NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES • VOLUME 5 NUMBER 3 JUNE 1984

Lifeline: The Evolution of Biography

Henry James argued that all we ask of It must be borne in mind that my purpose fiction, fundamentally, is that it be in­ is not to write histories, but lives... . As portrait-painters are more exact in the teresting. That, rather than signifi­ forms and features of the face, in which the cance, has also been the goal of artist- character is seen, than in the other parts of biographers, who put forth their claims the body, so I must be allowed to give my for what is interesting in a life: its per­ more particular attention to the marks and sonal, its intimate, its idiosyncratic, its indications of the souls of men. contradictory elements; its very shape. Here for the first time life-writing con­ Biography attempts to escape sciously separates itself from history through self-definition the clutches of and finds an evocative parallel in art. systems of meaning that disdain the What followed biography's classical random details of individual life, sys­ period, which included Tacitus's Life of tems that use life-telling for lessons or A gricola and Suetonius's Lives of the theories. Twelve Caesars, was the long, dark night > Except in the nineteenth century—a of hagiography—the celebration, in the period of dreadful back-sliding by the formula of saints' lives, of religious ab­ canons of post-Victorian biographical solutes. The disinterest in human dif­ criticism—biography as a self-con­ ferentiation—which had its aesthetic scious form has willingly relinquished equivalent in the iconic portrayal of the dignity of history or religion, the saints—extended to the secular world More's Life of Richard III is nonetheless telling of momentous public events, or as well. The first English biography of an evocative portrayal of a particular of spiritual lessons. But in the process, a layman, the Life of Alfred the Great, man. "He was close and secret," wrote biography has aspired to be interesting, written by Bishop Asser at the end of More, "a deep dissembler, lowly of has aspired to the dignity of art. the ninth century or the beginning of countenance, arrogant of heart, out­ Although the modern tradition of bi­ the tenth, is a saint's life in political wardly companionable where he in­ ography, at least in the English-speak­ terms. There is, again, no sense of per­ wardly hated, not hesitating to kiss ing world, traces its beginnings to the sonality, only of idealized traits. whom he thought to kill." sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, English biography can be said prop­ More, in time, became himself the the form takes as its patron saint Plu­ erly to begin in the era of the Renais­ subject of a classic English biography tarch, author of lives of Greeks and Ro­ sance with Thomas More's H istory of by his son-in-law William Roper. This mans who lived in the first century. Richard III, written in 1513, and pub­ Advocate of personality as a concern of lished in 1557. More's work, which life-writers, Plutarch wrote, in his pref­ would influence Shakespeare's charac­ ace to the Life of Alexander: terization of the king, can by no means be considered a saint's life, secular or otherwise. Clearly motivated by mal­ ice—(it was commissioned for Tudor propaganda)—and frequently imagi­ nary, particularly in its dialogue, book and George Cavendish's Life of truth." Brief Lives, Aubrey's notes, were those performances and incidents Wolsey, also written in the sixteenth not published for almost two centuries. which produce 'vulgar greatness' and Editor's Notes century, were the first sustained narra­ A modem critic described Aubrey's lead the thoughts into domestic priva­ tives of individual lives written in the data—filled with vivid detail told with cies and display the minute details of English language. These, although rev­ great style—as "biographic ore," which daily life." His own biographical work "The biographer," wrote Desmond erential and even solemn, are works of later generations would mine. ranged from the pungent Lives of the Morris, "is the novelist on oath." Al­ sixteenth-century humanism—reflected The late seventeenth century did Poets, which combined life-telling and though the facts cannot be invented, also in Holbein's portraiture of this produce one great biographer and bio­ criticism (an ongoing dilemma for they can be given narrative form, re­ time—avoiding allegorizing in the me­ graphical theorist, Roger North, who biographers), to his remarkable Life of creating for the reader the drama and dieval style. argued that anyone's life could be Savage, which, in its insistence on truth meaning of a life once lived. In the late seventeenth century, biog­ made interesting, and wrote three mas­ and psychological insight, is the first The Library of Congress recently un­ raphy took its name and its first step terful lives—of his brothers Francis example of a rich, complex portrayal of dertook a survey to determine national toward modem self-recognition as a Baron Guilford, Sir Dudley North, and a tortured, unlikable subject, viewed reading preferences. It was found that form. John Dryden, in his preface to Dr. John North. In an essay, unpub­ with honesty and human sympathy. more people had read a biography in Plutarch's Lives, Translated from the Greek lished until the twentieth century, It is of course Johnson's life written the preceding six months than any by Several Hands, pronounced: "bio- North made the first full claims for bi­ by Boswell that provides the fullest tes­ other kind of book. graphia the history of particular men's ography as art. He argued that some­ timony to biography's capacity for ar­ Small wonder! Just within the con­ lives." Dryden allowed that biography one might "make gatherings and ex­ tistic realization—the one unquestioned fines of these pages are people as dif­ was "inferior in dignity to history," but cerpts out of letters, books, or reports masterpiece. It might also be argued ferent as Santayana and Louis Arm­ he hit on its central advantage: in . . . but these are memorials or rather that it is the supreme statement of its strong, George C. Marshall and Sylvia " pleasure" it excels all other branches of bundles of uncemented materials, but time, what one critic called a "flamboy­ Beach. In each of their lives a new facet history. not the life." "There is," he insisted, ant proclamation of the importance of of history is revealed; we know another "great art... in making good descrip­ There is a descent into minute circum­ an individual." dimension of what it means to be stances and trivial passages of life . . . which tion of plain facts." To those who ar­ Boswell knew that he had created a human. the dignity of (history) will not admit. gued that only fiction could be made masterpiece. "I am absolutely certain," Perhaps the modem novel's aban­ There you are conducted only into the beautiful, "I answer," North wrote, he wrote in a letter to William Temple, rooms of state; here you are led into the donment of plot, character, and narra­ "that the same ingredients that are usu­ "that my mode of biography, which private lodgings of the hero: you see him in tive line is responsible for biography's ally brought to adorn fiction may come undress, and are made familiar with his gives not only a history of Johnson's rise in popularity. The journey be­ most private actions and conversations.. . . forward and be as well applied to the visible progress through the world . . . tween birth and death is, after all, the The pageantry of life is taken away. You setting forth of truths, that is, choice of but a. view of his mind in his letters and universal experience. With its wealth see the poor reasonable animal, as naked as words, charming periods, interspersion conversations, is the most perfect that ever nature made him; are made acquainted of laboriously researched details, biog­ of sentences, and facetious can be conceived." with his passions and follies, and find the raphy grows more particular—and expressions." Demi-God, a man. Boswell, thus, gave biography its more inviting—as the novel grows more The hunger for biography in the credo, and its model, and also its noto­ abstract. This was biography seen for its own early eighteenth century had grown riety. The public's reaction to Boswell's Is biography defined as history or sake—for pleasure, for curiosity, for sufficiently by 1716 to warrant an at­ commitment to write no "panegyrick," literature? Good biographies join the human sympathy—not construed as tack by Joseph Addison on "a race of but a life honestly rendered, brought to two. Perhaps their growing attraction panegyric, or religious model, or philo­ men lately sprung up . . . whom we the fore a wide-ranging discussion in for readers may be explained by pub­ sophical typology. cannot reflect upon without indigna­ journals and salons about the aspira­ lisher Thomas Congdon who says, "In No one of the age understood more tion. ... These are Grub-street biogra­ tions of biography. Boswell was at­ a world of facts, facts, facts, it's lives, completely, by instinct, what was inter­ phers, who watch for the death of a tacked not only for his depiction of lives, lives that matter." esting in people's lives than John Au­ great man, like so many undertakers, Johnson's faults but also for his revela­ —Judith Chayes Neiman brey, who collected from 1669 to 1696, on purpose to make a penny of him." tion of private conversations. And even material for Anthony Wood's lives of These were not, we can assume, all those who recognized the work as a Oxford graduates. Aubrey—whose artists, but the very phenomenon of the monument to Johnson, not an attempt notes showed a remarkable eye for the Grub-street biographer suggests an ex­ to betray him, wondered at Boswell's very traits which reveal, in Dryden's ploding taste in the era for investigat­ appetite for the smallest details of his words, "the poor reasonable animal, as ing the lives and the characters of men. life. naked as ever nature made him"— The century was, of course, the age of It is possible that the very force of Humanities wrote the shocked Wood in 1680: the anecdote, and of those who con­ Boswell's achievement may have I here lay down to you . . . the truth, and, structed their lives to form them. It also chilled the climate for biography by re­ nothing but the truth: the naked and plain marked the parallel rise of the novel vealing the form, in its portrayal of truth, which is here exposed so bare that A bimonthly review published by the and biography as independent genres. human weaknesses as well as the very pudenda are not covered, and af­ National Endowment for the Humanities Most early novels were written as strengths, as dangerous. In any case, fords many passages that would raise a though they were biographies or auto­ the nineteenth-century reaction against Chairman: William ]. Bennett blush in a young virgin's cheek. So that af­ Director of Public Affairs: Marion Blakey ter your perusal, I must desire you to make biographies—an obvious example be­ the eighteenth century's devotion to Assistant Director for Publications: a castration .. . and to sew-on some fig- ing The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling. the truths of human nature led to what Caroline Taylor leaves. Samuel Johnson was the century's Harold Nicolson, from the vantage Editor: Judith Chayes Neiman great biographical monument, both as The world, Aubrey sensed, at least Managing Editor: Linda Blanken writer and subject. Echoing Plutarch, the world of Oxford graduates, was not Editorial Board: James Blessing, Harold Johnson pronounced that the biogra­ Cannon, Richard Ekman, Donald Gibson, yet ready for "the naked and plain pher "must often pass slightly over Thomas Kingston, Armen Tashdinian, Carole Watson Production Manager: Robert Stock Designed by Maria Josephy Schoolman

The opinions and conclusions expressed in Humanities are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material appearing in Humanities may be freely reproduced although the editor would appreci­ ate notice and copies for the Endowment's reference. Use of funds for printing this publication has been approved by the Office of Management and Budget. Send address changes and requests for subscriptions to the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern­ ment Printing Office, Washington. D C. 20402. (USPS 521-090) Other communications should be addressed to Editor, Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, 1100 Pennsyl­ vania Avenue, NW, Washington, D C. 20506. Telephone 202/786-0435. ISSN 0018-7526.

2 point of this century, called "the cata­ for heroism, was no mere tale of uplift Stracheyan biographer, determined not strophic failure of Victorian biogra­ and public glory. He revealed to his merely to fling a mass of documenta­ phy." The Victorians, in their devotion readers the tragic events of Carlyle's tion at his reader but to arrange and in­ to respectability, opened "a gap," private life brought on, in great part, by terpret it, often manipulated his evi­ wrote another modern critic, "between what one critic has called "a repulsive dence to secure a more striking effect. what man knew of man—the hard-won egoism issuing in an insane irritabil­ Others were even more likely to suc­ advances of three centuries—and what ity." Froude showed all too clearly the cumb to the artistic temptation—frus­ man permitted himself to know." domestic snakepit Carlyle shared with trated, as biographers often are, by the Biography again became didactic, his abused wife Jane. The resulting fu­ limitations of the material available to burdened with concerns extraneous to ror virtually buried the biography them. Andre Maurois, in the twenties, the honest, rounded portrayal of a life. under a mound of abuse. began a tradition of romantic biogra­ The biographer, in an age of hero-wor­ This is not the place to rehearse the phy, very nearly fictionalized, with his ship, produced secular saints' lives. reasons for the demise of Victorian Ariel: A Shelley Romance (1923)—which "The history of mankind," wrote sensibility. Suffice it to say that for bi­ he later regretted having written. In Thomas Carlyle, "is the history of its ography the post-Victorian age—anti­ later years Catherine Drinker Bowen great men: to find out these, clean the heroic, psychological, ironic—begins would shape materials honestly dirt from them, and place them on with the shot fired in 1917 by Lytton researched into the impression of con­ their proper pedestals." Strachey, second in influence only to versation to heighten the novel-like James Boswell, 1740 - 1795 In technique the biographer placed Boswell in shaping artistic expectations quality of her work. Finally, and be­ his trust in documents, letters, and for life-writing. His preface to Eminent yond the pale, Irving Stone would pro­ speeches piled on with little selection Victorians amounts to a declaration of duce completely fictionalized biogra­ or interpretation. "The biographer," independence for a form colonized by phy—such as Lust for Life and The Agony wrote the discouraged American critic ponderous Victorian moralism: and the Ecstasy. This approach has little to do with the legitimate uses for fic­ Thomas Sergeant Perry "gets a dustcart Those two fat volumes, with which it is our into which he shovels diaries, reminis­ custom to commemorate the dead—who tion of real lives—such as Virginia cences, old letters, until the cart is full. does not know them—with their ill-digested W oolf's Orlando, Somerset Then he dumps the load in front of masses of material, their slipshod style, Maugham's, The Moon and Sixpence, or your door. That is Vol. I. Then he goes their tone of tedious panegyric, their lam­ Robert Penn Warren's All the King's entable lack of selection, of detachment, of Men. forth again on the same errand. And design? ... How many lessons are to be there is Vol. II. Out of this rubbish the learned from them? ... To preserve, for in­ But when the biographical yearning reader constructs a biography." stance, a becoming brevity—a brevity which for the dignity of art was kept within The nineteenth century did have its excludes everything that is redundant and bounds, it supported an outpouring of biographical classics which, allowing nothing that is significant—that, surely, is artistic energy that continues unabated. the first duty of the biographer. The sec­ for the standards of the day, rank as The terminology of biography became ond, no less surely, is to maintain his own Samuel Johnson, 1709 - 1784 true achievement. If the biographer freedom of spirit. permanently wedded to art. Edmund avoided the inner man, the man of im­ Gosse's definition of biography, com­ pulse and of emotional complexity, he Strachey made biography more ar­ posed for the Britannica, has become could be brilliant in conveying his pub­ tistic, more readable, finer, but in the classic: "the faithful portrait of a soul lic impact. One of the greatest of these process he made it far more difficult in its adventures through life." Biogra­ works was A.P. Stanley's Life of Thomas to achieve. Strachey's lacquered style, phy, particularly biography marked by Arnold, Head-M aster of Rugby (1844). In his ironic detachment, his control of brevity and distilled characterization, is it there is no real sense of Arnold's pri­ his materials, and his psychological often referred to as a "portrait," or a vate self, his conversations, his deepest insight became, as standards, clumsy "profile," as in the New Yorker tradi­ thoughts, hopes and fears. "W hat is in the hands of his own disciples. The tion, or a "cameo," or a "vignette," or a felt by the reader," writes A.O.J. Cock- post-Victorian discovery of the pri­ "sketch" or even a "silhouette." shut, "is what Stanley had felt. . . the vate, the psychological reality became For all the achievements and vigor of intensity of Arnold's effect." too easily exercises in iconoclasm. the new biography, serious questions Benjamin Disraeli pronounced: "It is The biographer-muckraker became a remain. The ambitious biographer has the private life that governs the world," specialist in the discovery of hypoc­ made himself a specialist of the inner but his insight went unheeded by biog­ risy, determined to diminish rather man, but the question must be raised— raphers of his century. One exception, than to understand and portray. how much can we know of him? The and an exception only in part, was J.A. The Strachey influence was un­ Victorians knew what they did not Froude's epic four-volume biography healthy in another respect. In his em­ want to know and set rather effective of Carlyle based on his seventeen-year phasis on the artistic effect, Strachey guidelines for what they could know. Benjamin Disraeli, 1804 - 1881 close friendship from 1864 to 1881. himself, and his disciples most of all, They believed in the public man, the could easily forget obligations to the From our vantage point, Froude struck, man of record, and found it rather easy honest portrayal of the material. The for the most part, the classic pose of the nineteenth-century disciple- memorialist. But there was a differ­ ence, which resulted in a furor beyond anything Boswell experienced. Froude's work, although still a formula

