MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF
HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE
STUDENT’S GUIDE
PROMOTED
WITH THE COFINANCING OF
EXECUTIVED
UNIT 1: THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE...... 1 1.1 AN ANCIENT AND TURBULENT HISTORY: FOREST AND CIVILIZATION...... 2 1.2 DEMOGRAPHY: A HUGE POPULATION CONCENTRATED AND IN CONSTANT GROWTH ...... 4 1.3 A SINGULAR CLIMATOLOGY WITH VERY DRY SUMMERS...... 6 1.4 OROGRAPHIC COMPLEXITY: A MOUNTAIN AND STEEP TERRITORY...... 9 1.5 THE MEDITERRANEAN: A HOT SPOT OF HEAVILY TRANSFORMED BIODIVERSITY...... 11 1.6 LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION: MULTIPLE PROCESSES, OFTEN CONTRADICTORY, HAVE AFFECTED THE FORESTS...... 13
UNIT 1I: THE SINGULARITIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE...16 2.1 THE BIODIVERSITY...... 17 2.1.A THE ABUNDANT PRESENCE OF BIODIVERSITY...... 17 2.1.B THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: DELIMITED AND LOCATED...... 18 2.2. THE COMPLEX ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES ...... 21 2.3 THE OLD-GROWTH FORESTS ...... 24 2.3.A THE FOREST MATURITY...... 24 2.3.B THE OLD TREES AND THE DEAD WOOD OF THE FOREST...... 25
UNIT 1I1: TH PARTICULARITIES OF THE HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE FOREST IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION...... 28 3.1. THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOCLIMATES...... 29 3.2. ADAPTATIONS OF VEGETATION TO MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE...... 30 3.3. HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST...... 32
UNIT 1V: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE...... 38 4.1. MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OFFER US LOTS OF SERVICES...... 39 4.2. FOREST ALSO FORM PART OF OUR CULTURAL IDENTITY...... 42 4.3. CLIMATE CHANGE, A THREAT FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN...... 44 4.4 PRESERVING FORESTS, PERSERVING OUR FUTURE...... 46
UNIT 1 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE
Around the Mare Nostrum, various civilizations have been established throughout history. Commercial relations across the sea have populated the coastal areas and the interaction between various cultures have been perpetuating over the centuries. This space is not only a rich cultural and human space but also a unique biogeographic area, considered one of the areas of the planet with high values of biodiversity. With a climate characterized by mild winters and scanty rains during the summer, vegetation and fauna have developed a series of adaptations. On the other hand, the variability of environments is abundant with multiple mountain systems that contradict the image of extensive beaches (for tourists).
In this sense, the forest systems subjected to the Mediterranean climate are known as "Mediterranean forests", being able to refer to many plant forms: scrubland, scrub, holm oaks, cork oaks, oak, pine trees, cedar forest, among others. About 75 million hectares are covered by Mediterranean forests and distributed among the 25 countries in the Mediterranean basin. These are forests with singularities of high ecological value as well as being especially recognized as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. The topics that you will find in this unit are: 1.1 AN ANCIENT AND TURBULENT HISTORY: FOREST AND CIVILIZATION 1.2 DEMOGRAPHY: A HUGE POPULATION CONCENTRATED AND IN CONSTANT GROWTH 1.3 A SINGULAR CLIMATOLOGY WITH VERY DRY SUMMERS 1.4 OROGRAPHIC COMPLEXITY: A MOUNTAIN AND STEEP TERRITORY 1.5 THE MEDITERRANEAN: A HOT SPOT OF HEAVILY TRANSFORMED BIODIVERSITY 1.6 LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION: MULTIPLE PROCESSES, OFTEN CONTRADICTORY, HAVE AFFECTED THE FORESTS 2
1.1_AN ANCIENT AND TURBULENT HISTORY: FOREST AND CIVILIZATION
The Mediterranean region is one of the cradles of western civilization, transformed intensely by the man from a very long time ago. The need for wood to build (cities, refugees, fleets, tools or weapons), firewood and agricultural land to produce food has been monumental.
All civilizations have interacted with great intensity with the forest. Many of them still remain today.
Identify how different civilizations have used the resources located in the place where you live will allow you to obtain a historical view of the relationship of humanity with your nearest forest. Surely, you have some element of an ancient age. Can you identify it and relate it to the use of the forest by the civilization in question?
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE 3
REMNANTS OF DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA.
AUTHOR: LIMOINUM AUTHOR: LIMOINUM Talatí de Dalt, Menorca (2000 a.C. – 123 a.c.) Tharros, Sardinia (s. VIII a. C. –X d.C.)
AUTHOR: LIMOINUM AUTHOR: LIMOINUM Roman quarry of El Mèdol, Tarragona (s I.d.C.) Montfort Castle, Galilee (s. X d.C.)
AUTHOR: LIMOINUM AUTHOR: LIMOINUM Great agricultural transformation (Priorat, s. XIX d.C.) Urbanization, Vespella de Gaià (s. XX-XXI d.C.)
