development of the early stage of life, as well as below the 1-day mean minimum standards (3.0 mg/l) for development of the adult stage of aquatic organisms. Phosphorus (P) is an essential metabolic nutrient which often regulates the productivity of natural – 2– 3– freshwaters. Soluble orthophosphate (H2PO4 , HPO4 , and PO4 ) ions are the simplest forms of phosphorus in water. Concentrations of soluble orthophosphate-phosphorus in natural freshwaters are ordinarily low, usually between 0.005 and 0.02 mg/l. They seldom exceed 0.1 mg/l, even in highly eutrophic waters. An elevated concentration of phosphorus in natural freshwater ecosystems is accompanied by increased phytoplankton production. Excessive phytoplankton production lead to eutrophication, dissolved oxygen problems, altered aesthetics of the water body, and imparts unpleasant tastes and odors to water. Natural freshwater standards for total phosphate-phosphorus are designed to control eutrophication and limit biological plant and animal nuisances. The standard for lakes and reservoirs is 0.025 mg/l. The results of the water-quality analysis of all sampling points of the lakes in the Courtyard of the Usje Cement Plant show extremely high concentrations of soluble orthophosphate- phosphorus, ranging between 1.19 - 1.53 mg/l, which is dramatically higher than the standard for lakes and reservoirs.

The Ammonia (NH3) is excreted as waste by various aquatic organisms and is the primary nitrogenous end product of the bacteriological decomposition of organic matter. According to the water quality analysis, the level of Ammonia in the Lakes of the Usje Cement Plant at all sampling points is extremely high, ranging from 0.11 mg/l to 0.50 mg/l. The very high levels of ammonia detected in the lakes of the Usje Cement Plant are arising from anaerobic decomposition of elevated quantities of organic matter from the dead phytoplankton and reeds. The levels detected are dramatically above the chronic level of toxicity (0.21 mg/l) and close to the Acute Mortality Standard for the lakes of the Usje Cement Plant (0.62 mg/l). Therefore deaths of aquatic organisms from ammonia toxicity are present, which causes complete absence of benthic invertebrates at the deeper parts of the bottom in both lakes and highly reduced species diversity and population density in the zooplankton community. Sulfide (S2-) is one of the anionic species of sulfur. Natural freshwaters typically contain few soluble sulfide compounds, with iron and hydrogen sulfides being the most common. Due to the relatively high pH values observed in the Lakes of the Usje Cement Plant, all sulfide in the water of the lakes would likely result from hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to aquatic organisms only in its gaseous state. Hydrogen sulfide gas is produced by bacteria during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. Sulfide is oxidized rapidly to sulfate in well-aerated water, so hydrogen sulfide levels in aerobic natural freshwaters are normally very low. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) chronic standards for gaseous hydrogen sulfide in freshwater is 0.002 mg/l. Since the water samples of the lakes in the Usje Cement Plant were not analyzed for the presence of Hydrogen sulfide, we are not able to comment whether the concentration exceeds the EPA standard, which would cause adverse ecological sulfide effects.

Discussion It is surprisingly that besides the marked acceleration in environmental degradation due in a large portion to the operation of the Marl Quarry, the degree to which the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and associated species have survived, even if in a modified and reduced state. The negative impact on natural habitats and the wild animal and plant species of the Cement Plant Area caused by the position of the Site, which is on the outskirts of a highly urbanized area of the City of Skopje, the production process of the Cement Plant itself, and the operational process of the Marl Quarry, mainly manifested by emission of dust and appearance of erosion on the quarried surfaces, is confirmed