3 to deliver him up to posterity. But in If he is without talent, he will our psychological age, the biographer achieve very little. Hugh Kenner has needs to know more—the motives, the written that "biography is finally fic­ masks, the knowledge a man keeps tion, and, save in the most trustworthy hidden from himself, the struggle and hands, it works the way imperfect fic­ mystery of personality. "W e know," as tion does, filling sag with cellulite gen­ James Clifford has argued "that every eralities when the data continuity re­ man who has ever lived works from his quires are lacking." Filling that sag, own set of symbols and responses to that gap, is precisely the biographer's them, that he has his own subconscious problem of form—and it is to the extent motivations and drives. The question is to which he can fill it with fealty both LIVES whether a biographer can possibly dis­ to historical truth and to literary stan­ cover these fundamental forces in his dards that he can lay his claim to artis­ subject." tic achievement. In his search for tools for the discov­ Perhaps in the end, with his obliga­ ery of the inner life, the biographer is tions to fact and his aspirations to art, apt to misuse psychoanalysis. Yet the the biographer struggles with the im­ great biographer must be sensitive to possible. "The invented character," its possibilities. "Our success," writes Virginia Woolf once wrote, "lives in a Leon Edel, author of the masterful five- free world where the facts are verified volume biography of Henry James, by one person only—the artist himself. "will depend entirely on the extent to Their authenticity lies in the truth of which we use these shining new tools his own vision. The world created by THAT ... We must beware of jargon.... that vision is rarer, intenser, and more What we must try to do is to translate wholly of a piece than the world that is the terms in a meaningful way and into largely made of authentic information language proper to ourselves. Critics supplied by other people. . .. The art­ who babble of the Oedipus complex do ist's imagination at its most intense . .. a disservice both to literature and to fires out what is perishable in fact; he psychoanalysis." builds with what is durable; but the bi­ Thus the biographer yearns to un­ ographer must accept the perishable, derstand but proceeds with caution, us­ build with it, imbed it in the very fabric MATTER ing his tools suggestively, searching out of his work." evidence by intelligence and instinct. But, for all that, Woolf gives the bi­ He does not, if he aspires to art, capitu­ ographer his due, and his hope as an late to the biography of little risk, the artist: dry, documentary "laundry-list" ver­ By telling us the true facts, by sifting the lit­ sion—biographies that resist selectivity, tle from the big, and shaping the whole so that attempt only the documentation that we perceive the outline, the biographer If there were a rest home for aged edi­ real thing." not the simulation of a life. That, in the does more to stimulate the imagination tors, as there are for garment workers, When an author suggests a really end, is what the biographer-artist seeks than any poet or novelist save the greatest. For few poets and novelists are capable of merchant seamen, and movie makers, good subject for a biography, a ques­ to achieve, admitting what he cannot that high degree of tension which gives us two of the books I'd recall with the tion instantly pops into my mind: know, coping with gaps of evidence, reality.... [The biographer] can give us the most pleasure, as I sat in my rocker re­ "W hy didn't I think of that?" It is fol­ with the disorder of human existence, creative fact; the fertile fact; the fact that viewing my publishing past, would be lowed, a moment later, by this ques­ and the anarchy of personality. He suggests and engenders. a biography—A. Scott Berg's M ax Per­ tion: "Isn't there already a biography o f must, if he can, create out of these bits —Marc Pachter kins: Editor of Genius—and an autobiog­ this person?" And then: "W hy not?" and pieces an artistic whole—a coher­ M arc Pachter is historian of the National raphy, Russell Baker's Growing Up. Publishers are wary of voids. If this life ent vision of a life—one not merely told Portrait Gallery and the editor of Telling There is something about the notable under consideration is so marvelous to, but experienced by his reader. Lives: The Biographer's Art. life wonderfully recounted that is hard and important, perhaps it hasn't al­ to beat, even by fine fiction. The novel­ ready been done because it's undoable. ist has latitudes in story-telling and Perhaps all the best source material is characterization that the biographer in the hands of a hostile estate. Perhaps does not. So when a writer does manage once the author starts "digging," the to get an actual human being's exis­ subject proves to be detestable or, tence between covers successfully, in a worse, a bore. On the other hand, sort of Pandora-in-reverse, it is always maybe not; maybe the author is both a tour de force, and a thrill for the edi­ smart and lucky. tor cheering from the sidelines. So it proved in the case of the Max Biography is not often the route to Perkins book. Perkins, the great editor big money in publishing; small-to-me- and discoverer of writers like Heming­ dium is more likely. And publishers, way, Fitzgerald, Thomas Wolfe, James like other entrepreneurs, care about Jones and many others, had attracted money. (It's fitting that in the past sev­ many would-be chroniclers, but none eral years, many publishing houses managed to win over Perkins's heirs, have moved into Manhattan's garment his daughters, whose cooperation was district.) Yet as editors shuffle through obviously essential. The daughters, the manuscripts and proposals in the however, had seen no harm in helping morning's mail, they are inclined to a Princeton student named Scott Berg, snatch out and immediately to examine who in 1971, under the guidance of the prospect biographical. Like readers Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker, in general, editors tend toward the vi­ was doing his senior thesis on Perkins. carious approach to experience. Biogra­ Berg's thesis won the prize, which en­ phies promise them intimacy with the couraged him to keep going and to try sort of people they don't often meet at to expand it into a book. The Perkins the shopping mall, people who, daughters were also encouraged, in through a book, can nourish one's life that the thesis demonstrated what they and one's understanding. But for edi­ already sensed: this twenty-one-year- tors, it goes beyond that; there is the old lad had a perfect feel for Max Per­ challenge of finding The New One, kins—who he was, what he repre­ what Maxwell Perkins used to call "the sented. And so Berg wrote on. When I Virginia Woolf, 1882 - 1941 4 when a biographer becomes a com­ writer could bring himself to make the piler, an essential undercurrent sense enormous overinvestment of time and of spontaneity and excitement and energy that good biographers routinely strong narrative flow is sacrificed to make, tracking down the smallest pedantic scholarship." I sympathize. scrap, the most remote testimony. And yet there are biographies that, Without passion, the biographer could while not especially readable, are of not surmount the obstacles—the obdu­ great value not only to scholars but to rate lack of cooperation, even outright future biographers. Compilation is cru­ obstruction. It was the appealing glow cial to civilization. On the other hand, a of Scott Berg's passion for Max Perkins commercial publisher is usually glad to that persuaded Perkins's friend Eliza­ leave that civilized task to university beth Lemmon to bring Berg into her presses. confidence. She had dealt perfunctorily At the other end of the spectrum is with the distinguished biographers of the "show-biz" biography. If you Perkins's famous authors when they doubt the power of a life recorded, had come to her for tidbits. But some­ consider that one of the most widely thing about Scott Berg impelled her to read books next year will be the biog­ tell it all to him—and then to haul out raphy of an androgynous young singer the shoebox full of letters from Perkins named Michael Jackson. My view is that revealed their enduring though that the subject isn't what makes the (alas) platonic love affair. (Berg calls show-biz biography often meretricious; them "my Aspern papers.") it is the intent and the treatment. I had To hear a first-rate biographer speak never published one—until the Steve about his subject is to sense passion at McQueen biography recently issued work. David McCullough on Theodore from our presses. In the years before Roosevelt, James Flexner on Washing­ he died, McQueen poured out his story ton, Sam Schoenbaum on Shake­ to a writer named William Nolan; No­ speare—listening to them we envy their lan brought the McQueen book to me. passionate experience. Reading them, I read it and began to understand the we share in it. principle of McQueen's appeal as an It's not hard to intellectualize the art American anti-hero—and perhaps, a bit of biography. The biographer is our more about the nation that produced minstrel, singing to us of heroes and him. villains, relaying and refining our Unpredictability is basic to publish­ agreements on the nature of human­ ing, and part of what makes it such a kind and of virtue, and in the course of Max Perkins and some of his famous authors: Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Wolfe. maddening, lively game. In choosing it, entertaining us down to our socks. biographies to publish, there is a con­ But perhaps it's simpler than that. In a sideration beyond the subject, beyond world of "facts, facts, facts," it's lives, met him and learned he was writing a sented before, but his thesis cast it in a the material, beyond the analysis of the lives, lives that matter. life of the hallowed Perkins, I (cau­ new light, so that we saw new things. competition. It is the author himself. —Thomas Congdon tiously) jumped. What is this "perfect Philip M. Stern's biography of Robert The material may be fine from every M r. Congdon, a partner in Congdon & feel" one senses in a writer that is so Oppenheimer was not the first (though point of view—but is this author the Weed, is the publisher of Growing Up by very difficult to articulate? Reading it was, in fact, the first biography I ever right person to write this particular Russell Baker and numerous other biogra­ Berg's expanded thesis, I too felt that, published), but Stern chose to look at book? Does this biographer have pas­ phies and autobiographies, including the like Perkins himself, Berg "treated the life in terms of the shameful trial of sion, and is it a passion well-harnessed forthcoming Mark Clark: Last of The literature as a matter of life and death." Oppenheimer in 1954 as a security and also appropriate to the subject? Great W orld W ar II Commanders by It took four years for Berg to teach risk—an approach that put everything Without passion for the subject, no M artin Blumenson. himself his craft, but he learned it well. in an original and revealing perspec­ The opening chapter, for example, tive. Erwin Rommel had been por­ does not begin at the beginning of Per­ trayed a number of times, but I was in­ kins's life. Instead, we first see the edi­ trigued when David Irving wanted to tor at sixty-one addressing a New York write about him. Rommel was a Ger­ University extension course on pub­ man general thought to be anti-Nazi; lishing. During the course of the lec­ Irving is a British historian thought by ture, the reader understands the rever­ some to be soft on Nazis. Neither sup­ ence for Perkins's work, the esteem in position was entirely correct. (Rommel which he is held by the students who was an opportunist, and Irving, a good have come to hear him. Through their writer, is first and foremost a contro­ questions, we know at once why his versialist, a contrarian—such people life commands our attention, the role must be heard.) I believed that a fasci­ he has played in discovering and nur­ nating piece of demythologizing could turing many of the most important lit­ come from the match between author erary works of this century. And we and subject. And so it did. Rommel, it know why he feels that "There is noth­ turned out, was not the heroic figure ing so important as a book can be." James Mason gave us in The Desert Fox. M ax Perkins won an American Book He had curried favor with Hitler Award. throughout, and his support of the The answer to the second question is anti-Hitler conspiracy was tepid if it often, "W ell, there have in fact already existed at all. His murder by Hitler was been several biographies o f ...... " The not so much an outrage as an irony. As hopeful biographer then must show expected, Irving relished the expression that an additional one is needed. When of this contrary view. my partner Peter Weed signed Scott There are so many different kinds of Donaldson's Fool for Love, he knew that biographies—from simple story-telling, there had been many biographies of F. to the relentlessly psychoanalytical, to Scott Fitzgerald; but Donaldson had an the awesomely archival. "An endless interesting approach—the affect of recitation of facts, facts, facts," an au­ women and an obsession with roman­ thor wrote to me recently about his tic love on Fitzgerald's writing. Much proposed book, "may have little rela­ of Donaldson's material had been pre­ tion to the truth, and my feeling is that 5 wear his heart on his sleeve, and he with politics led him to offer little self- was not given to much introspection. If defense in the Pearl Harbor hearings I would mention that in a book 'so and because of his conviction that the target so says this about you,' he would reply, was Roosevelt. In the same spirit, when 'well, people say things to sell books.' " asked by Truman to serve as secretary In 1956-57 General Marshall re­ of defense, he warned the President corded on tape some forty hours of an­ that he would be a weakness, rather swers and comments in response to than a strength, to Truman because of questions submitted by Pogue. In addi­ the attacks then being made on Mar­ tion, Marshall talked to his biographer shall and others in the State Depart­ about fifteen hours without a tape re­ ment for having "lost" China. corder with part of these comments In describing his historical methods, recorded by a secretary. Aided by ear­ Pogue says that he learned history in lier research he had done on the offi­ an old-fashioned way by reading first cial account of General Eisenhower's the volumes in his grandfather's library command in northwest Europe in and continuing that reading throughout 1944-45, Pogue conducted more than his life. Pogue has read an enormous 300 interviews with Marshall's friends amount of biography. "I tend to look at and former associates, supplementing the people that shape history, rather this information with letters, photo­ than use the 'common man' approach graphs, clippings, Marshall's corre­ of modern methods. I never became a spondence, the diaries of Secretary of believer in the notion that economic War Henry L. Stimson and others, offi­ factors determine history. Economic cial papers in the National Archives, factors undoubtedly affect the course personal papers in the archives at the of history, but it's a mistake to say men George C. Marshall Research Library, do not have the capacity to change his­ and official histories of the armed tory. ... Looking back over one thou­ services. sand years of history, some might say At one point during the interviews, it was not affected by individuals, but Marshall asked Pogue, "How do you you can't ignore the effect of men on know whether you can depend on what history. If Patton had been chief of I tell you?" staff instead of Marshall, things would Pogue replied that he based about have been different." every tenth question on answers Mar­ As far as Marshall's effect on the shall had earlier supplied in congres­ course of history, Pogue admits that it sional testimony or from official is probably nothing more than the fact records. "I would ask him that precise that Marshall, with his particular question, having already noted the an­ strengths and abilities, appeared at the swer from his previous testimony or ideal time. It was a most difficult time papers, and his answer would usually for Marshall, however, because of his be exactly the same as it had been. He constant struggles to awaken a sleeping A Very Private, was likely to remember exact statistics country to the dangers that threatened and repeat the same illustrations he it. In the prewar years, Marshall's ef­ had used ten or fifteen years earlier." forts to establish an adequate national Trained