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE 4
1.2_ DEMOGRAPHY: A HUGE POPULATION CONCENTRATED AND IN CONSTANT GROWTH
BARCELONA, CATALONIA. 184.000 INHABITANTS IN 1857, 1.615.000 INHABITANTS IN 2011
The Mediterranean region concentrates a large population:
POPULATION EVOLUTION AND ESTIMATES 700
600
500
400
300
200 Million inhabitants Million
100
0 1970 2010 2025 2050
FONT: WORLD POPULATION PROSPECTS, UNITED NATIONS
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE 5
In the Mediterranean, the distribution of the population in the territory is quite irregular with little populated areas in the interior and areas that are very populated on the coast. Historically, many of the major cities have been articulated along coastal plains, due to their strategic navigation characteristics that guaranteed the surveillance and defense of the territory as well as the establishment of commercial routes.
During the last decades, coastal areas have also concentrated the population increase due to the rural exodus of the countryside to the city and the growing presence of tourism in the Mediterranean.
Has your locality or region also experienced this growth or has a decreasing evolution? In any case, if you know the reasons you can analyze has been impact on the forests. Do you think the forest extension will have changed a lot? And its uses? Do you think that urbanizing agricultural areas is a good idea?
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1.3_ A SINGULAR CLIMATOLOGY WITH VERY DRY SUMMERS
The climate is the result of complex interrelations between several factors, including latitude, elevation or altitude, topography or proximity to the sea.
Several climates have been identified throughout the globe, and one of them corresponds to the Mediterranean climate, present on the western coasts of the continents, between 30° and 45° latitude.
The Mediterranean climate is characterized by dry and warm summers, and by mild and humid winters. The rains in the Mediterranean climate are irregularly distributed throughout the year, concentrating in the spring and autumn.
Its forests are adapted to this great annual variability, but especially to an unusual fact: when it is warmer is when it rains less, unlike other climates where the warm season usually coincides with the rainy season. This conjunction causes a water deficit for living beings, especially prominent in coastal areas and found in lower latitudes.
CLIMOGRAPH OF THE MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
45 90 40 80 35 70
30 60 ) ) C º MM ( (
25 50 20 40 RECIPITATION EMPERATURE P T 15 30 10 20 5 10 0 0 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
precipitation temperature
SOURCE: Own elaboration based on official statistics of Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia (AEMET)
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE 7
The Mediterranean climate is not limited to the Mediterranean Sea but is present in several parts of the world. In the same way, it does not cover the whole Mediterranean basin, for example, there are desert climates by the sea in Libya or Egypt.
AREAS WITH MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
SOURCE: Wikipedia
The climate of your place is Mediterranean? With the elaboration of a climograph you will get out of doubts.
TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE 8
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM LOCATION: Monreale Castle, Sardinia LOCATION: El Perelló, Catalonia AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 430mm/year AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 455 mm/year PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 14% PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 12%
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE TEMPERATE CLIMATE
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
LOCATION: Humboldt oak forest in the Andes Orientals, Colombia LOCATION: Birch forest in Tatra Mountains, Slovak Republic AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 1.700 mm/year AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 930 mm/year PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 48% PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 35%
TROPICAL WET CLIMATE TROPICAL CLIMATE
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
LOCATION: Amazon rainforest in Vaupés, Colombia. LOCATION: Forest of Mopane a Lwanga, Zambia. AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 3.281 mm/year AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION: 818 mm/year PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 40% PRECIPITATION IN SUMMER: 80%
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1.4_ OROGRAPHIC COMPLEXITY: A MOUNTAIN AND STEEP TERRITORY
The Mediterranean basin is located in the collision zone between the African tectonic plate and the Eurasian plate. Throughout history there have been several episodes of orogénesis that have been forming the various mountain ranges, mountain ranges and mountain systems such as the Pyrenees, pre-coastal Catalan and Valencian mountain ranges, Iberian system, Andalusian mountains, Alps, Apennines, mountains of Balkans, mountains of Turkey, mountains of the Rif or the Atlas.
PLATE TECTONICS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
EURASIAN PLATE
ARABIAN AFRICAN PLATE PLATE
SOURCE: Catalan encyclopedia
The altitude range is enormous: the Atlas Mountains rise to more than 4,000 meters above sea level and at the other end, the Dead Sea is 420m below sea level. Far from the images of sun and beach used as a tourist reclamation, the relief tends to be very steep with high mountains and steep slopes near the coast, even on the islands. There is no lack of, the extensive plains and the deep and fertile soils that are concentrated in the valleys and deltas of the great rivers like the Ebro, the Rhone, the Po or the Nile.
The Ports Massif, Catalonia AUTHOR: LIMONIUM Cabo de Gata, Andalusia AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
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TOPOGRAPHY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN
SOURCE: Instituto Geográfico Nacional, Ministerio de Fomento, España The distribution of the forest area maintains a close relationship with the characteristics of the soil and the relief, since these affect the present climate, conditioning the forest species that live there. These factors generate a pattern in the distribution of the most abundant species. Now, keep in mind (remember) that humanity has shaped the landscape over the centuries. Thus, often the most remote and inaccessible areas of each territory are those that agglutinate the less altered forests, with more original, more mature nature, with a high ecological value.