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 10 by the results of the biodiversity analyses which indicate that the resilience of the ecosystems has been exceeded and the process of ecological change will become more rapid in the near future. The final results of the Assessment of Biodiversity clearly show that the species diversity of both, flora and fauna is highly reduced in comparison with other, similar natural habitats. The former natural vegetation of the Usje Cement Plant Courtyard that has been present in the past before the operation activities of the Marl Quarry was consisted of the Community of Oriental Hornbeam and Pubescent Oak (ass.Querco- Carpinetum orientalis). Currently, the area is mainly covered by the community of ruderal plants. On the other hand, the vegetation of the two lakes is quite well developed. The Marsh Vegetation is represented by the Plant Community of Bulrush and Common Reed (ass. Scirpeto-Phragmitetum). Reed-beds are species poor plant communities dominated by tall, rooted species with erect shoots emerging from the water. Examples include Common Reed (Phragmites australis), Lesser Bulrush (Typha latifolia), and Bulrush (Scirpus lacustris). More often, one species heavily dominates a particular area, which is usually a response to differing tolerances for flooding and anoxia. In low oxygen situations, the Common Reed is usually replaced by Lesser Bulrush or Bulrush. In the case of the lakes in the Usje Cement Plant, the Common Reed is still dominant species, followed by the Lesser Bulrush, while the Bulrush is less represented. Reed-beds are key habitats for wildlife, particularly for birds, but also for fish, amphibians, and invertebrates. They are the preferred or only breeding habitats for many species of birds. The value of reed-beds for wildlife, especially birds, is dependent on the dominant plant species, with common reed being the most favored. The Algae in both lakes of the Titan Cement Plant are represented by high species diversity and high population density. The presence of large quantities of organic material and high available nutrients is accelerating the process of eutrophication, which manifests itself through the appearance of phytoplankton blooms during the late summer and autumn period. Phytoplankton production is usually limited by the phosphorus concentration, because other necessary nutrients are usually plentiful. Since the phytoplankton is allowed to grow uncontrollably, the zooplankton and the benthic invertebrates are not able to consume all quantities of phytoplankton. In such conditions the dead phytoplankton starts bacterial decomposition, which causes oxygen depletions, especially at night, and appearance of toxic ammonia. Furthermore, the oxygen depletion accelerates the reduction of population density of both, the zooplankton and the benthic macro invertebrate communities. The final results of the assessment and evaluation of the zooplankton community in the lakes show extremely poor species composition, heterogeneity and population density which is quite understandable, since both lakes are faced by dramatically negative impacts. Unless appropriate measures are undertaken, swift succession of the marsh ecosystems into a transitional swamps will occur, which will cause a series of irreversible changes. The benthic macro-invertebrate fauna of the lakes in the Usje Cement Plant is critically endangered of extinction. In the shallow littoral zone of both lakes, in the bottom mud, among the reed roots extremely reduced benthic community of macro-invertebrate fauna has been ascertained. In the deeper bottom area of the lakes (2-2.5 m depth), the benthic macro-invertebrate fauna is almost lacking, while in the deepest bottom areas (3-6 m depth), no presence of any benthic macro-invertebrate species has been recorded. The stratification structure of the benthic macro-invertebrate fauna clearly verifies the unfavourable ecological conditions in the deeper bottom areas of the lakes. The bottom is covered by large deposits of organic matter with high content of nutrients, whose bacterial decomposition causes oxygen depletion and appearance of toxic Ammonia (NH3), Nitrite (NO2) and Hydrogen sulphide (H2S). In such conditions, no live forms of any benthic macro-invertebrate species could survive. The introduction of the two fish species: Pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) and Prussian Carp (Carassius gibelio), which are both feeding on zooplankton and zoo-benthos, additionally worsens the ecological balance of the aquatic ecosystems. The only assessment and evaluation of these two fish species is their impact on the stability of the wetland ecosystems. Consequently, the introduction of these two fish species has clear negative impact on the ecological status of the lakes. In the case of the studied area, simple figures of relative low species richness of birds do not bring out the real importance of the site in terms of its conservation value. The most conspicuous feature of the site is its significance as an important Stopover Habitat within the Birds Migration Route Danube-Morava-Vardar-

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 11 Aegean Sea. Stopover habitats are essential to successful bird migrations. Migrating birds need these critical stopover locations strategically located along the migration routes (wetlands, mudflats) with adequate food and shelter ensure the survival of a species. Without places along the way that provide an adequate food supply, shelter from predators, and water, will cause declines in the numbers of many migratory bird species. Of the potential list of 29 mammal species, only 11 species have been recorded, eight of which were bats. However, within the Courtyard of the Titan Cement Plant, shelters for maternity or hibernation colonies were not ascertained. The wetland area of the lakes is only used as a feeding site for the bats. What now is required from the authorities of the Usje Cement Plant is to conduct significant improvements in mitigation measures for Biodiversity Conservation, a concerted attempt at establishing conservation policy based on sustainable exploitation of natural resources and sustainable ecosystem management.