as a historian, Pogue found defense program required an unrelent­ Public Man biography difficult. "If you have a ing campaign to win support from the Proust, you can put into your work a White House, Congress, and the In March 1945, Winston Churchill sent building the army and army air forces lot of color and feeling—the same with American public. Once the money was a radio message to Field Marshal Wil­ from a combined strength of less than a Patton or a Montgomery—because appropriated, Marshall turned his at­ son, chief of the British Mission in 200,000 men in the summer of 1939 to these were colorful characters, and it's tention to building troop strength in Washington: "Pray . . . give . . . [Gen­ 8.3 million in 1945. Marshall's quiet, easy then to fill in colorful detail. But I the army and air corps while continu­ eral Marshall] my warmest congratula­ methodical approach to financing, couldn't get colorful facts about Mar­ ing to make arms available to allies tions on the magnificent fighting and equipping, training, and deploying shall. I talked to a lot of people, but I abroad. With the outbreak of war, he conduct of the American and Allied these troops stands in sharp contrast to never found a bit of gossip about him, worked to establish the principle of Armies under General Eisenhower, and the more colorful personalities of the and he never had a bit of gossip about unified command and shaped a strat­ say what a joy it must be to him to see time—Roosevelt, Churchill, Patton, other people." egy for defeating the principal enemy, how the armies he called into being by Montgomery, Eisenhower. On one occasion Pogue was muffled Germany, while holding off the Japa­ his own genius have won immortal re­ Writing about this intensely private up in an overcoat against the cold when nese threat in the Pacific. nown. He is the true 'organizer of person presented a challenge to biogra­ he went to see Marshall. The general "Marshall learned a lot about people victory/ " pher Forrest C. Pogue, whose fourth remarked, "You look just like John because of his earlier assignments to As organizer of the Allied victory in and final volume in the official biogra­ Foster Dulles." training commands," says Pogue. "He World War II and as architect of the phy of George C. Marshall, researched "Is that good?" Pogue inquired, hop­ had an uncanny knack for picking the Marshall Plan, for which he won the with NEH support, will be published in ing the general would provide a per­ right men. He played a key role in the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953, George Cat­ 1985. It took the urging of many sonal opinion. selection of Ike, Bradley, MacArthur, lett Marshall not only served his coun­ friends as well as Presidents Truman "W ell, when a man has faced cancer Patton, Stilwell, any number of other try with honor and distinction, but and Eisenhower, before Marshall and gotten through it bravely, you have people that he knew would be good for saved it as well, according to General agreed in 1956 to cooperate with Pogue to respect it," Marshall answered, de­ the war effort. I count 169 future of the Army Omar N. Bradley: "I am in recording, on tape, information flecting the opportunity to say some­ generals out of those Marshall had convinced that by his ability and fore­ about the high points of his career as a thing critical of Dulles. trained or who were on his staff. But he sight General Marshall saved this soldier, secretary of state, and secretary Marshall, who graduated as First was more of a planner than a com­ country at least a year. Invasion of Eu­ of defense. Even so, Marshall's reluc­ Captain of his class at Virginia Military mander. He never had a chance to lead rope a year later surely would have tance to discuss personal matters left Institute, belonged to the school of mil­ troops." jeopardized our chances of winning. little room for fleshing out the portrait itary men who did not involve them­ Early in his childhood, Marshall This is the year that may well have re­ of his official life. selves in politics as a matter of princi­ showed concern about the proper exer­ written history." "Some of my critics claim I have ple. Not that he kept his politics to cise of leadership. He and a friend built A man who placed duty foremost, failed to reach the real man," Pogue himself, but he simply did not have a raft to cross a creek near their homes. Marshall's strength of character and his says. "Unless a person writes a private politics. He was fond of saying that his They charged the girls in the neighbor­ talents as a planner on the largest scale diary or cries on your shoulder about father was a Democrat, his mother a hood l c or 2c a ride so they could cross were severely tested during the war something, it is hard to reach that pri­ Republican, and he himself an Episco­ the creek without getting their shoes and the recovery that followed. As vate being. Marshall couldn't keep that palian. According to Pogue, the fact wet. One day, the girls announced that army chief of staff, he succeeded in sort of diary. He was a man who didn't that Marshall did not concern himself they wouldn't pay and wanted to be 6 ferried across for nothing. Momentar­ Pogue thinks that Marshall will be ference or on a precise event. Such only by a presentation of the evidence ily at a loss but not wanting to give in remembered more for the Marshall focus on a specific character ... may that led me to my conclusions. I can to the girls' demands, Marshall Plan than for his role as "organizer of lead at times to upstaging equally only cite my healthy regard for the pondered what to do to remain in con­ victory." Even though some revision­ prominent or even more prominent careful eye of critical theses writers of a trol of the situation. Finally, he sank ists say that the Marshall Plan was performers. But any neglect of later era—a breed whose latent threat the raft. He told this story often later in never a humanitarian gesture but, Roosevelt and Churchill has long since and severe accounting makes more life to illustrate the importance of re­ rather, a selfish weapon against the So­ been corrected either by their admirers honest men of all of us who deal with maining in authority when cast in a viet Union or, some think, an attempt or by themselves;... Inasmuch as I history." leadership role. to capture European markets, Marshall have lived with General Marshall's pa­ —Caroline Taylor pers since 1956,... I am of course His experiences in the first world saw it as an attempt to revive and unify more cognizant of his services and his "Final Volume of Biography of General war refined his convictions on this Europe. Having seen the devastation in explanations for his actions than I am George C. Marshall"/Forrest C. point and led Marshall to develop a Germany and France after World War of those of any other W orld W ar II Pogue/George C. M arshall Research Foun­ theory of leadership that reveals much I, Marshall had warned that not to leader.... As a result, I have a bias in dation, Lexington, V A /$29,700 OR; about his own character: build up the war-torn countries was to To be a highly successful leader in war favor of my subject. This I can mitigate $95,000 FM /1977-81/Project Research "invite Bolshevism" to take hold. four things are essential, assuming that you possess good common sense, have studied Pogue has concluded that the es­ your profession and are physically strong. sence of the Marshall Plan was not in When conditions are difficult, the com­ handing over money—"because you mand is depressed and everyone seems can't expect to resolve economic disor­ critical and pessimistic, you must be espe­ der by handing out money"—but that cially cheerful and optimistic. When evening comes and all are ex­ Europe had to help itself first. Marshall hausted, hungry and possibly dispirited,. . . was firm in the conviction that the ini­ you must put aside any thought of personal tiative must come from Europe. "Eu­ fatigue and display marked energy in look­ rope must say to us, 'we can do this, we ing after the comfort of your organization, have these resources, etc.,' and then tell inspecting your lines and preparing for tomorrow. us what it needs from us." The bold­ ness of Marshall's concept was in en­ Make a point of extreme loyalty, in thought and deed, to your chiefs person­ couraging the European^ to work to­ ally; and in your efforts to carry out their gether. Out of that cooperation came plans or policies, the less you approve the the European Community and NATO. more energy you must direct to their It would be easy to conclude that accomplishment. General Marshall's strict standards of The more alarming and disquieting the reports received or the conditions viewed in personal conduct and highly developed battle, the more determined must be your sense of duty created a barrier against attitude. Never ask for the relief of your personal friendships. It is true that he unit and never hesitate to attack. did not allow his friendships to keep That he acted on his own advice him from what he thought was right throughout his career is most evident for the country. When he determined in Marshall's handling of his biggest that someone had failed (and very of­ personal disappointment. More than ten this failure was an officer's attempt anything else, Marshall wanted to be to avoid an unwanted assignment), the Supreme Allied Commander in Eu­ Marshall did not offer much of a sec­ rope. Secretary of War Stimson urged ond chance for redemption. But Mar­ him to lay aside his customary humility shall, the private person, had an extra­ and pursue the position with all dili­ ordinary fondness for children. Among gence if he wanted it. However, it be­ the mass of speeches, memoranda, of­ (top to bottom) General came clear to Marshall that Roosevelt ficial documents, war plans, and corre­ Marshall surrounded by needed his presence in Washington. spondence in the papers of this most Allied troops in World Marshall could get Congress to do public figure can also be found field War II. General Charles De more for the war effort than even the orders for a war game conducted by Gaulle is welcomed to Washington by General President could at times. In addition, the children of his friends and a poem, George C. Marshall. As Roosevelt saw a threat in General Mac- handwritten on two-by-three-inch Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, Arthur's constant complaints to Con­ pieces of paper to Marshall's god­ gress of being deprived of support. General Marshall flies to daughter Rose Page: the Italian theater in an ob­ Eisenhower, who had worked for Mac- servation plane, 1944. Arthur for seven years, would have I A little girl I strive to please had difficulty exercising authority over Is very shy, but likes to tease MacArthur. Although Stimson himself And tell all sorts of funny jokes thought Marshall should be Allied about all kinds of curious folks. Commander to counteract Churchill's II She likes to ride and dance and coast hesitancy about a cross-channel inva­ But better still to butter toast sion, many others believed Marshall and smear it deep with honey sweet could not be as effective in that role as and sit and eat and eat and eat. he could be in Washington, dealing III with Congress, the public, MacArthur, I think some time along in spring Stilwell, and the British. She'l eat so much of everything Her dresses all will spread and split A dozen years later, Marshall's ac­ and open out to make a fit. count to Pogue of his most supreme act IV of self-denial showed little emotion: And then perhaps she'l look right thin As I recall [Mr. Roosevelt]. . . asked me af­ with strips of dress and streaks of skin ter a great deal of beating about the bush I think she'l look real odd like that just what I wanted to do. Evidently it was With nothing whole except her hat. left up to me. W ell,. . . I just repeated again Commenting in the preface to his in as convincing language as I could that I wanted him to feel free to act in whatever third volume of Marshall's biography, way he felt was to the best interest of the Pogue writes, "I have been forced to country and to his satisfaction and not in conclude that biography is not the any way to consider my feelings___Then same as history and that one may he evidently assumed that concluded the sometimes better grasp the nature of affair and that I would not command in Eu­ rope. Because he said, "Well, I didn't feel I one's subject by subordinating the de­ could sleep at ease if you were out of tails of historical narrative to the im­ Washington." pact of the individual on a given con­ 7 the environment in which you got your strong's club appearances throughout living." this period, as admirers included leg­ In an era without television or big- endary musicians like Benny Goodman time professional sports, young blacks and Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey. had no choice of heroes except hus­ But even as he was reaching the pin­ tlers—or musicians. And after two nacle of success, Armstrong began years in the waifs' home, Louis knew changing his style, adding bits of com­ which one he would emulate. edy and gravel-throated song. As Col­ If New Orleans had its squalid side, lier describes it, the virtuoso brass it also was the most musical city in the player reached a "fork in the road" in nation, teeming with orchestras, 1929, as he moved again to New York marching bands, dance groups, opera and began singing the now-famous companies and even a Negro Philhar­ "Ain't Misbehavin'" number in the monic Society. Broadway review Hot Chocolates. A reformed Louis plunged into the His manager Joe Glaser encouraged musical milieu, serving an apprentice­ him to clown and "make faces ... For­ ship as a trumpeter in city bars and get all the goddam critics, the musi­ bordellos and on Mississippi cians. Play for the public. Sing and play riverboats. A product of his neighbor­ and smile. Smile, goddamit, smile. hood, which Collier says "was in the Give it to them." And so Armstrong business of passion," Armstrong did for the rest of his career, despite learned to play with uninhibited frequent charges that he had become emotion. an "Uncle Tom" pandering to the In 1922, the journeyman Armstrong white crowds. was lured to Chicago to play second "No artist," says Collier of Arm­ comet in the orchestra of his idol, Joe strong's later years, "so failed his own "King" Oliver, leader of the first great talent." Yet Collier sympathetically ex­ black band to make records. Louis re­ plains that Armstrong's youth left mained until 1925, when he went to him "afflicted with deep and well- New York for several months as a fea­ entrenched insecurity" that he could tured soloist with Fletcher Henderson's never shake. "But he could quench that band. There, he became a star in his relentless, sickening interior assault on own right, cutting records and becom­ his self-respect, at least temporarily, by ing the idol of hom players like Harry performing, standing up there before James. those dozens or thousands or millions Armstrong returned in triumph to of people and playing and singing and Chicago in late 1925, organizing his smiling and mugging and soaking up own jazz groups—including the "Hot the healing applause." Fives" and "Hot Sevens"—in which he Collier adds that men from the starred as solo instrumentalist. He ghetto like Armstrong basically broke free from the conventions of thought of themselves as hustlers and New Orleans ensemble playing, and survivors rather than artists. "A man his trumpet became famous for inven­ like Armstrong, who had picked food tiveness, rhythmic daring, improvisa­ out of refuse cans and had never seen tory freedom and clarity of tone. an indoor toilet until he was out of his In the late 1920s, these groups made teens, was hardly likely to starve in a dozens of recordings, which musician- garret for art." One New Year's Eve in the early 1900s, loist's delight. Collier also traces Arm­ author Collier describes in admiring But despite Armstrong's worldwide a teen-aged black male was picked up strong's mid-life metamorphosis from detail: "Hot jazz at its most fiery ... fame, surprisingly little had been done by police for shooting off a revolver in daring artist to the consummate clown fresh and shining as sunlight dancing to examine or explain his life before the streets of New Orleans. who parodied himself in Hello, Dolly! on moving water." And yet Collier ob­ Collier's research, supported by an The lawmen carted the indigent But Collier writes that behind that serves that Armstrong's most famous NEH fellowship. Collier began the bi­ youth off to a reformatory called the buffooning, mugging, eye-popping work, "W est End Blues," contains "the ography at the request of Oxford Uni­ Colored Waifs' Home, where his life's grin, Armstrong remained haunted by sadness of a mature man who, however versity Press, which perceived a major choices seemed to crystallize: Cooper­ sadness and self-doubt, driven to seek he laughs [and] clowns ... knows that void in Armstrong scholarship. Collier ate with the dominant white authori­ approval from white audiences in the there is no reasoning with pain, grief acknowledges there were several previ­ ties, or perhaps spend much of his way that some of his boyhood compan­ and death." ous biographies—including two books adult life behind bars or on the run ions relied on a heroin fix. "Anyone White audiences packed Arm­ ghost-written for Armstrong—but says from police dogs. can steal anything," Armstrong once The teenager, nicknamed "Dip- said, "except my applause." permouth" and "Gatemouth" for his That insecurity began early. Collier facial appearance, joined the local explains that Armstrong was born Boystown's brass band. He traded in under the reign of Jim Crow, "in a cul­ his pistol for the trumpet and the cor­ ture in which blacks by custom and law net. And for the first time in his turbu­ were kept in semi-slavery," in a city lent life, the boy became Somebody. where the papers would refer to a "Ne­ In later years, he acquired a different gro barbecue" much as Hamlet would sobriquet—"Satchmo"—though he describe Polonius' "supper." never strayed far from his horn. Louis Soon after Armstrong's birth, his fa­ Armstrong became a celebrity known ther deserted the family and his throughout the world, and one of the mother turned to prostitution to sup­ most influential musicians of the twen­ port herself. Young Louis was raised by tieth century. his grandmother in a one-story wooden "He is the Bach of jazz," says James shanty planted in a ghetto infamous for Lincoln Collier, who recently com­ gunfights and drug addiction. Without pleted a highly acclaimed Armstrong a father-protector, Louis hustled, biography with NEH support. A pro­ conned and stole to bring in some fessional jazz brass player himself, Col­ money—generally from the whites who lier describes with scholarly precision had most of it. Notes Collier: "For an how Armstrong radically transformed Armstrong, whites were what the jazz from an ensemble exercise to a so­ woods are to a wild animal. They were Louis Armstrong clowning with a skeleton in a scene from Pennies from Heaven. 