The nearest mountain in your town, what height do you have? And what vegetation covers it? Do you think that if you are looking for a much higher mountain the vegetation will change?
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1.5_ THE MEDITERRANEAN: A HOT SPOT OF HEAVILY TRANSFORMED BIODIVERSITY
There is a wide variety of species on planet Earth, but this biodiversity is not evenly distributed, but there are areas where a greater number of species live there. HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
SOURCE: Conservation International
It highlight that in some areas, the biodiversity is threatened by the destruction of its habitat. These areas are called hotspots.
The criteria to be considered a hotspot are: - At least that inhabit 1,500 endemic plants (not counting ferns, mosses or other non-vascular plants). - 30% or less of the original natural habitats.
When speaking of endemic species it refers to species that have a limited and reduced geographical distribution besides that is not found naturally, that is, without the action of people, in other parts of the world. The Mediterranean is one of the identified hotspots worldwide and is ranked third in the world in terms of plant diversity.
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ENDEMIC SPECIES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN HOTSPOT. GROUP NO. OF SPECIES NO. OF ENDEMIC PERCENTAGE OF FOUND IN THE REGION SPECIES ENDEMISM PLANTS 30.000 13.000 43% MAMMAL 330 87 26% BIRDS 600 16 3% REPTILES 357 170 48% AMPHIBIANS 115 71 62% FRESHWATER FISH 400 253 63% SOURCE: Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund
We have already seen how the Mediterranean has been heavily transformed, so it explains that natural habitats are limited but in the case the endemisms? Why do you think the Mediterranean region has such a high number?
The Black Pine (Pinus nigra) (Poblet Forest, Catalonia) and the Spanish Juniper (Juniperus thurifera) (Monegros, Aragon) are two species of endemic trees in the Mediterranean. AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
In the old growth or singular forests, biodiversity is important rather than the presence of specialized and rare species that do not count on a high number of different species. Many of these species are birds, fungi or arthropods linked to the presence of old trees and the decaying wood.
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1.6_ LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION: MULTIPLE PROCESSES, OFTEN CONTRADICTORY, HAVE AFFECTED THE FORESTS
Although often in our imagination we see the landscape as a fixed and static image, it has a dynamic and changing character. If we compare it with a movie, the landscape that we see is just a frame of the whole work.
There are more perceptible changes such as those referring to seasonal and daily cycles but there are slower landscaping dynamics that influence the landscape configuration, transforming it and changing its appearance.
In the last 100 years, the landscape change has been intense and at the moment, forests of higher ecological value (the oldest, the most singular, and the most diverse) have been relegated to, often, small isolated stands in protected or inaccessible places.
Some of the processes of evolution of the landscape can be (may be) contradictory, for example the increase of forest masses resulting from agricultural abandonment can be detrimental to the forest itself in case of a fire, since the area previously cultivated will no longer act as a firewall.
Other processes can lead to conflict between different agents: agricultural plans can accommodate urban growth?
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MOST VALUABLE FORESTS RELEGATED TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES AS THE ESCARPMENT.
URBAN SPRAWL
INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE PLAINS. LOSS OF RIVERSIDE FORESTS
MOST VALUABLE FORESTS RELEGATED TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES AS RIVER ISLAND
GRADUAL FOREST COLONIZATION OF MANY FIRES ON YOUNG FOREST IN OLD TERRACED CROPS REGENERATION
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
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Can you analyze the changes in the landscape look out the photography?
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION, A SINGULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA IN CONSTANT CHANGE
UNIT 1I THE SINGULARITIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE
There are several characteristics that allow to consider a forest area as a forest with high ecological value and can be grouped into three integrating aspects: biodiversity, ecological processes and maturity directly related to disturbances. Firstly, it's noteworthy that in these forests we find high biodiversity with endemic or infrequent species of flora, fauna, fungi and lichens, which may have a very small geographical distribution. Biological richness and complex ecological relationships allow these forests to be more resilient to a disturbance than those environments most affected. In addition, we can find trees of all ages, whether large individuals, old, dead, that become a food source or shelter for many species, or young trees that show the renewal of the ecosystem. This broad structure supports a network of complex ecological processes and generates a high biodiversity thus becoming a forest system where all the elements are related.
The topics that you will find in this unit are:
2.1 THE BIODIVERSITY 2.1.A THE ABUNDANT PRESENCE OF BIODIVERSITY 2.1.B THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: DELIMITED AND LOCATED 2.2. THE COMPLEX ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 2.3 THE OLD-GROWTH FORESTS 2.3.A THE FOREST MATURITY 2.3.B THE OLD TREES AND THE DEAD WOOD OF THE FOREST
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2.1_THE BIODIVERSITY
2.1.A THE ABUNDANT PRESENCE OF BIODIVERSITY
When we talk about biodiversity we often refer to different levels: landscapes, ecosystems, populations, species and genetic variability. The complex interactions between these levels help maintain the proper functioning of the ecosystem, increase its resistance and also the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Forests of high ecological value have become a reservoir of biodiversity that we unfortunately do not find in most forests because of the many disturbances they have experienced throughout history.