Mitigation/Restoration measures In order to improve the ecological balance of the two aquatic ecosystems, two mitigation/restoration measures have been undertaken since the beginning of 2011. The first mitigation measure was cutting of the reed beds in both lakes, to reduce additional input of nutrients in the lake ecosystems. The cutting of standing reed took place in February, when the season’s growth has not yet started. The reed was cut down over the water surface throughout both lakes and patches of 20% were left. The cut reeds were stored offsite, to escape nutrient enrichment and decreased water quality on the lakes. Since the reed-beds play an important role in storing carbon and trapping nutrients, thus contributing to a reduction in the influx of nutrients and a reduction in eutrophication, the management of the reed-beds of both lakes will continue each year. In the year 2012, because of the climate conditions, the activity on cutting of the reed will be conducted in the first half of March. The second mitigation measure concerning the control of phytoplankton production and the rate of eutrophication of the lakes using the method of biomanipulation includes introduction of Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). In March 2011, the Large Lake was stocked by 100 fingerlings of Silver Carp. In March, 2012, the Small Lake will be also stocked by 100 fingerlings of Silver Carp. The Silver Carp is a species of freshwater cyprinid fish, native to North and Northeast Asia. Currently the Silver Carp is produced worldwide in aquaculture more than any other species. It was first brought into the United States in 1973 when a private fish farmer imported silver carp into Arkansas. By the mid 1970s the Silver Carp was being raised at six state, federal, and private facilities, and by the late 1970s it had been stocked in several municipal sewage lagoons. This species is usually importing and stocking for phytoplankton control in eutrophic water bodies. The Silver Carp is a filter feeder, and possesses a remarkably specialized filtration apparatus capable of filtering particles as small as 4 µm. Because it feeds on phytoplankton, it is successfully used as method for controlling water quality, especially in the control of algae. Next mitigation/restoration measure concerning the aquatic ecosystems includes reforestation of the areas around the lakes that will be conducted in 2012. Quarry operations typically involve activities, which result in fugitive dust emissions. The quarry access to the Usje Cement Plant is of soil road. The transportation of processing materials in large trucks along soil roads causes dust emission that is accumulating in the lakes. It has negative impact on the lake ecosystems, raising the conductivity of the water. The extremely high value of conductivity in both lakes of the Usje Cement Plant has negative impact on the aquatic organisms. Reforestation of the areas around the lakes is recommended as mitigation measure, to reduce the tiny dust particles entering the lakes. A narrow belt of tall tree forest stand will significantly reduce the dust impact to the lake ecosystems. Comparative analysis of the plankton and benthic communities of both lakes is planned to be conducted in 2012 that will show the first results of the mitigation measures. If these mitigation measures do not result in noticeable improvements of the water quality in the lakes, than additional restoration measure, which includes lakes aeration will be implemented. Lake aeration will involve using a land based compressor that will pump air through a line to diffusers, which will be sited at the bottom of the lakes. Air will then rush out of the lake aeration diffusers into thousands of tiny bubbles scrambling to the surface at an average

BALWOIS 2012 - Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia - 28 May, 2 June 2012 12 speed of 30cm per second aerating the lake for the much needed oxygen. These bubbles don’t only transfer the water from the bottom to the top, they help circulate and de-stratify the lake water. They also replenish oxygen throughout the water so that aerobic bacteria can clean the lake of toxic gases like Ammonia and Hydrogen sulphide. The system becomes more efficient if the size of the bubbles is reduced by the lake aeration diffusers. This is because smaller bubbles can stay in the water longer than bigger bubbles. Consequently, a larger area is covered by the bubbles as they spread out while they rise to the surface. The rising bubbles to the surface of the lake can move a large amount of water. It is calculated that a diffused aerator can move up to 4,000 litres of water per hour. Because of this, there is an increased water circulation as the depth of the lake increases. The long-term monitoring pragramme has already been developed and the implementation will start in 2012. The programme includes three main monitoring components, consisted of water quality monitoring of the lakes and the groundwater; monitoring of the aquatic flora and fauna; and monitoring of the terrestrial flora and fauna.

References

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