8 "a lot of it was just p.r. stuff—it wasn't The circumstances of the original very good." publication of the autobiography make Piecing together.the details of Arm­ understandable some of its errors. Eu­ strong's life was a little like assembling rope was again at war when Santayana a giant jigsaw puzzle. The jazz master was writing his memoirs in the Italian came from a culture where little was nursing home. John Hall Wheelock, written down—nothing, in fact, exists in Santayana's editor at Scribner's, who writing about Armstrong before his had published Santayana's work since late teens. his first book of philosophy The Sense of Critical to Collier's investigation Beauty was completed in 1896, worried were interviews with dozens of musi­ that the manuscript was in danger and cians who played with Armstrong or managed to enlist the help of the Vati­ were a part of the music business in can to spirit Volume One of Persons and speakeasy days. More puzzle pieces Places out of Rome and to his desk on were provided by oral histories stored Fifth Avenue, where it landed mysteri­ at Rutgers University. Collier filled in ously one day in 1942. (When the vol­ the gaps through months of reading ume was published in 1944, it was a contemporaneous accounts of Arm­ popular success, becoming a Book-of- strong's exploits in the black and trade the-Month-Club selection, as Santa­ press, even flying to London to peruse yana's solitary novel The Last Puritan early editions of a periodical called had done seven years earlier.) Melody Maker not available in the "It proved quite a task to groom a United States. rather disorderly holograph for public In the process, Collier has debunked appearance," wrote the late Daniel two of jazz's most popular myths. One Cory in the introduction to Scribner's alleged that jazz was chiefly a "folk 1963 three-volume edition. This early music" of sorts for blacks, while the grooming has sent the editorial team at other held that Europeans were far the University of Tampa back to the ahead of white Americans in under­ original manuscripts that were held in standing this musical revolution. the Columbia University Library rare "Jazz had a white audience right books collection. from the start," says Collier. "It wasn't It was thought that holographs ex­ simply folk music, but a part of that isted only for volumes one and three; highly commercialized enterprise we however, textual editor William call show business." Myth number two Holzberger discovered references to a was torpedoed by the Melody Maker, holograph of Volume Two, The M iddle which shows that Europeans, in fact, Span, in a collection of Santayana's let­ lagged behind Americans in jazz ap­ ters written after 1946 that had just re­ preciation much the way Americans cently been located in the Princeton now may be trailing their European University Archives. By piecing to­ counterparts in use of a more recent gether evidence in the letters, Holz­ show-business commodity, the video berger learned that Santayana had casette recorder. given the leather-bound holograph of Were he alive today, Armstrong The Middle Span as a gift to the U.S. might well be making VCR tapes, but Army sergeant who had served as mes­ he'd probably still be making live senger and taken the typescript to his appearances. commanding officer, who in turn had Even in his seventies, Armstrong From a man so frequently accused of They are not dead yet; they can hold to­ transmitted it to Scribner's. With the never lost his lust for the crowds. pessimism, one might expect a voice gether in spite of everything; and they are help of the Army, Saatkamp tracked Scheduled for a gig at New York's less serene than the one that tells not deceived about you, you well-dressed down the sergeant, who agreed to lend Waldorf Astoria, Armstrong was ad­ George Santayana's autobiography, young person. Your new shoes pinch you, to the University of Tampa the manu­ and you are secretly racked by hopeless vised to cancel by a doctor who found written when he was in his eighties in script he had carried from Rome fifteen desires. him gasping for breath during an the solitude of the Blue Sisters' Nurs­ years before. Accident, which Santa­ examination. ing Home near the Santo Stefano The three-volume autobiography, yana always regarded as a supreme "Doc, you don't understand," said Rotondo in Rome. "If clearness about Persons and Places, will be told in a truer ruler in human affairs, continues to in­ the Bach of jazz. "M y whole life, my things produces a fundamental de­ voice when MIT Press publishes it next tervene in the story of his life. whole soul, my whole spirit is to spair," he writes, "a fundamental de­ spring, the first in a twenty-volume se­ According to Persons and Places, acci­ blooow that hooorn . . . the people are spair in turn produces a remarkable ries of Santayana's works being re­ dent set the stage for Santayana's life waiting for me. I got to do it, Doc, I got clearness or even playfulness about or­ stored and edited with NEH support even before it began in Madrid in 1863. to do it." dinary matters." under the direction of Herman J. Saat- His mother's childhood was a romance Louis went on. But after a television His philosophy, which he taught at kamp, Jr., at the University of Tampa. of travel and adventure, which reviewer panned his performance, Harvard during its turn-of-the-century "W e are publishing a book that is culminated in her residence in Batan, Armstrong remained so insecure that "Golden Age," was based on the inevi­ strikingly different from the other pub­ an island of the Philippines, where her he pleaded with his agent to keep ar­ table separation of the ideal from exis­ lished forms," Saatkamp says. The edi­ father was the Spanish colonial gover­ ranging bookings. "After all the adula­ tence. But in his final retreat, removed tor believes that Persons and Places is nor. There her father died, leaving her tion," notes Collier, "so little faith did from "odious Progress" and from most perhaps the most flawed of Santa­ at twenty an orphan and the only white he have in his own worth that he could worldly things, Santayana surveys his yana's work in print. He cites, for ex­ woman on the island, where she man­ be destroyed by one hasty review life with ironic good humor in a style ample, the omission from the printed aged a comfortable existence until the tossed off by an obscure commenta­ that reminds the reader that sixty years work of four manuscript pages that arrival of the new governor. When this tor. .. . Nothing he had done had fi­ before, as a serious and solitary student clarify Santayana's debt to Spinoza, young, unattached Spaniard appeared, nally healed that wound carved into of philosophy at Harvard, he helped to and that also explain Santayana's her sense of propriety removed her to him in boyhood." found the Lampoon: charge that "limitations .. . destroy the Manila, where with the proper sanc­ Satchmo never played another gig. authority of his judgment in moral tions of civilization, she met and mar­ ... mankind, let us hope, will dwindle and Two months later, he died, even as he die more contented than it evei was when it matters." These lost pages contain a ried a young New England merchant. was planning to hit the road again in waxed and struggled. I at least have found strange statement for a man as insu­ The young governor in Batan was search of applause. that old age is the time for happiness, even lated from his fellows as Santayana, Agustin Santayana, whom she remet —Francis J. O'Donnell for enjoying in retrospect the years of where he commits Spinoza to a group years later in Madrid while she was youth that were so distracted in their day; of "rebels, disinherited and solitary, visiting family after her first husband and I seem to detect a certain sardonic defi­ "Biography of Louis Armstrong"/fames L. ance, a sort of pride, in the whining old (whom) the world may admire but can­ had died. Collier/N Y C/$ 2 2 ,0 00 /1 982 /Fellowships beggars that look so wretched as they not follow.... They have studied In Santayana's descriptions of the for Independent Study and Research stretch out a trembling hand for a penny. human nature by looking at the stars." circumstances of his childhood, the 9 nus of the university, brands Santayana a "meditative wanderer" and "the Yard's spoiled bright boy." "If only I could have Santayana's books," Brown quotes a critic, "without having to have Santayana." Obligingly, from his residences in England and Italy over the next forty years, Santayana published twenty of them. The fact that Santayana's mature philosophy was published in a country where he was not living or teaching and written in a country where it was not published partly explains the fact, believes Herman Saatkamp, that he has received less attention than others of the Golden Age of Harvard. It also con­ tributed to Santayana's opinion that he was not understood. "Without a fol­ lowing of students to continue to inter­ pret his work, a philosopher can be forgotten," Saatkamp explains. There is also a tendency to regard Santayana as a literary figure rather than a philosopher, even though he published only one novel and only two volumes of poetry as compared to his prolific philosophical writing. Timothy L.S. Sprigge in Santayana: An Examina­ tion of his Philosophy suggests that his style "rich in poetic resonance and alert identity of the outsider—"my essential with epigram" is responsible for this character of traveler and stranger"— reputation. "It frequently suggests to emerges. He was five when his mother, philosophers of the dustier kind," says leaving him with his father in Avila, Sprigge, "that his work belongs solely Spain, returned to Boston to fulfill a to the world of belles lettres. . . and this commitment to her first husband to prejudices them against paying serious rear his children in America. He was attention." eight when his father took him to Bos­ Those who pay serious attention to ton to stay with his mother; the next Santayana, and there are many, regard time he saw his father, he was twenty. ilarities. "W e can almost see the pic­ his greatest contribution to be the onto­ "All my life I have dreamt of travels, ture," writes Gross, "of Peirce, James, logical "system" that he produced in possible and impossible," Santayana Royce and Palmer pushing in unison the four-volume Realms of Being (1927- writes in M y Host the World, the third toward a kind of American intellectual 40) and its epistemological background volume of his autobiography. "And as ports a conversation in which Eliot told manifest destiny while Santayana in Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923). All the feeling of being a stranger and an him that the university should be stands off to one side puzzling about his works of philosophy, as well as his exile by nature as well as by accident teaching facts and not "merely convey­ the whole scene." poetry, fiction and social criticism, four grew upon me in time, it came to be al­ ing ideas." "Puzzling" to Santayana was a wor­ volumes of correspondence, and his most a point of pride.... My case was "I might have replied," Santayana thy pastime, indeed the high function soon-to-be-published autobiography, humanly unfortunate and involved writes in a tone unsoftened by the dis­ of philosophy. He was dismayed by the will constitute the edition of his work many defects; yet it opened to me an­ tance of four decades, "that the only judgment of his peers, even more so by that Saatkamp expects to be completed other vocation, not better (I admit no facts in philosophy were historical the insistence of the Harvard adminis­ in fifteen years. absolute standards) but more specula­ facts, namely, the fact that people had tration, that a philosopher, to be useful, Santayana considered each of his tive, freer, juster, and for me happier." certain ideas. But of course I only must first have a specialty and second, works "only a contribution to the hu­ Santayana's descriptions of his par­ smiled and took note of his ideas." a "system." manities, the expression of a reflective, ents are more objective than affection­ The substance and degree of the dif­ "The study of [systems of philos­ selective, and free mind." None is a ate. He was very close to his half-sister ference between Santayana's philos­ ophy] is a part of the humanities, initi­ pursuit of science or salvation. Susana, though her religiosity disap­ ophy and that of the other Harvard lu­ ating us into the history of human life Santayana the skeptic and pessimist pointed him. He never married, but he minaries is still being debated. Some and mind;... it is not the pursuit of distrusted plans for a better world. "In remembers in his autobiography sev­ agree today with his own insistence science and salvation," he writes. "But I spite of my longing for unexampled eral dear friends, among them Lord that his "otherness," his Spanish heri­ was living among sects, or among indi­ things, I have always been a realist John Francis Stanley Russell, Bertrand tage and Old World disposition, as viduals eager to found sects;.... I was about the facts and suspicious of all de­ Russell's older brother. well as his Catholic "sentiments," sepa­ expected and almost compelled to be siderata and utopias," he writes in Per­ To study philosophy at Harvard dur­ rated him from the Protestant New 'constructive... sons and Places. "The born traveller is ing Santayana's tenure was to be in the Englanders convinced that the United And so he wrote The Sense of Beauty not pining for a better cage. If ever he enviable position of having five of the States was launching a new age of (1896) and published shortly thereafter got to heaven, on the next day he greatest American philosophers from "Progress." Some philosophers argue, the five volumes of The Life of Reason, would discover its boundaries, and on which to choose. Besides Santayana, however, that this perception is or, The Phases of Human Progress (1905-6) the third day he would make a little the "department" included William Santayana's invention and that his phi­ and left Harvard in 1912 for a life of raid beyond them." _ Linda Blanken James, Josiah Royce, George Herbert losophy betrays a greater influence puzzling and writing in England. Palmer, and Hugo Miinsterberg. from his American immersion than What appeared as an abrupt end to a "The Santayana Edition"/ Herman J. Saat­ Amid this intellectual flowering, even he knew. promising career amazed the academic kamp, }r./University of Tampa, FL/ however, Santayana still felt at vari­ In a special issue of The Southern Jour­ community of Boston and caused some $50,000/1981-83/"The Santayana Edi­ ance with his surroundings. He nal of Philosophy devoted entirely to resentment of Santayana as one who tion: Volume Two and Three"/$80,000 respected his colleagues, but was close Santayana (Summer 1972), Sidney snubbed a prize offered to a select few. OR; $5,000 FM /1983-85/Research Mate­ to few, and he found that their views of Gross links Santayana's treatment of Indeed, several references to him in rials: Editions/ "Toward Publishing Costs of philosophy, and, especially in the case truth and his stress upon the biological publications subsequent to his resigna­ 'Persons and Places' by George of President Eliot, of education, contra­ nature of intelligence with Pragmatism, tion are hostile, such as Rollo Walter Santayana"/Betty Stanton/Massachusetts dicted his own. though he admits that the differences Brown's 1948 reminiscence of Harvard Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Calling Eliot an antihumanist, he re­ in the systems are greater than the sim­ Yard in the Golden Age. Brown, an alum­ M A /$10,000/1983-84/Publications 10 For projects Please note: Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline in boldface beginning after

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1 1 Wrecking the Images: Writing the Biography of Carl Sandburg