One of these levels can be considered as rare when we observe:
Habitats where the dominant tree species is endemic or with a restricted area of distribution. Spaces with endemic flora and fauna species. Spaces with threatened flora and fauna species. Threatened habitats.
On the other hand, we speak about wealth when we observe:
High number of species both flora and fauna and fungal species Diversity of habitats Areas of seasonal concentration with important populations of migratory species
Considering the forest wealth, look examples of rarity and wealth for different levels..
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2.1.B THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: DELIMITED AND
The limited distribution of a species becomes a threat to its own survival, so that an alteration in the habitat can trigger a harmful consequence: the disappearance of the species. However, one of the processes which happens in Mediterranean forests is speciation, that is, the development of new species.
This speciation often means that many of these species have a reduced distribution, becoming endemic species. An example is the four species of endemic Bush-cricket of the Iberian Peninsula that we find in Catalonia, restricted to small areas of distribution, of only a few square kilometers.
ORTEGA'S SADDLE BUSH-CRICKET (Lluciapomaresius ortegai), ELS PORTS, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
MEDITERRANIAN BUSH-CRICKET (Lluciapomaresius perezi), ELS PORTS, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
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MIRACLE BUSH-CRICKET (Lluciapomaresius asella), ALINYÀ, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
MONTSANT BUSH-CRICKET (Lluciapomaresius panteli), MONTSANT, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
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There are several processes of speciation, such as geographic and ecological isolation, which eventually generate a genetic divergence with the original population and the consequent definition of a new species:
ORIGINAL DUE TO GEOGRAPHICAL THE GENETIC VARIATIONS MEAN A POPULATION A ISOLATION, GENETIC REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, RESULTING ONE DIVERGENCE IS PRODUCED IN POPULATION A AND A NEW POPULATION B. THE POPULATION A
ORIGINAL DUE TO ECOLOGICAL THE GENETIC VARIATIONS MEAN A
POPULATION A ISOLATION, GENETIC REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, RESULTING ONE
DIVERGENCE IS PRODUCED IN POPULATION A AND A NEW POPULATION C. THE POPULATION A
Is there any endemic species near you? What do you think may be the reason it has become endemic? Verify your answer
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2.2_ COMPLEX ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES
The Mediterranean forests of high ecological value are more stable and ecologically more complex than other ecosystems such as scrublands and grasslands. That's why is considered a high retention of soil and biomass production, which contributes to the maintenance of humidity and the regulation of evapotranspiration, conditioning the water balance and rainfall.
In these forests, the presence of dead wood is significant, contributing to the Carbon and Nitrogen cycle. The natural disturbances that happen, such as the opening of new clearings due to the fall of a tree, support the dynamics of succession and provide the habitat requirements for multiple species, which establish relations between them.
The proper functioning of a forest ecosystem involves maintaining ecological processes and ensuring resistance to environmental risks.
When we talk about complex ecological processes, we considerate:
Carbon cycle. Regulation of microclimate and hydrological processes. Interactions of species. Non-human disturbances.
EXAMPLE OF ONE THE COMPLEX ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES: THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SPECIES: ANIMAL-PLANT.
BLADDER SENNA (Colutea arborescens) AND IOLAS BLUE (Iolana iolas) ENDANGERED. VILANOVA DE LA SAL, CATALONIA. THIS BUTTERFLY NEEDS THIS BUSH TO BE ABLE TO REPRODUCE THANKS TO ITS FRUITS. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
THE SINGULARITIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE 22
In forests of high ecological value we find several species that perform similar functions within the ecosystem that enlarge the present trophic relationships. This redundancy of species gives it richness, complexity, stability and greater capacity to respond to current threats such as loss of biodiversity, climate change or the entry of invasive alien species. That is, they have greater resilience.
TROPHIC INTERACTION NETWORK IN MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL
EXAMPLES OF SAPROXYLIC INVERTEBRATES According to data from 2012, in the Poblet Forest there are 282 species of Saproxylic beetles, which feed on dead wood and are a source of food for many vertebrates.
Long-horned beetle Clic beetle Stag beetle (Ergates faber) (Ampedus aurilegulus) (Lucanus cervus) PHOTOGRAPH BY PNIN POBLET PHOTOGRAPH BY AMADOR VIÑOLAS PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
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EXEMPLES OF INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS They feed on many invertebrate species and play a leading role in pest control.
Western Bonelli's warbler Great tit White wagtail (Phylloscopus bonelli) (Parus major) (Motacilla alba) PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM
Coal tit Western yellow wagtail Short-toed treecreeper (Periparus ater) (Motacilla flava) (Certhia brachydactyla) PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM PHOTOGRAPH BY LIMONIUM
What relationships between species in the Mediterranean forests do you know?