This is remembering— tive journalist? ings, some under pseudonyms, and letters and papers, a library of more Sometimes wrecking the images At least temporarily, I wreck the again in letters, written this time to Lil­ than 14,000 books, hundreds of boxes and proceeding again to reconstruct what happened and how, images of the old familiar figure in or­ ian Steichen, the beautiful young so­ of research notes, more than a thou­ the many little involved answers der to resurrect the less visible and de- cialist he met in December 1907, sand pages of unpublished manu­ to who? what? when? where? cidedly less well-known Charles A. courted in letters, and married in June scripts, hundreds of news columns and and more involved than any Sandburg, son of Swedish immigrants 1908. She was the sister of Edward articles. He sold his working library to how? how? to the Illinois prairie; teenage vagabond Steichen, already known internation­ the University of Illinois in 1956, yet at —Carl Sandburg, "Scroll" exploring the western United States, ally for his photography when his little his death thousands of papers and As I work on a biography of Carl absorbing the American lingo, which sister introduced him to the unknown more than 10,000 books remained at Sandburg, I find myself heeding would later emerge in his poetry; zeal­ poet she planned to marry. The visual Connemara, his home in the North Sandburg's advice, wrecking certain ous young socialist organizing for the images in Steichen's early photographs Carolina mountains for the final images in order to try to reconstruct Social Democratic Party in Wisconsin; of Carl and Lilian show her stubborn twenty-two years of his life. The books what happened—the how of his life, the Chicago reporter and war correspon­ faith in the restless young man, whose still fill the shelves at Connemara, now why of his work. dent; platform lecturer and folk musi­ articles and poems she typed and sent a National Park and National Historic I contend with the fallacy of the fa­ cian; and, true to his prairie roots, pio­ to magazines on his behalf. Site, but the majority of the Sandburg miliar figure. Most of the people I en­ neer in free verse, children's literature, Sandburg covered labor conventions papers have been consolidated in the counter know the older, public film criticism, advocacy journalism, and strikes, mob violence, race riots, Carl Sandburg Collection at the Uni­ Sandburg with the white hair and no­ and biography. and war for The Chicago Daily News. His versity of Illinois Library, Urbana, and ble profile, the celebrity folk figure I find evidence of Sandburg's life in first collection of poetry, Chicago Poems, organized with support from the Na­ reading his poems or playing and sing­ Always the Young Strangers, the only vol­ appeared in 1916, followed by Corn- tional Endowment for the Humanities. ing tunes from The American Songbag. ume of autobiography he completed. huskers in 1918 and Smoke and Steel in As I sorted and studied letters, man­ They know Sandburg as the poet of Published in 1953, it covers the first 1920. Sandburg said his poems carried uscripts, holograph notes packed in the people, the biographer of Abraham twenty years of his life, the formative autobiographical overtones, and there boxes under the eaves or in the cellar Lincoln. Sandburg lived for eighty-nine years we could not know without this are important details to be learned of the spacious old house, images be­ years, published thirty-eight books, en­ help. Sandburg portrays himself as the from them, as well as from The Chicago gan to emerge of the writer at work. tertained lecture and television audi­ vagabond and seeker, two recurrent Race Riots, a collection of Sandburg's Sandburg kept the reporter's habit of ences across the country, wrote hun­ themes in his life. As a twenty-year-old news articles on the racial strife in Chi­ folding newsprint twice, converting dreds of articles for newspapers and soldier in the Spanish-American War, cago, which culminated in the race ri­ one sheet of paper into six columns, magazines. Seventeen years after his he kept a journal, which survives along ots of 1919. which he filled with poems, revisions, death, everyone knows something with other journals of the early years. In 1920, disillusioned by the grim re­ notes for other poems or his novel Re­ about Carl Sandburg, but the images The catalyst for Sandburg's first po­ alism of the labor struggle, the race ri­ membrance Rock. A musty autobiograph­ are often contradictory. etry was Philip Green Wright, profes­ ots and World War I, Sandburg turned ical note records that his poems were Critical images of Sandburg some­ sor at Lombard College in Sandburg's to writing The Rootabaga Stories, Ameri­ "generally written first in a pocket times reflect views that his poetry is hometown, Galesburg, Illinois. Wright can fairy tales for children and adults note-book at or near some storm center glib, sentimental, propagandistic, or not only encouraged his student's who have "kept the child heart." downtown in the daytime. They are dated. While some historians applaud early, tentative poetry and prose, but Sandburg first told the stories to his then rewritten at home at night. This Sandburg's Lincoln biography as a published it in the cellar of his home three daughters and wrote them as "the applies to those of street and action. landmark work, others see Sandburg where he ran the Asgard Press. In Reck­ refuge from the imbecility of a fright­ Those of rest and of nature are gener­ the biographer as a man of haphazard less Ecstasy (1904), Incidentals (1907) and ened world." Letters and family mem­ ally done on hikes or in loafing spells scholarly method who took poetic li­ The Plaint of a,Rose (1908) yield images ories illuminate the background of the out of doors." Sandburg was a compul­ cense with history. of Sandburg's idealism and fore­ stories. Their bright whimsy belies sive saver, and the mass of his papers Similarly, images of Sandburg the shadow the socialist commitment and Sandburg's sorrow and despair at the reveals that for the dozens of literary person are often split and contradic­ the unconventional poetry that were to grave illness of his eldest child projects completed, there were a hun­ tory. Was he penurious, a freeloader come. Sandburg wrote long letters to Margaret. dred begun, still in progress—poems who never picked up the check, or was Wright as he traveled the country sell­ Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years for children, at least two children's he extraordinarily generous to friends ing stereoscopic photographs, writing brought the Sandburgs their first meas­ books, ideas for further work on Lin­ and frugal because he had to guard the poems and trying to establish himself ure of financial security in 1926, and coln and on certain contemporary future of two dependent daughters? as a Lyceum lecturer on Shaw, Whit­ from that point the public record of figures and events. Was Sandburg an egotistical showman, man and "Civilization and the Mob." Sandburg's life begins to expand sig­ From thousands of letters and pa­ or a consummate platform performer? Providentially Wright saved the letters. nificantly. When Sandburg died in pers, images form of the public and Was he a careless reporter oblivious to Images of Sandburg in his twenties 1967 at age eighty-nine, he left an ex­ private man. He campaigned for Eu­ deadlines, or a conscientious, innova­ take shape from his early socialist writ­ tensive personal archive: thousands of gene Debs on the Red Special in 1908, 12 and for John Kennedy in 1960. While on shape and identity as well. Vachel Robert Giroux relates his role in the he marked these lines in his worn copy Sandburg cherished his privacy, he en­ Lindsay, who shared Illinois roots with publication of Sandburg's only novel of Leaves of Grass: joyed his celebrity: the forays on the Sandburg, sent him illustrated holo­ Remembrance Rock in 1948. Giroux, then When I read the book, the biography lecture trail; the appearances with graph renditions of his poems and, in a a young editor at Harcourt Brace, came famous Milton Berle, Gene Kelly and Edward letter written in 1919, congratulated to work with Sandburg on the novel And is this then (said I) what the author R. Murrow on television. As a pioneer Sandburg on "being a poet and not at when it was nearly complete. A fore­ calls a man's life? film critic, he knew Charlie Chaplin, the same time a jackass." From other runner of the epic historical novel, Re­ And so will some one when 1 am dead and gone write my life? D.W. Griffith and Will Rogers. In his correspondents—Ezra Pound, Amy membrance Rock had been commissioned (As if any man really knew aught of my by Metro Goldwyn Mayer as a possi­ eighties, he had an exuberant good Lowell, Harriet Monroe, Helen Keller, life, time in Hollywood working with Alfred Stieglitz, Harry Truman, Ed­ ble film property. No movie resulted, Why even I myself I often think know little George Stevens on The Greatest Story ward R. Murrow and Adlai Steven­ and the novel was not a critical success. or nothing of my real life....) Ever Told and befriending Marilyn son—a long, exuberant lifetime comes Giroux recalls Sandburg as one of the Monroe, Ernie Kovacs and others. into perspective. In 1980, on behalf of hardest working writers he had ever Sandburg said that he decided at the Sandburg's papers yield images of the Carl Sandburg Collection and the known and recounts Sandburg's "dig­ age of six to become a person of letters. the loyal friend to Eugene Debs, Ezra Carl Sandburg Home at Connemara, I nified silence" in the face of the nega­ In his seventies he said he was "still Pound, Harry Golden and many others began taping interviews with people tive reviews. Disappointed though he traveling, still a seeker." He joked that beset at some time by public tribula­ whose voices emerged from the letters. was by his novel's reception, Sandburg among the biographers, he was consid­ tions. He spoke up for Pete Seeger and The oral history memoirs in their vi­ was still, even at age 70, pioneering, ered a good poet, while among poets, John Henry Faulk when they were tal, vulnerable human dimensions experimenting, taking risks. he was considered a first-rate biogra­ blacklisted and helped a contrite Na­ evoke new images of Sandburg. Oral Sometimes fragile memory can edit, pher. "There was puzzlement," he than Leopold secure his parole. Some history is a valuable tool in biography, telescope, distort; oral testimonies must wrote, "as to whether I was a poet, a of Sandburg's most revealing state­ especially when merged with written be checked against chronology as well biographer, a wandering troubadour ments about the act of writing come in resources, illuminating the written as against other sources, just as written with a guitar, a midwest Hans Christian private letters to younger writers. His word. documentation must be verified. Yet Anderson, or a historian of current letters trace his reliance on a number of For instance, Virginia Pasley, Nor­ oral history evokes the breathing per­ events...." bright, creative women, beginning with man Corwin and Joseph Wershba, inti­ son, preserves important memories The young Sandburg wrote, "there his wife and daughters. Sandburg often mate Sandburg friends who are them­ that might not be recorded in any other are ten men in me and I do not know entrusted his work in progress to selves writers and journalists, share form, and fills gaps in the written rec­ or understand one of them." The old, women, seeking and usually heeding insights into the nature and pattern of ord. After Sandburg published Always waning Sandburg marked the line in their advice. Harriet Monroe of Poetry Sandburg's literary work. They note the Young Strangers in 1953, he began Bacon's essay "O f Great Place," which was the first to publish his serious po­ how the discipline and subject matter work on a second autobiographical vol­ says, "Death presses heavily upon him etry. Her assistant editor Alice Corbin of his reportage carried over into his ume, Ever the Winds of Chance. He never who, although well-known to others, Henderson took the manuscript of Chi­ poetry. They recall his fascination with completed this sequel although three dies unknown to himself." cago Poems to Alfred Harcourt, then at the sound and rhythm of words and his drafts of the 155-page fragment re­ I have come to know Carl Sandburg Henry Holt and Company. Amy Low­ determination to choose words and mained among his papers. Oral history through his work, his papers and his ell, Sara Teasdale, novelist Julia Peter- phrases that said exactly what he interviews helped to explain that contemporaries. I know him, too, by kin, Sandburg's long-time editor Cath­ meant. Mrs. Pasley describes Sandburg's full public life, other writ­ walking the Connemara trails with erine McCarthy and other talented Sandburg's habit of dictating some of ing commitments, his long sojourn in Sandburg's daughter Janet; watching women over the years nurtured and his work and of reading all of it aloud Hollywood, and his declining energy Helga Sandburg's movies of her family advanced his work. to get at the sound of it. Her memories and failing health kept him from fin­ and reading her fiction and poetry; There is great humor in Sandburg's explain Sandburg's long success as a ishing the book. With that context es­ poring over her father's books and her papers, and mischief and temper as lecturer: his poetry was written to be tablished, Margaret Sandburg and parents' love letters with Margaret well. He wrote out his anger or dismay heard. George Hendrick edited Ever the Winds Sandburg and taking her on a raw in memos never shared, letters never Oral history brings other images into of Chance for publication by the Univer­ windy day for a first look at Bryants' mailed, biting satirical poems never focus: Artist and classical guitarist sity of Illinois Press in 1983. Woods in Princeton, Illinois, where in published. Accidentally or intention­ Gregory d'Alessio and musician Pete At the bottom of a musty box of pa­ 1908 Lilian Steichen walked and wrote ally, he left such private outbursts Seeger evaluate Sandburg's impact on pers at Connemara, I found the paper- letters to Charles Sandburg telling him among his papers. Also sequestered in American folk music. Photographer bound edition of Walt Whitman's long before the world did that he was a the papers are copies of ribald stories Arnold Newman and artist William Leaves of Grass, which the young poet. —Penelope Niven that Abraham Lincoln allegedly col­ Smith reflect on Steichen's influence Charles Sandburg studied in 1906 lected in private, filed in a brown enve­ on Sandburg's visual imagery as well when he was twenty-eight and lectur­ 'A Biography of Carl Sandburg"/ Penelope lope labeled "Racy Lincoln." as his personal life. Malcolm Cowley ing on Whitman on the Lyceum circuit. N. Mcfunkin/Richmond, IN /$20,730/ As the public and private images of and David Donald assess Sandburg's Sandburg was still eight years from his 1983-84/Fellowships for Independent Study Sandburg crystallize, other people take place in American letters. first serious recognition as a poet when and Research

Carl Sandburg, photo­ graphed against a backdrop of buildings in his beloved Chicago. 13 WHY HISTORY SCORNS BIOGRAPHY

The intimate relationship of biography other individuals, how they made up and history has long been acknowl­ their minds, and how they felt about edged. It would be next to impossible themselves and their families. to write a book of history that did not It has often been suggested that his­ mention human beings, though they torians and biographers have opposing thor that he was." might, because of the historian's igno­ philosophies, that they disagree about Biographers, on the other hand, are rance or design, be nameless. And it the role of individuals in causing his­ said to be advocates of "The Great would be equally difficult (and cer­ torical change. Historians, the argu­ Man Theory of History," the belief tainly pointless) to write anyone's biog­ ment runs, see people as chips of wood that exceptional individuals, by their raphy without reference to the times tossed about helplessly on a sea of irre­ thoughts and actions, can change the and circumstances in which the subject sistible "social forces." People (or at course of history in dramatic, even rev­ functioned. Any biography is part of a least their leaders) may seem to be di­ olutionary ways. William Roscoe logues that I am familiar with, and larger history, and while history is recting the course of events. They Thayer, author of admiring biogra­ when I glance at the spines of the con­ more than the sum of innumerable bi­ make decisions and issue orders and phies of the Italian statesman Cavour, siderable number of books on the sub­ ographies, it could not exist separately. cause lesser beings to rush about, but Theodore Roosevelt, and Roosevelt's ject "history" that I own, I see words Nevertheless there are important dif­ they do not affect what happens in any Secretary of State John Hay, put the like "Truth" and "Science" and "Phi­ ferences between history and biogra­ significant way in the long run. Jean theory succinctly: "Human will—that losophy" associated with the word, but phy. Some rise from the differences in Giraudoux makes the argument in his force more mysterious than electric­ not "A rt." size and scope of the forms. Though play The Trojan War Shall Not Take ity—shapes and directs the deeds of Yet history is surely as much an art the same methods and the same Place. Ulysses and the Trojan hero Hec­ m en." as biography. The Greeks were never sources may be used by both historians tor both wish to avoid the war, but they This supposed fundamental differ­ much interested in individual lives and and biographers, how they use them are powerless to prevent it. All that ence between biography and history tended, indeed, to see human beings as and what they "see" as a result can be leadership means, Giraudoux suggests, rarely exists in practice. There are his­ helpless pawns controlled by Fate. But quite different. Telescopes and micro­ is having a close-up view of events. "It torians who never discuss the role of they considered history one of the arts, scopes are both optical instruments is the privilege of greatness," he has individuals as shapers of events, but with its own muse, Clio. Both history that vastly expand the powers of the Ulysses say, "to view catastrophe from they ignore the question because they and biography are intellectual disci­ eye, but what the eye sees through one a terrace." An even more extreme are interested in matters of a different plines that employ scientific method in does not much resemble what it sees statement of this position was made by sort. And no biographer that I am fa­ locating and evaluating evidence. And through the other. Historians tend to L. V. Calverton, a Marxist, who miliar with would claim that any if they are any good at all, both histori­ study people as parts of groups operat­ claimed that Shakespeare was able to "great" man or woman was not influ­ ans and biographers are artists in the ing in a large environment such as a write his wonderful plays only because enced and indeed fundamentally con­ sense that they are continually making culture, or a nation, or an industry. Bi­ he "came in contact with those stimuli ditioned by the time and place in which aesthetic judgments, drawing upon ographers want to know such things as ... that, reacting on his nature, could he or she lived. It is probably fair to say their imaginations, and otherwise rely­ how their subjects interacted with inevitably make him the man and au- that, in general, biographers are more ing on intuition and inspiration in the concerned with how individuals affect same way that novelists and poets do. the course of events and that historians Where both science and art are con­ usually place more emphasis on the cerned, there is no difference whatso­ environment in which events occur, but ever between the two forms. these are only tendencies and reflect Probably the reason that biography the particular interests and objectives is more often thought of as artistic is of the writers. Many scholars write that biographers, by the nature of their both histories and biographies and subject, deal so much with human mo­ have no trouble attributing causes and tives and with personality. These are assigning influences, in some cases one topics that defy definitive analysis. It is way, in others, another. hard to be exact or conclusive about Still another distinction sometimes the springs of human behavior. When drawn between history and biography the Greeks said "Know Thyself" they is that history is a science, biography realized that they were setting us all an an art. In the subject catalogue of most almost impossible task. Yet how much libraries will be found a heading "Biog­ more difficult to "know" another per­ raphy as a Literary Form" or "Biogra­ son, especially one dead and gone, as phy, Art of." I have on my shelves four most of the subjects of biography are. volumes containing the words "Art" Beyond this, the portrayal of person­ and "Biography" in their titles: The Art ality in words, as distinct from the un­ of Biography by the aforementioned derstanding of how and why a person W. R. Thayer; another work of that ti­ behaves in a particular way, calls for tle by Paul Murray Kendall; Biography literary rather than scientific skills. The as an Art, edited by James L. Clifford; Harvard psychologist Henry A. Mur­ and Donald A. Stouffer's monumental ray once wrote: "A psychologist who A solitary Napoleon is the quintessential illustration of the "great man theory of history." The Art of Biography in Eighteenth-Century believes that he can tell the truth with­ Others argue that forces beyond the control of man shape events, such as this famine in China England. There is no such heading out being 'literary' has only to try writ­ which affected millons. under "History" in the library cata- ing a case history or biography, and 14 demies that biographers lack the com­ mitment to objectivity that they, being then compare what he has done to a good social scientists, claim to possess. character sketch by any novelist of the (Objectivity can be a real problem for first order." biographers; immersing oneself in the True enough; yet similar talents are study of a person can blind one to the employed by historians seeking to ex­ role that others played in events.) plain, for example, what it was like to Then there are the difficulties that live in Florence during the Renaissance biographers face when they try to or in Rome at the time of Augustus, or fathom the thought and obscure mo­ even to describe the setting in which a tives that lie behind what their subjects ments of most doctoral programs. To make good subjects for beginning historical event took place. One thinks said and did. "Traditional" kinds of ev­ obtain a Ph.D. one must write a disser­ scholars. Problems of organization, in the latter case of some of Francis idence leave much to be desired in this tation. A dissertation is supposed to though not nonexistent, are relatively Parkman's descriptions of the trackless area. To rely entirely on a subject's test a thesis, that is, the scholar raises a easily resolved. A basic chronological forests of colonial America in the his­ own explanations would be naive; peo­ question or states a principle and then framework is nearly always the best as tory of the struggle between France ple often do not understand their own makes an exhaustive study of evidence well as the most obvious one. What to and England for control of North motives and when they do understand and comes to some conclusion. Disser­ look for and where to find the evidence America, or of Garrett Mattingly's them, they often deliberately leave tations are by their nature analytical, are usually clear from the start. And gripping account of the clash between false or misleading records. Yet to de­ not merely descriptive. Biographies do once written, if it is any good at all, a the Spanish and English navies in The pend on the comments of others is also not adapt easily to this requirement. To biography is more likely than the typi­ Armada. unsatisfactory. These are frequently ill- say: "I intend to find out what X did cal historical dissertation to find a pub­ Most historians would not take seri­ informed, still more often superficial, and what the effects of his actions lisher. People who would not think of ous issue with any of the points I have and when there are many of them, were" is not to state a thesis. opening a book about some political been making. Yet many of them, par­ nearly always full of contradictions. Finally, scholarship has become in­ struggle that occurred in Rhode Island ticularly those in academic life, look Confronted by this dilemma, some creasingly specialized. For historians between 1872 and 1881, or about the down on biography. This is not to say biographers have turned to psychology specializing means concentrating on a rise and fall of commercial activity in that all top-flight academic historians and particularly to psychoanalysis for relatively limited time and place, and the port of Oslo in the nineteenth cen­ abjure the form, or that those who do help. The results have been at best on one type of history, such as politi­ tury, might well find something of in­ write biographies are not good at it. mixed, but the mere effort has turned cal, or social, or economic. Yet the kind terest in the biography of a Rhode Is­ From Carl Van Doren's Benjamin Frank­ many conservative historians away of people who make proper subjects land senator or of a Norwegian lin (1938) and Samuel Eliot Morrison's from biography. The tendency of psy- for biographies often had broad inter­ merchant. life of Columbus, Admiral of the Ocean choanalytically inclined biographers to ests and some lived inconveniently In sum, biography is one kind of Sea (1942), to Allan Nevin's Henry Ford use theories as evidence rather than as long lives. A fresh Ph.D. looking for an narrative history. It should be com­ (1954) and on to more recent lives such aids in searching out and evaluating ev­ academic post needs to be able to say: pared not to "history" but to other as William McFeely's Grant, many aca­ idence appalls these conservatives. The "I am a specialist in this, or my period kinds of historical discourse. It has its demic scholars have written biogra­ idea that a person "must have" done or is so and so." To say: "I know more particular problems and limitations phies that are both models of historical thought something even though there than anyone alive or dead about X," es­ and advantages as does, say, the ana­ accuracy and objectivity and works of is no direct evidence that he did so, pecially when X is not a widely known lytically oriented economic history art. But writing biographies has never' they find totally unacceptable. Simi­ person, does not increase a young his­ written by the "cliometricians." If, as been truly popular in the academic larly, the fact that what people say and torian's appeal to most prospective many observers of the historical scene world. do is sometimes directly contradictory employers. have recently sensed, there is a grow­ For one thing, academic historians to what they really think or desire does For all these reasons, although there ing interest in "old-fashioned" narra­ see biographies by their nature as un­ not seem to most historians to justify are exceptions (I was one of them), tive history even among academics, bi­ necessarily restrictive. Focusing on a drawing opposite conclusions from most doctoral candidates are discour­ ography will surely flourish. I for one single actor seems both to limit what what the historical record appears to aged from choosing biographical sub­ certainly hope that this will be the case. one can learn about any topic or time state. Yet the "psychoanalysts" fre­ jects. I believe this is quite unfortunate, —John A. Garraty and to distort one's interpretation of quently rely on such supposed reaction and not simply because my own disser­ the material. In addition, the tendency formations to explain behavior. tation was a biography. The difficulties M r. Garraty, a professor of history at Co­ of biographers to overemphasize their Academic historians also steer away involved in understanding and describ­ lumbia University, is the author of The subjects' importance suggests to aca­ from biography because of the require­ ing personality aside, biographies Dictionary of American Biography. 15 "[A] little sawed-off and hammered- No single movement in the study of down Black Man, with determination black popular causes in America repre­ written all over his face, and an engag­ sents a greater enigma to scholars and ing smile that caught you and com­ commentators alike. In the sixty-odd pelled you to listen to his story" was years that have elapsed since Garvey how the veteran black journalist, John and the UNIA exploded on the Ameri­ E. Bruce, described the Jamaican Mar­ can scene with their program of racial cus Garvey as he appeared at their first unity among blacks and the aim of a meeting. That was in spring 1916. free and united Africa, answers have Encouraged by the "sage of Tus- proved elusive to questions about the kegee," Booker T. Washington, Garvey nature of Garvey's leadership, and the came here hoping to gather support for sources of the movement's influence, his proposal to establish a school in Ja­ which radiated outward from America maica patterned on the model of the to sink roots deep in the political sub­ famed Tuskegee Institute. But by the soil of Africa and the plantations of the time Garvey could get to America in Caribbean. 1916, Washington was dead. In compiling and editing The Marcus From this inauspicious beginning, Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement and despite marked disadvantages, Association Papers, the twin challenges Marcus Garvey soon emerged as the of documentary and intellectual recov­ leader of the largest organized mass ery of the Garvey phenomenon have movement in the history of Afro- proved especially acute. Garvey's first Americans. More than any other figure biographer, E. David Cronon, an­ in Afro-American history, Marcus Gar­ nounced long ago: vey succeeded in becoming the sym­ Unfortunately, there is no collection of Gar­ bolic archetype of black racial con­ vey Papers. Garvey's own files were scat­ sciousness in America. That was tered during the years of his imprisonment The Return of achieved by 1920. and exile from the United States and much "The Universal Negro Improvement of what remained of his personal records was destroyed in the London bombings of Association (UNIA)" according to Al- 1940-41 (Black Moses [1955], p. 227). den Whitman, editor of American Re­ Marcus Garvey formers, grew from "an initial member­ And so whereas most documentary ship of fifteen to between four and six editions have been prepared using a million in American cities and foreign comprehensive or parent collection of nations. It was the greatest mass move­ manuscripts, in the case of Garvey and ment of its time, not superseded in size the UNIA no such advantage existed. until the heyday of Dr. King's South­ The record of his career and the move­ ern Christian Leadership Conference in ment's history would entail recovering, the 1960s." piece by piece, each individual docu­ Garvey's rise was meteoric. Pro­ ment both in this country and from claiming a doctrine of racial pride and around the world. political achievement through self- In terms of literary legacy, it was help, he struck a responsive chord with long customary to credit The Philosophy American blacks who were migrating and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, com­ to the cities in large numbers and feel­ piled by Garvey's second wife, Amy ing the backlash of bloody race riots Jacques Garvey, and published in two throughout the country. To this was volumes during his first and second added the militant nationalism of re­ imprisonment, as the movement's ca­ turning black troops who had served in nonical text. It seemed the one sure Jim Crow battalions in World War I. source for guidance to Garvey's The result was a huge increase in thought; it was, in other words, the UNIA membership and the catapulting bible of Garveyism. Upon closer in­ of Garvey into national and interna­ spection, however, it turned out that tional renown. the publication of Garvey's Philosophy One of Garvey's best-known ven­ and Opinions had a self-serving and tac­ tures, and the one that eventually tical purpose. What both volumes doc­ A share of stock in Gar­ caused his downfall, was the Black Star umented, in reality, was not the devel­ vey's Black Star Line, an Line, a shipping company that he opment of the movement but Garvey's early attempt at black self- hoped would charter and buy steam­ retreat from the movement's radical help. An informal photo­ ships to transport American blacks phase of 1918-21 and his attempt to be­ graph of Marcus Garvey is back to Africa. Shares were sold at $5 come reconciled with the American ra­ contrasted with an oil each, as Garvey intended to show that cial status quo as the means of overcom­ painting (right) by Bernard the Black Star Line was an example of ing the opposition of his enemies and Hoyes, showing Garvey profitable black self-help in action. shoring up a faltering movement. dressed in the uniform of the African Legion. Gar­ Unfortunately, Garvey was no busi­ The absence of documentation com­ vey, handcuffed to federal nessman. The company's books were bined with this revision within the marshalls, is taken to the in disarray and the ships purchased by canon of the movement made more penitentiary in 1925. (op­ the Black Star Line were poor invest­ difficult the recovery of historically posite page) The front page ments. Although there was never any sound information. The first major of the oldest known copy evidence that Garvey profited person­ breakthrough came in the spring of of The Negro World, No­ ally from the venture, the ever-vigilant 1970 with the discovery in an aban­ vember 3 0 , 1918, Garvey's J. Edgar Hoover had gathered enough doned Harlem building of a treasure famous newspaper. evidence on him to bring on a federal trove of UNIA records dating back to indictment for mail fraud. In 1923, the 1920s, though most dated from the Garvey was convicted for the maxi­ 1930s. The Schomburg Center for Re­ mum sentence of five years and a search in Black Culture and the New $1,000 fine. Four years later, President York Public Library moved quickly to Coolidge commuted his sentence. Gar­ recover the bulk of these records. vey was deported to Jamaica. In 1940 It was my fortune to be commis­ he died in virtual obscurity, having re­ sioned to organize and catalog the col­ settled in London five years earlier. lection. I soon discovered that they 16 were, in reality, the records of the New circuit of colonial archives in Africa that matter, from Garvey. Although the as a race." York "Central Division," one of the and the Caribbean. I visited several of movement everywhere had the func­ Yet, when one probes beneath the many splinter groups into which the them in order to sift, first hand, tion of a fraternal and benevolent or­ surface of ideological appearances, a original New York Division had frag­ through their quite considerable and ganization, it nonetheless played a di­ different voice, one which spoke with mented after Garvey's imprisonment valuable holdings of local administra­ versity of roles. These included conviction of universal brotherhood on mail fraud charges and subsequent tive records. The result is that, when it agitating for improved labor condi­ and universal values, and which argued deportation from America. But they is completed, the African and Carib­ tions, embarking on cooperative eco­ that "Mind had no color; intelligence also contained a small but crucial core bean Series of the Garvey Papers will nomic ventures, setting up independent had no color," can also be heard. of UNIA Parent Body records. These constitute probably the most extensive schools, carrying out mass political ed­ Speaking in Liberty Hall, New York consisted of the index cards of the collection of original documents from ucation, participating in peasant strug­ City, in February 1920, Garvey in­ UNIA's national and international divi­ these two areas ever assembled for gles for land, expressing religious mil- formed his followers: sions that at one point numbered over publication. lenarian yearnings, and, in at least two I never did belong to that school of ethnol­ a thousand; this made it possible for There is one important sidelight to known instances, collaborating in ogy which believed that God Almighty the first time to construct a political this African research, however, that is armed uprisings against colonial classified the races according to color .. . I and geographical map of the worth mentioning as an example of the authority. always believed that