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2.3_THE OLD-GROWTH FORESTS
2.3.A THE FOREST MATURITY
The use of natural resources and the intensity of certain changes in land uses have generated that most of the forests are now young and therefore are in the early stages of natural regeneration. It is, therefore, very significant the existence of old growth forest, since in the Mediterranean region is very scarce.
Old growth forests are characterized by having an important number of old trees; a vertical structure with different heights of glass and where we find clearings caused by the death and subsequent fall of some tree, thus offering a space where new forms of life will be established. In this way more dead wood is generated in decomposition, a fundamental component for many species.
Thus, it is a favorable environment to high biological diversity where we find shrubs, herbs, ferns, fungi, insects, birds, mammals, reptiles that interrelate with each other creating a complex and dynamic network of connections.
POBLET FOREST , CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY RICHARD MARTIN
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We talk about maturity when we find it:
Tress with diversity of age classes (young, mature) Stratification of plant species and canopy enclosure Multiple layers and stratification with indicator species in each (forest floor, understory, and canopy).
The maturity increases the resilience of the forest, so it will have more capacity to recover its properties after being disturbed by a disturbance. However, resilience may depend on the intensity and frequency of previous disturbances - what is known as the disturbance regime (spatial and temporal characteristics of the disturbance pattern). In this context, it should be mentioned that old growth forests, with their associated complexity, start from a much greater resilience than more altered forests.
Could you mention 5 natural disturbances and 2 anthropic disturbances that can undergoing a Mediterranean forest? Sort according to the difficulty and the time it will take the forest to recover the initial state.
2.3.B THE OLD TREES AND THE DEAD WOOD OF THE FOREST
Old trees and dead wood are two of the unique elements of Mediterranean forests of high ecological value. During the aging of a tree, dead parts live together with others still alive. Some of these dead parts are kept in the tree for a very long period of time, others are more easily detached.
We talk about old age when we find: Old trees of great dimensions Standing dead trees and coarse woody debris on the floor Species associated with aging and dead wood
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An old tree becomes a Arboreal megalopolis where many species of invertebrates, fungi, lichens and even some vertebrates, depend to live, since in these gigantic structures generate a set of microhabitats like the cavities or holes , galleries, cracks, exudation, wounds and bare areas of bark, dead parts in large roots, etc.
Thus, the cavities of trees become a refuge, breeding area and food source for many species, being spaces where outstanding trophic networks are developed.
Unfortunately, these old trees and / or large diameter are very few in the Mediterranean.
What microhabitats identify in the drawing?
On the other hand, the high amount of dead wood present in forests of high ecological value, directly favors a large community of species that feeds during its prolonged decomposition. These are the saproxylic organisms, emphasizing beetles and fungi. Thanks to the action of these decomposing organisms the carbon returns to the soil and later to the atmosphere, and therefore they represent an indispensable element in the carbon cycle.
THE SINGULARITIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE 27
EXAMPLES OF MICROHABITATS AND THE ORGANISMS THAT LIVE IN THEM
MARBLED NEWT (Triturus marmoratus) SHELTERED ON DEAD BRANCHES OF A WHITE POPLAR (Populus alba) WITH A NEST OF A TREE IN THE SOIL, THE SAUVA NEGRA FOREST, THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER (Dendrocopos minor), MIG DE CATALONIA. DOS RIUS, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
STAKE OF SCOTS PINE (Pinus sylvestris), WHERE IT HAS FEED A CAVITY MADE BY THE GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER BEAK GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER (Dendrocopos major), POBLET (Dendrocopos major) IN HOLM OAK (Quercus ilex) VELLA, FOREST, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA ALINYÀ, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
A HOLE ENTRANCE OF BEETLE IN THE COARSE WOODY DEBRIS. BEETLE GALLERIES IN THE EUROPEAN BEECH (Fagus
ALEPPO PINE (Pinus halepensis), LA PEDRA DEL TERME, sylvatica), L’ALBERA, CATALONIA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
PRIORAT, CATALONA. PHOTOGRAPH BY EDUARD PIERA
THE SINGULARITIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST OF HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALUE
UNIT 1I1 THE PARTICULARITIES OF THE HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE FORESTS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
Despite the generic characteristics of the Mediterranean climate, it is not homogeneous throughout the region, because up 1000 m, if we continue gaining height, temperature decreases 6.5ºC every 1000m and water retention capacity in the atmosphere decreases. Consequently, there is an altitudinal zoning in vegetation, linked to climate variations, and specially temperature ones. Different habitats can be observed and, in every kind of forests, we can find vegetal species which present peculiarities of every environment.
Taking this into account, and with the aim of defining the Mediterranean forests, MEDFORVAL project has been based in classifications proposed by Gaussen (1926), Quézel (1974), Ozenda (1975), amongst other authors. Therefore, forest groupings that are presented respond to altitudinal disposition of species and different kinds of vegetation according to thermal criteria. Nevertheless, as it is explained afterwards, one of the forest groups, hygrophic forests, does not respond to altitudinal zoning but to the presence of surface water.