color was only skin deep. I was always interested in what was movement. integrated character of the recovery Just how much did Garvey know in a man, what was inside of him, how Each 4" X 5" index card contained process. I had been trying for years to about such activities? The documents much gray matter he had in his brains, how the location and number of the individ­ assemble a complete run of Garvey's strongly suggest that he knew only a much surplus energy he had, and the re­ ual division or chapter, the names, ti­ important London-based journal, The small part of what was occurring. Thus, sources he had developed and had at his tles, and addresses of the officeholders, Black M a n , which he continued pub­ Garvey neither initiated these disparate disposal. That is the way I look at a human. (Emphasis added) and information about remittances lishing after taking up his final exile in activities nor did he control them. In­ And after his deportation from the made to the UNIA parent body. What England in 1935 and which lasted until stead, the movement once begun de­ United States, we hear Garvey advising had been shrouded in legend now took 1939, the year before his death. After a veloped an independent dynamic of its his listeners in 1929 that "It seems al­ on concrete reality. long search, I finally managed to com­ own. Garvey was the leader of the most un-Christian and ungodly to During this same period, I embarked pile original copies of all the issues ex­ movement, but Garvey did not create press the question of race differences also on preparing a comprehensive sur­ cept the issue for December 1935. the movement. If anything, it is truer to when we are told that God created of vey of the record holdings in the Na­ Then, a couple of years later, I found it say that the movement created Garvey. one blood all nations of men to dwell tional Archives and Records Service in in the colonial records of Zimbabwe. From this point of view, The M arcus upon the face of the earth." Washington, D. C. What I found there This fugitive December 1935 issue had Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement One view stressed consciousness of was amazing. Extensive files relative to been sent by a Garveyite supporter in Association Papers goes well beyond a race, the other extolled the qualities of Garvey, the UNIA, and the "Black Star South Africa to a relative in Zimbabwe, preoccupation with the fortunes of a individual character. Both views coex­ Line" (the crux of Garvey's program to and the ever-vigilant colonial police single, even if major, historical figure. isted in a state of ideological tension achieve black economic independence) had confiscated it from the mail. Indeed, the focus of the edition is as throughout Garvey's career. Did he surfaced from the records of the State It was in these and other ways, too much on the membership as it is on ever manage to resolve them? This Department, Justice Department, Bu­ numerous to mention here, that the Garvey, the charismatic leader and ide­ question readers of The Marcus Garvey reau of Investigation (forerunner of the Garvey Papers Project succeeded, after ological spokesman of the movement. and Universal Negro Improvement Associa­ FBI), Immigration and Naturalization more than a decade of work, in bring­ But the Garvey Papers returns Marcus tion Papers will now be able to pose and Service, Labor Department, Post Of­ ing together a collection of more than Garvey to us also with an unexpected answer for themselves. fice, W ar Department, Naval Intelli­ thirty thousand original documents, message, one that forces us to see him -R o b e rt A. H ill gence, United States Shipping Board, drawn from more than one hundred as something more than the black na­ M r. Hill is the editor of Marcus Garvey and the Panama Canal Company. It archives and more than sixty manu­ tionalist par excellence. The familiar Gar­ and Universal Negro Improvement As­ was to take several more years to iden­ script collections. Many valuable docu­ vey is the one famous for his philos­ sociation Papers published by the Univer­ tify in full and assemble this truly ments were also obtained from old sur­ ophy of racial purity, 'black is sity of California Press. H e is presently at enormous body of records, all of which viving Garveyites in the United States, beautiful' race pride—the Garvey who work on a biography of M arcus Garvey. documented the federal government's Africa, and the Caribbean. A select claimed that he was "proud of the clas­ role in the entire Garvey phenomenon. letter-press edition of these documents, sification of race" and for whom, to "Conference on Historical Scholarship and More importantly, these records which will be published in three sepa­ borrow Disraeli's phrase, "race is the Uses of Afro-American Documentary contained a good deal of correspon­ rate series—American, African, and everything." Speaking in Panama in Historical Editions"/Robert A. Hill/Uni­ dence and published material confis­ Caribbean—will provide a detailed the spring of 1921, for example, Gar­ versity of California, Los Angeles/$5,000/ cated by the federal government from view of the unfolding of the Garvey vey declared, "W e of the U.N.I.A. be­ 1981-82/"The Marcus Garvey and Uni­ the mails or seized surreptitiously by movement in each of its three principal lieve in the temporal law of man di­ versal Negro Improvement Association Pa­ undercover agents. The seizure also en­ spheres as well as the record of the vided in race groups—white, yellow pers"/$4,152/1981/$104,464/1981-82/ sured the survival of Garvey's exten­ evolution of Garvey's political thought and black." He insisted that blacks $148,279 OR; $83,605 FM /1982-84/Re­ sive correspondence with government in his writings and speeches. "demand the rights that belong to them search M aterials: Editions officials. The records of the various Read together, the three series will federal court cases in which Garvey tell the extraordinary tale of how the was a defendant also contributed large Universal Negro Improvement Associ­ quantities of documents originally ob­ ation and Garvey's doctrine of "Africa tained under government subpoena. for the Africans, those at home and Growing more confident about abroad" expanded from a six-square- where this was leading, I decided that block area in New York's Harlem and the next obvious place to take my how, within less than five years and in search was Europe. And so in spring spite of extensive repression, it man­ and summer of 1972, with a follow-up aged to forge an unprecedented inter­ trip in the summer of 1973,1 scoured national black consciousness, linking the archives and manuscript collections the early nationalist struggle in Africa of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Por­ with the incipient struggle for Carib­ tugal, Geneva, and East and West Ger­ bean nationhood and both of these in­ many. (The records from the Italian spired by the Afro-American quest for and Dutch archives were secured later.) racial dignity. But while I was trying to figure out But in what way has the multitude of the story that these records told, I sud­ documents and data that have now denly realized that they were telling been recovered altered the existing pic­ only one part of the story. To find the ture of Garvey and the UNIA? part that was missing, I would have to In my view, they clearly show that turn to the sources from which the the Garvey movement was as various bulk of the original data had been se­ as its divisions were numerous, with cured, namely, the formerly colonial their character depending much more territories in Africa and the Caribbean. on the local climate and soil that nour­ So for the next several years I ished them than any directives coming worked on completing the far-flung from the New York parent body or, for 17 Sylvia Beach in her famous Paris book­ store, Shakespeare and Company. Pic­ tures of D.H. Lawrence and James Joyce hang directly above the mirror. The bookstore was a magnet for expatriate American writers such as Ernest Hem­ ingway, shown near his Sawmill apart­ ment in Paris, 1924.

SYLVIA BEACH AND CO.

he wanted to have her modest zation, a stultifying intellectual climate, about for a life's work. Her search for a typist threatened to throw herself out little bookshop," wrote Leon the unquestioned values of their elders particular book of French criticism sent the window, another's husband threw Edel, "her literary foyer and a literature that reflected these val­ her to Adrienne Monnier's bookshop seven offending pages in the fire.) modeled on Adrienne's, but ues—that Paris blew into their minds in the rue de l'Odeon, where she found Beach's printer, Darantiere was not put fame, in the figure of the tall like a fresh breeze off the sea. At the book, a sympathetic friend and the off by what he had been told about the slouchingS Irishman, thrust itself home, William Dean Howells was the paradigm for her bookshop. Shake­ book, and his typesetters knew no Eng­ through her doorway." dean of American letters. Said Ezra speare and Company, which existed lish. Ulysses became the book it is, She was Sylvia Beach, whose "mod­ Pound, "Howells could never be suffi­ from 1919 to 1941, closed only after an however, because despite Darantiere's est little bookshop" Shakespeare and ciently ridiculed. His was a wholly con­ occupying Nazi officer threatened to protestations, Sylvia Beach let Joyce re­ Company, modeled on that of her good temptible generation of male American confiscate her entire stock if she did write or add about one third of the friend Adrienne Monnier, was the matrons." This rejection of the ma­ not sell him her own copy of Finnegan's book in proof corrections: stars, rockets center of operations for publication of trons, to be echoed a thousand times W ake. How she came to be Joyce's and arrows guided the printer to words a revolutionary novel by the "tall by the artists and writers, was the be­ "funny little publisher" is a story in it­ and phrases all around the margins. slouching Irishman," James Joyce. ginning of the modernist revolution self—her commitment to him was an "As for me," Sylvia wrote, "I was mad Therein lies a tale of myth and mem­ that Sylvia Beach helped to foster. act of faith. She simply decided that over Ulysses and would never dream of ory, of a time and a place. It has been Paris: vorticism, dadaism, surreal­ Joyce's genius made the man himself controlling its great author." told a hundred times in a hundred ism, unanimism, the Revolution of the worth putting up with. Fitch recounts Meanwhile, author and publisher ways, and we can never get enough of Word, the concept of the "night every detail of the budding relationship had solicited half the cream of the it. Our interest is wholly justified. mind,"—words and the life of the mind between Joyce and Beach. English-speaking world to subscribe In her book Sylvia Beach and the Lost were everything. The little magazines She met him at a party given by before publication. Finally it was ready. Generation: A History of Literary Paris in and journals were always on the cut­ friends. As she was leaving, the host Cyril Connolly wrote: "In Sylvia the Twenties and Thirties, Noel Riley ting edge; art became a secular religion; politely expressed the hope that she Beach's bookshop Ulysses lay stacked Fitch looks at Paris in that period ("the style was to be a barrier against chaos had not been bored. "Bored?" she said, like dynamite in a revolutionary intellectual crucible of the world") and loss of faith. Sylvia Beach, en­ "I just met James Joyce." cellar." through the window of the bookshop dowed with taste, levelheadedness and The self-styled "Melancholy Jesus" Upon publication, the Sporting Times that was central to it, and therefore humor, was a fixed point in the chaos appeared at Shakespeare and Com­ called Joyce a "perverted lunatic"; the through the life of Sylvia Beach. She that swirled around her. She was a pany the next morning wearing a blue Sheffield Daily Times, "Rabelais after a sheds light on the nooks and crannies moderating voice, a peacemaker, an in­ serge suit, a black felt hat on the back nervous breakdown." Edith Wharton (anecdotes of the famous, choice liter­ terest-free bank, a lending library, a of his head and dirty white tennis called the book "a welter of pornogra­ ary tidbits) and further illuminates the person to know, and for some, up­ shoes. In his hand was a stick, an ash- phy, unformed and unimportant Joyce-Beach story with new research. rooted by the age they helped to create, plant, in the manner of his hero Ste­ drivel," Virginia Woolf labeled it "un­ But to go back a step. her shop was home. phen Dedalus. Joyce "carried himself derbred ... a queasy undergraduate Paris between the world wars was, Who was Sylvia? Nancy Beach from with the dignity of a bishop." scratching his pimples." Writes Fitch, intellectually, a multi-media spectacu­ Bridgeton, New Jersey, was the middle He told her his troubles: his constant "She and Joyce were pleased with the lar that certainly fired the second great daughter of the Reverend Sylvester need of money, his health problems, publicity, which was slow in coming." period of American literature. The first Beach who took his wife and three and the difficulties he was having get­ Together, he plotting each move great wave—Emerson, Poe, Melville, teenage daughters with him when he ting Ulysses, his protean novel modeled from backstage and she working Whitman, Hawthorne—addressed itself went to Paris in 1902 with the Presby­ on the Odyssey, published anywhere. openly in the public arena, they to America. The literary flowering of terian ministry. Nancy had already The long and short of it is that without fiercely peddled his epic novel. "They the twenties looked to Europe, or changed her name to Sylvia, in honor resources, experience or influence, Syl­ were the most successful clandestine rather, looked back at America, having of her father, and was to fall in love via Beach asked Joyce if she might team in the history of high art," writes established the aesthetic distance nec­ with Europe and the arts as had her publish Ulysses. Fitch and it is in this area that her re­ essary to see it more clearly. mother before her. As a young woman Held to be obscene, the novel could search has given us so much new So numbed and alienated were they she was to travel back and forth be­ find no English-language printer to set material. by what they saw at home—standardi­ tween Europe and America casting it in type for fear of prosecution. (One The relationship took its toll. "I un­ 18 derstood that working with or for what actually happened. "As to my there, and in the course of the conver­ James Joyce, the pleasure was mine, the own feelings, well, one is not at all sation, Eleanor, assuming one of her profits were his. But it was all I could proud of them," she wrote. duties was to keep the operation sol­ do to prevent my bookshop from get­ Noel Riley Fitch's ten years of im­ vent, suggested that Hemingway might ting sucked under." In the end he dealt mersion into Odeonia (the shop was in like to pay his bill, which was long with her in bad faith, negotiated be­ the rue de l'Odeon) has enabled her to overdue. With his future wife looking hind her back with Random House, be­ get past the discretion. For background on, he did so and left immediately. littled her twelve years of service to his she read scores of memoirs and biogra­ Later, when Eleanor returned from talent, and moved on. phies. A grant from NEH gave her a lunch, Sylvia met her with an anxious Revelations about this complicated year away from teaching to do the face. symbiotic relationship form a signifi­ scholarly research necessary to fill in "Hemingway was here this cant part of the contribution of this the gaps. She went through the enor­ morning?" book to contemporary scholarship. mous collection of Sylvia Beach's let­ "Yes, he was," Eleanor replied Fitch also offers some interesting spec­ ters and papers, the unpublished part eagerly. ulation on Joyce's attitude toward of her memoirs, and the borrowing "W ell, he telephoned at noon and women. So many helped him, particu­ cards from the lending library at then he came over to express his an­ larly Harriet Weaver, the English Shakespeare and Company, all now ger. . .. Never do that again, Eleanor. woman who had published sections of housed in the library at Princeton Uni­ Friends can have anything they want. If Ulysses in the Egoist, who settled money versity. She searched through the Joyce they do not want to pay for what they on him again and again, and received memorabilia in the State University of take, they do not have to pay. Bren- in return veiled disdain. "W hat they New York at Buffalo. Then there were tano's would pay Hemingway to come call love is merely a temptation of na­ the interviews. into their shop." ture in one's youth," he said. He For first-hand information, Fitch was She certainly had style, but no won­ A young Booker T. Washington asks a dis­ treated women with exaggerated po­ able to interview some forty to fifty der she had trouble with the profits, or charged black veteran for help in reading. liteness. "As all women know," writes members of the "Company" as well as lack of them. Fitch, "chivalry often masks dismissal, correspond with several hundred Noel Fitch's book is the only third- if not contempt." others. She exchanged letters with person account of Shakespeare and Literature as revenge is another those who were still living at the time Company, and it clarifies Sylvia theme running through Sylvia Beach and she began her research, among them Beach's remarkable contribution to the Lost Generation. Joyce dismissed Katherine Anne Porter, Thornton Wil­ literature. Andre Chamson, quoted in Booker McAlmon's criticism as "the office der, Marianne Moore, Archibald Mac- the book, says: "Sylvia carried pollen boy's revenge." Stein called Pound "a Leish, Allen Tate, Janet Flanner. Archi­ like a bee. She cross-fertilized those village explainer" and said that Joyce bald MacLeish