Themes which will be developped in this chapter
3.1. THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOCLIMATES
3.2. ADAPTATIONS OF VEGETATION TO MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
3.3. HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS
THE PARTICULARITIES OF THE HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE FORESTS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION 29
3.1_ THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOCLIMATES
All the stages that are developed with the height are known as bioclimatic stages. Every stage has a dominant type of vegetation, due to the climate variations of temperatures and rains.
Therefore, in the Mediterranean climate the following bioclimatic stages can be distinguished:
CHARACTERISTIC CLIMATIC CONDITIONS BIOCLIMATIC STAGES COMMUNITIES
Extreme conditions and a CRIOROMEDITERRANEAN short proper period (long 2700-3000m 2700-3000m Poor prairies and shrubs winter and summer drought) (high summits of Frequent frost in winters. Sierra Nevada) 1600-2000m Frequent frosts in winter and OROMEDITERRANEAN Conifers high temperatures in summer. 1600-2000m
Mountain environment. Deciduous forests, conifers SUPRAMEDITERRANEAN Frequent frosts in winter and or marcescent species, such 1000-1600m 1000-1600m high temperatures in summer. as oaks. Vegetation is very varied: Plateau environment. Kermes oak formations, MESOMEDITERRANEAN Frequent frosts in winter and Holm oak forests or 600-1200m high temperatures in summer deciduous forests. 600-1200m Sclerophylle species Vegetation is very varied:
Few frosts during wintern. Kermes oak formations, 0-600m THERMOMEDITERRANEAN Coastal influence. Hot Holm oak forests or 0-600m environment deciduous forests. Sclerophylle species . Thorny bushes and with INFRAMEDITERRANEAN By the coast Aridity is very present. lean leaves by the coast
Write the name of a forest which is close to you, or another one you like, and identify the bioclimatic stage where it is located
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3.2_ ADAPTATIONS OF VEGETATION TO MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
Hydric stress suffered by vegetables in summer is a big defy. Over time, vegetation which is present in Mediterranean climate has developed different adaptations to face it, most of them based in minimizing loss of water, which is a limiting resource.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM Closure of stomata, which are kind of pores Disposure of sclerophyll leaves: they have which opened and close continuously to catch a layer of wax which forms a waterproof water. At the same time, anyway, water which or hardened cuticle. was accumulated in leaves is lost due to transpiration.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM Leaves with curved sides or covered Whitish tones favor the reflection by hairs, to minimize the movement of air of light and then leaf temperature is
round the stomata. Transpiration is lower and lower. so is the air renewal.
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Another kind of strategy is to reduce as much as possible their activitiy, to minimize the energetic cost.
UTHOR LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM A : Latency Evergreen leaves, and Small size leaves. forms, such as bulbs marcescence, etc., then avoiding the annual renewal of foliage. during adverse period.
Adapting the reproduction cycle to climate: Annual plants which have flowered and fructify during spring rest in form of seeds during summer. Autumn or spring rains will make them germinate.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Choose three species typical of your area, observe their leaves and identify their adaptations to Mediterranean climate.
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3.3_ HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS
In the Mediterranean region, exceptional forests have remained despite of the anthropic pressures they have suffered and are still suffering, and the accused restrictions imposed by Mediterranean climate during summer. These forest ecosystems keep their singularities and that is why it is necessary to recognize them as high ecologic value forests, which have been classified in the following way:
HIGH MOUNTAIN CONIFER FORESTS
AUTOR: LIMONIUM Situated in the Oromediterranean bioclimatic stage, over 1600-2000m, high forests of firs are dominant, where several endemic species of Mediterranean firs (Abies sp), and also cedars (Cedrus sp) and mountain pines (Pinus sp). These groups of conifers are adapted in different ways to the extreme conditions which occur in these heights.
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The pyramid structure of mountain conifers, and the needle form of their leaves, facilitate that Snow, which is common in winter, doesn’t get stuck in the top of the tree and falls to the ground.
The adoption of perennial leaves and dark colors allows the capture of more light, favoring photosynthesis and growth, whenever the conditions allow it.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Needle form of leaves, with a reduced surface, allows the trees to survive the abrupt changes of temperatures, wither in winter, when water availability is little, because it is in solid phase, either in windy of high radiation days, when evapotranspiration increases. AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Conifers, moreover, contain resins which avoid the loss of water and they even have natural antifreeze which protect tissues against low temperatures. Their seeds are also protected, through a set of scales with cone shape.
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MIXT DECIDUOUS MOUNTAIN FORESTS
AUTHOR: POBLET NATURAL SITE Located in the supramediterranean bioclimatic stage, between 1000 and 1600m, there is a great diversity of species which conform these forests: beeches, lindens, maples, elms, oaks, chestnuts, firs and yews, trees of the genus Fagus sp, Tilia sp, Acer sp, Ulmus sp, Quercus sp, Castanea sp Abies sp i Taxus baccata, respectively. Deciduous leaves lose their leaves, with the following advantages: They don’t sweat in the colder period They save investing in energy to stand the adverse periods. Leaves that fall contribute nutrients to the ground.
The deciduous character, nevertheless, has an inconvenient: the energetic expense to renew the foliage is very high. Anyway, the energetic disposal is guaranteed by the usual frequency of rains and humid levels in vegetative period. Due to big size of leaves, many of the deciduous species blossom before the appearance of the new foliage, facilitating the dispersion through the wind, and the visibility in the case of being pollinated by animals.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM Some species, like quercus, opt for marcescent leaves. They keep leaves on the tree until the formation of the new leaf, even when the photosynthetic activity stops. In this way, marcescent leaf becomes a climatic protection for the new foliage in case of frosts in very cold days and loss of water in buds in hot days. AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
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EVERGREEN DRY FORESTS OF LOWLANDS
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Located in mesomediterranean bioclimatic stage, between 600 and 1200m, there are forests of different species: holm oak forests (Quercus ilex), dry conifer forests dominated by different species of pine (Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia, Pinus pinastre o Pinus pinea) and wild forests of olive trees and carob trees.
They are located in environments where the climatic conditions are marked by the strong hydric stress of summer season. Therefore, we can find many species which are clearly adapted to these conditions: small leaves, hardened, hairy and with the presence of waxes and oils. (See section 3.2)
All this energetic effort to stand these conditions mean that these species have a slow growth and without achieving big heights.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
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HYGROPHILE FORESTS Composition of hygrophile forests varies due to the presence of water and humidity in the ground, therefore there is a zoning of the species according to the needs they have to maintain roots permanently flooded. Nevertheless, other factos that influence vegetation can also exist, such as the degree of salinity in water.
EXAMPLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES ACCORDING TO AQUIFER LEVEL
AQUIFER LEVEL AROUND 2 METRES: AQUIFER LEVEL AROUND 3 METRES: BY THE WATER: White poplar (Populus alba) Elm (Ulmus minor) White willos (Salix alba) Narrow leaved- ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) Oak (Quercus sp) Alder (Alnus glutinosa) Hackbery (Celtis australis)
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AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM Flexibility of trees They stabilize banks and reduce allow them to face water speed, favoring sedimentation floods, cushioning their and creation of microhabitats. effects.
The deciduous character of riparian forests avoid the heating of water in hot seasons,
and means a nutrients source, when litter
falls to the water.
Moreover, riparian forests act as connectors and ecologic corridors, allowing the dispersal and displacement of many species.
.
AUTHOR: POBLET NATURAL SITE
The framework of their roots build a place for refuge and breeding for aquatic and terrestrial fauna.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Which are the most frequent forests in your region?.
THE PARTICULARITIES OF THE HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE FORESTS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
UNIT 1V OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUE
Despite their importance as a natural system, Mediterranean forests have been and are scenario for multiple human activities (for example, timber production, cork production, recollection of non-wood products, hunting, pastures, hiking, etc.). When becoming socially indispensable, we can talk about socioecosystems. Consequently, the dynamics of Mediterranean forests are narrowly linked to human societies. In parallel, the Mediterranean forests are sensitive ecosystems but stable as well. This allows them to mitigate some impacts and continue to provide us with services: exploitation of resources, flood, erosion and forest fire prevention, act as carbon sink, biodiversity source, mitigation of climate change, and recreational functions. In these sense, different users (landowners, farmers, shepherds, environmentalist associations, politic representatives, natural areas managers, visitors, local population, scientists) focus lot of expectations on them, which sometimes can be contradictories, generating then problems which affect different collectives. In this section we will deal with different uses and services that forests offer to society, which are the problems that this can cause and which are the possible solutions to these problems and to make compatible usage and conservation. It is an integrating task that will guarantee the persistence of the valuable Mediterranean forests and their use.
Themes you will find in this unit: 4.1. MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OFFER US LOTS OF SERVICES 4.2. FORESTS ALSO FORM PART OF OUR CULTURAL IDENTITY 4.3. CLIMATE CHANGE, A THREAT FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN 4.4 PRESERVING FORESTS, PRESERVING OUR FUTURE
39
4.1_MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OFFER US LOTS OF SERVICES
Of all the services offered to us by the Mediterranean forests, some are quickly identifiables, such as timber production, and others which are less evident as soil formation or climate regulation. These benefits, key to our wellbeing, are the ecosystem services, which are classified generically in four groups:
PROVISIONING SERVICES: These are the ones that provide resources and raw materials. Some examples are: Wood and vegetal fibers Mushrooms, forest fruits and hunting species Genetic resources and active principles used in scientific research.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
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REGULATING SERVICES: Due to the ecosystem operation we obtain intangible benefits with either local and global repercussion. For example: Purification of water and air Carbon stocking Pollination and biologic control of pests Soil protection.
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
CULTURAL SERVICES: These are the services derived from the relation between humans and forests. For example: Symbolic, spiritual and religious values Recreational uses: hiking, leisure, tourism Educational and therapeutic value
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUES 41
AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
SUPPORTING OR BIODIVERSITY SERVICES: To make possible all these services, the ecosystem needs to have all their elements, such as species and habitats. Habitat formation Soil formation Production of atmospheric oxygen
Graellsia isabelae AUTHOR: LIMONIUM AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
List 5 services offered by MAVE forests (trying to list one for every type) and propose one way to measure the benefit contributed by everyone.
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUES 42
4.2_FORESTS ALSO FORM PART OF OUR CULTURAL IDENTITY
PHOTO. THE SINGULAR COASTAL FORESTS KNOWN POPULARLY AS “THE MARCHESS FOREST”, IN HONOR OF THE OLD LANDOWNER, THE MARCHESS OF MAS RABASSA, WHOSE STRONG WILL TO PRESERVE THE FOREST AGAINST URBANIZING PRESSURES WAS VERY FAMOUS. TARRAGONA (CATALONIA). AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Identity and feeling of belonging was formed by a set of elements that live daily amongst people. Gastronomy, Language, cultural values, traditions, customs, landscapes, history... are intertwined and make up a cultural system to which we all form part. That is way many of the high ecologic value forests have also a very important cultural significance for the surrounding populations. Their characteristics and singularities make them loved and well known.
Therefore, forests have been accomplices of traditions, mysteries, legends, folklore and, along years, they have been scenarios of thousands of stories. Even many mountains and their forests have become identity symbols for certain villages and collectives.
Relation that we currently maintain with forests is far away from that lived by previous generations. Due to rural exodus, population of the North of the Mediterranean has changed from working in the forest as shepherd, woodcutters or even living in the forest to being a visitor or foreign tourist.
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Forest culture, like other forms of culture, is dynamic, and has flexibility to answer to changes and new situations. The evaluation that, we as individuals and as society, do about the multiple benefits supplied by forests may allow us to establish new forms of relation, narrower and closer, which will return positively in functions and forest benefits.
List at least one forest area you feel it forms part of your personal identity, and 3 of your collective identity.
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4.3_CLIMATE CHANGE, A THREAT TO MEDITERRANEAN
PHOTO. MASSIVE FALL OF BLACK PINES (Pinus nigra) IN POBLET FOREST (TARRAGONA, CATALONIA) AFTER EXTRAORDINARY GALES. AUTHOR: PNIN POBLET
There is a set of threats that can endanger the good functioning and conservation of forests. Amongst them, the most remarkable is the climate change that, according to forecasts, will cause both structural and functional changes.
Therefore, due to changes in hydric availability, many communities will be affected in terms of abundance and dominance of species, causing a displacement on their distribution. Elevation of altitudinal boundary of high mountain forests, substitution of pinewoods by deciduous woodlands in middle mountain and expansion of scrublands in the lower heights are the previews gathered by the Third Report on Climate Change in Catalonia (TICCC) for the redistribution of forest communities.
Fauna, in spite of having the capacity to move to more optimal environments, soil use changes and territory fragmentation become barriers which difficult this transition.
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Climate change affections to forests also impact on the functional aspects of ecosystem. For example, hydric regulation, CO2 absorption decrease or loss of nutrients caused by lixiviation after rains.
These changes affect and will affect the multiple ecosystem services offered by forests. That’s why it is necessary to insist in the application of either global or local measures. In this sense, the new environmental politics promote forest management as a key factor in climate change mitigation. It is important, though, to plan at a large scale, considering combination of different forests spaces, their multiple use and the effect of perturbations.
Which effects will climate change have on the environmental services identified before?
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4.4_PRESERVING FORESTS, PRESERVING OUR FUTURE
From the social point of view, most of Mediterranean forests have suffered abandonment form the primary sector. This detachment from the society has meant a loss of popular knowledge about the environment, in a moment when paradoxically, there is a great influx of people to forests and natural sites. Society, concentrated in urban land, reaches nature to implement leisure activities.
POBLET FOREST, INTIMATELY ASSOCIATED TO THE ROYAL MONASTERY OF SANTA MARIA DE POBLET. AUTHOR: LIMONIUM
Forests have suffered ecologic, demographic, cultural and economic transformations which have created complex situations such as forest frequentation for leisure motivations without respecting property, and landowners unlinked with the functions of forest ecosystems and even, in some cases, unknowing about the characteristics of their states.
Diversity of users and landowners types difficult an integral view and the domain of a consensual forest management.
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Therefore, a change in the uses and priorities in the ecosystem services is visible. This, added to climate change, can get over the resilience of many ecosystems and the services themselves might get compromised in their existence.
It is in our hands to maintain our relation with the forest, recover links and debate how and which resources we will use to guarantee the functions and ecosystem services. Management may make possible competitiveness of services and functions and will make us gain time to face the consequences of climate change. Moreover, management will improve our capacity to learn, act and enjoy everything provided by forests and anything we provide them.
Make a list of uses and ways to exploit the forest, and identify those which are regulated by any norms.
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS OF HIGH ECOLOGIC VALUES
Year 2017
Cover photography by: RICHARD MARTIN
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