replied in detail on writers. She did more to link England, A young, black boy rides an old, lame "smelled like a museum" and that ac­ lined school notebook paper emphasiz­ the United States, Ireland and France horse down a narrow, tree-lined dirt counted for his success. Wyndham ing the role his wife's singing had than four great ambassadors combined. road. At the sound of several ap­ Lewis wrote a piece entitled "The played in their close friendship with It was not merely for the pleasure of proaching horses, the boy hurries to Dumb Ox: A Study of Ernest Heming­ the Joyces. Janet Flanner reminisced friendship that Joyce, Eliot, Heming­ find cover in the bordering woods. He way." Infuriated, Hemingway knocked about Sylvia Beach's utter lack of self- way, Scott Fitzgerald and others so of­ fears that the horses may be bearing over a vase of roses in Shakespeare and consciousness—a quality that contri­ ten took the path to Shakespeare and slave-patrollers, deserters, or worse. Company. Later he was to get his own buted to her charm and personal free­ Company to meet there all those Just as he is about to dash into the back by describing Lewis as a man with dom. In Paris, Fitch interviewed Fran­ French writers. Nothing is more myste­ woods, the boy notices that the three "the face of a frog and the eyes of an cois Valery, son of the great French rious than such fertilizations through approaching riders are clad in blue unsuccessful rapist." poet and a protege of Sylvia's; and Sa­ dialogue, reading, or simple human uniforms. As the trio pulls up in front Sylvia Beach's own book Shakespeare muel Beckett, who had idolized Joyce contact. I know for my part, what I owe of the child, he asks hopefully, "Are and Company gives the flavor of her to the point of imitating his dress. to Scott Fitzgerald .. . But what so you Yankees, mister?" When one of shop and life, and offers her dry in­ Fitch sought out Jean Henley, one of many owe to each other is Sylvia's the riders tells him that, indeed, they sights into these goings on, but her Beach's last assistants, and another, El­ secret." are soldiers in the Union Army, the great discretion weakened her memoirs eanor Oldenburger, who recounted a Less so, now, certainly. boy lets out a whoop of joy, which is as history. What Marianne Moore Hemingway story that captures the fla­ The long arm of literary scholarship met by three broad grins from the called her "unfailing delicacy" caused vor so well: reaches down through the years and tired-looking men. "You happy boy?" her to rewrite some passages so often Hemingway came into the shop with the Joyce-Beach connections are still asks one soldier. "Yessir!" the young­ that she could no longer remember Martha Gellhom; Sylvia Beach was not being played out. Noel Fitch has sold ster replies. "Then why ain't you the rights to her book to Jerome Law­ dancin'?" the soldier continues. rence and Robert Lee, who are working "Thought niggers liked to dance when on what will become first a play and they was happy. C'mon dance fo' us." then a movie. It will touch on Sylvia's Confused, the boy stammers, "I... I breach with her Presbyterian back­ don' know how to dance." Another ground, oppression and censorship, soldier comes to the child's rescue. "Let and the piracy of parts of Ulysses. As of him be. We ain't got time to fool now it will begin and end with the Nazi 'roun'. You think we can use this corn occupation of Paris; via flashback it boy?" "Tha's my massa's corn sir!" ex­ will recreate yet again the dream claims the boy. "Nigger, you ain't got years—when everyone was young, tal­ no massa," replies the third soldier. ented and living in Paris. "The war's over boy. You free." In a charming footnote to her own In this scene from Booker, a one-hour encounter with Sylvia Beach's "com­ NEH-supported film depicting the pany," Fitch tells how she first became early years of Booker T. Washington's interested in Shakespeare and Com­ life, nine-year-old Booker gets a clue pany. She describes her enchantment from the bigoted Union soldiers that with an article in the Ladies Home jour­ the path to freedom may be rockier nal by Katherine Anne Porter describ­ than he had imagined. The film, which ing her meeting with Hemingway in will air on the Public Broadcasting Sys­ Shakespeare and Company. Fitch's tem (PBS) in the fall, will headline a se­ mother had sent her the Ladies Home ries of educational films for children. It Journal in hopes of kindling her interest portrays the young Booker T. Wash­ in domestic skills. ington's struggle to learn and to gain a —Edith Nalle Schafer sense of dignity during a dramatic and critical period in American history—the James Joyce, Sylvia Beach, and Adrienne Monnier in 1938. Beach published Joyce's "A Bibliography of Expatriate Paris"/Noel end of the Civil War and the first years monumental work, Ulysses, when no one else would take it on. French typesetters, who Riley Fitch/Point Loma College, San Diego, of black emancipation. could not understand English, were not shocked by the language. CA/$3,000/1984/Summer Stipends Executive Producer Avon Kirkland 19 chose to make a film on this segment bondage and how they envisioned life fered because his conservative political lished Up From Slavery, which Harlan of Booker T. Washington's life because in freedom, and to develop an appreci­ and social philosophies were con­ said established Washington as "the he believes that the young Booker's ex­ ation for the free blacks' struggle to demned as damaging to blacks in schoolbook black hero for more than traordinary determination to learn is an learn in the absence of educational op­ America. Today, there are those who half a century," W.E. Burghardt Du- excellent vehicle for teaching young portunities after emancipation. still dismiss Washington for being a Bois published The Souls of Black Folk. In viewers what life was like under slav­ "I want kids to identify with Booker lackey to white power-wielders. Even the chapter, "O f Booker T. Washing­ ery and how hard blacks fought to edu­ and to show how sad it is when the so­ during his days at Tuskegee, when the ton and Others," DuBois, a former cate and support themselves in the cial structure prevents people from prestige he held and the power base he Washington disciple, charged Wash­ years following emancipation. striving for a life that has meaning and built up were admired widely, many ington with having aided blacks' loss of Kirkland's interest in Booker T. that will bring happiness," Kirkland deplored Washington's methods and political rights, the erection of caste Washington began in 1979 when he said. philosophies. barriers, and the deflection of funds stumbled upon Louis Harlan's prize- The opening scene of the film serves In 1895, Washington addressed the from academic education for leaders to winning biography, Booker T. Washing­ as a good example of his purpose. Cotton States and International Exposi­ industrial education for the masses. As ton: The M aking of a Black Leader, 1865- Booker is shown accompanying his tion in Atlanta in a speech that is rec­ the leader of the vocal "Niagara Move­ 1901 (Oxford Press, 1972). (Harlan's mistress Laura Burroughs to the one- ognized as the emblem of the contro­ ment" protesting racial injustice, Du­ second volume in this biography, The room schoolhouse where she teaches. versy concerning strategies blacks Bois challenged the "Tuskegee W izard of Tuskegee, has just won the After arriving, Laura shoos Booker should adopt to most effectively im­ Machine" as a dictatorial stranglehold 1984 Pulitzer Prize for biography.) away, telling him to return to the plan­ prove their condition. "The Atlanta on black affairs that stifled other ef­ Kirkland recalled, "I was immedi­ tation where he belongs. Lingering by Compromise" urged a program forts for racial improvement. ately struck by the dramatic potential the window, Booker listens in on the whereby blacks and whites would put Although most present-day scholars of a young boy's aspirations to rise class, savoring the chance to overhear a aside their differences and focus their agree that Booker T. Washington's ulti­ above ignorance and the dehumanizing lecture. Laura discovers Booker's for­ energies on the mutually beneficial mate goal was to win for blacks all the conditions of slavery on the one hand, bidden presence, the laughing class goal of economic progress. Essentially, rights accorded to American citizens, and the backdrop of chaos and up­ proceeds to the window, and Laura ex­ Washington asked blacks to the wisdom of the means he chose re­ heaval after the Civil War on the horts the guileless lad: "Are you trying subordinate their yearnings for politi­ mains a bitterly disputed theme of other." to get me in trouble? Get on home!" cal and social equality to the more im­ black history. In researching his film, Kirkland Obstacles to Booker's quest to learn mediate task of gaining economic re­ Kirkland will examine these broader found that both black and white chil­ form the dramatic premise of the film. spectability. After you secure a solid and more perplexing themes of Wash­ dren in the San Francisco Bay area Frustrated though undeterred, Booker economic foothold, he told blacks, ington's life in a four-part television se­ knew very little about the history of repeatedly surmounts the hurdles he equal protection of the law is more ries, Bricks Without Straw, which is the Civil War and Reconstruction and faces with a plucky, optimistic attitude likely to be yours. He reassured whites aimed at an adult audience and will be less about the life of Booker T. Wash­ which Kirkland hopes will prove "up­ that "in all things that are purely social, shown at a later date. ington. In order to address the lack of lifting" to a young audience. we can be as separate as the fingers, In Kirkland's opinion, Booker T. understanding of Booker and his times Washington came of age during the yet one as the hand in all things essen­ Washington made a Faustian bargain among children, Kirkland chose not to turbulent years immediately following tial to mutual progress." with white America. In return for white rely on Washington's autobiography the Civil War. Virtually self-taught, he The Atlanta speech, which corre­ support in the area of providing eco­ Up From Slavery (1901), which he feels went from a penniless student at sponded to the program of industrial nomic progress, blacks would not insist does not present an accurate picture of Hampton Institute to become the pow­ education that Washington had pro­ upon the right to vote and on social the controversial black leader. Instead, erful head of Tuskegee Normal and In­ moted at Tuskegee, was hailed widely equality. Whites did not hold up their Kirkland relied on the most recent dustrial Institute in Alabama. From his by both whites and blacks for its prag­ end of the bargain and it was left up to scholarship, including The Booker T. pulpit at Tuskegee, he preached a gos­ matism and diplomacy. It established resurgent black protests—the founding Washington Papers, coedited by Harlan pel of thrift, hard work, economic self- Washington as the leading voice for of the National Association for the Ad­ and Raymond Shock, Harlan's biogra­ sufficiency, and cleanliness. As the black America. He was feted in Cam­ vancement of Colored People phy, and Leon Litwack's 1980 Pulitzer leading black educator and administra­ bridge, at the White House and at (NAACP) in 1909, for example—to put Prize-winning Been in the Storm So Long. tor of his age, Washington nurtured at­ Buckingham Palace, and contributions blacks on the path that would eventu­ The last consists of slaves' reminis­ titudes that sought to improve the eco­ to Tuskegee flowed abundantly. ally lead to equality. cences of life under bondage. nomic conditions of blacks without But in 1896, the same year that Har­ —Louise Kowitch While Harlan's books examine the disturbing the existing social order. His vard conferred the honorary degree of "child as father" to the very complex conciliatory approach in dealing with Master of Arts on Washington, the "Booker—The Early Life of Booker T. enigmatic man Washington became, whites won him the favors of powerful Supreme Court ruled in the case of Washington"/Booker T. Washington Proj­ Kirkland's film has different objec­ philanthropists like John D. Rockefel­ Plessy v. Ferguson that the separation of ect, Berkeley, CA /$474,191/1982- tives. Kirkland uses Booker's child­ ler and Andrew Carnegie. During the blacks and whites in public places was 83/Youth Projects/ "Bricks Without Straw, hood to educate young people about 1960s, Washington's reputation suf­ constitutional. While Tuskegee blos­ The Life and Times of Booker T. Washing­ the realities of slavery, to show how somed, segregation continued to mock ton"/Avon Kirkland/New Images Produc­ slaves coped with the conditions of the democratic ideal of equality. tions, Inc., Berkeley, C A !$133,932/1984/ Two years after Washington pub­ Humanities Projects in M edia On the face-page of The Wasteland, tethered to sense-observation as the circumstances of life. There remained there is a famous passage from Pe- Criterion required, and when the latter enough vitality in Positivism that the What has tronius, which refers to the Cumaean was liberalized sufficiently to capture main internal controversy of the period Sibyl, hanging in a jar: when some those parts of science that made it concerned the question of whether or­ boys ask the Sibyl what she wants, she great, there was no way to exclude dinary language was an adequate phil­ replies: "I want to die." The logician, metaphysics. The Criterion suffered al­ osophical instrument. Perhaps the most Richard Jeffrey, once said to me that ternatively from cognitive anemia or striking confrontation was between the happened in the Verifiability Criterion of Meaning­ from massive invasions of what its pro­ ordinary-language analysis of fulness had begun to be like [that] ponents regarded as nonsense, and by referring-expressions, by P.F. Straw­ sibyl, wanting only death. Certainly, by the time that Jeffrey was able to make son, and the celebrated Theory of De­ the year 1959, when this retrospective his witty allusion, it no longer seemed scriptions invented by Bertrand Rus­ overview of philosophy is supposed to worth the trouble to make it do what it sell, which sought to show that what Anthropology begin, the poor Criterion was very once was supposed it could do without seemed like referring-expressions were badly off, held together by wires and any aid at all. Nevertheless, Verifica- covert descriptions and that the logical kept alive by infusions of logical inge­ tionism continues to play a role in the form of sentences in which they occur nuity perhaps better expended else­ philosophical unconscious of the past is vastly different from what surface where: One hardly could believe that twenty-five years. Although very few grammar would lead us to believe. in the hands of Logical Positivism, the actively subscribe to Verificationism, Strawson was widely conceded to have Archaeology Criterion had inspired fear, was per­ its analytical strategies prescribe modes won this engagement, establishing the ceived as a lethal scourge, designed to of approach that would shock many preeminence of ordinary over formal rid the world once and for all of meta­ were they to realize that these are language, the common man of the ver­ physics by demonstrating its system­ styles of Positivist address in some nacular besting the all too heavily atic nonsensicality, and to clear the convenient masquerade. equipped knights of the formal order. Art Criticism landscape for a new form of scientific Officially, however, Positivism was Under the leadership of J.L. Austin, philosophy. When I was a graduate in considerable disarray in 1959, in part Oxford University became the center student, the hard Germanic names of because it seemed leagues away from of this new style of analysis. Proposing the prominent Positivists—Carnap, explaining the mechanisms of mean­ that philosophers down the ages had Reichenbach, Schlick, Neurath, ing, and the new decade began with a been misled by what he termed The Art History Hempel, and of course that of my own new theory, due primarily to Ludwig Descriptivist Fallacy, i.e., had supposed teacher, Ernest Nagel—reminded me of Wittgenstein, whose deeply influential the primary if not the exclusive office the Knights of the Teutonic Order as Philosophical Investigations had been pub­ of language was to describe, Austin in­ portrayed in Eisenstein's film, Alex­ lished posthumously in 1953. For sisted that there are many uses to ander Nevsky, riding in logical armor Wittgenstein, the meaning of a sen­ which words are in fact put. The ex­ Classics across the steppes of glacial abstrac­ tence was a matter of its use in the fa­ pression "I know," he famously ar­ tion, routing the forces of portentous cilitation of a form of life, so the ques­ gued, has a performative rather than a muddle which used to be called tions of understanding were to be descriptive use, but since philosophers philosophy. answered with reference not to how we had failed to see this, they had sought, The Verifiability Criterion held that know it to be true, but how we would futilely, for the definition of something whatever could not be verified through Ethics sense-experience, unless true by defi­ nition or "analytical"—as the whole of "We evidently do not know the first thing mathematics was believed to be—was simply nonsense, however attractively even about the simplest modes of connect­ disguised. When the Positivists, driven History from Europe, found positions in Amer­ ing language to the world, to judge by the ican universities, their austere criterion proved congenial to an important na­ intense and as yet unresolved investigations tive strain of thought: Pragmatism, as developed by the genius of Charles into naming and reference conducted by Jurisprudence Peirce, understood meaning as a matter of testability, so that a term must be Saul Kripke, Hilary Putnam, David Kaplan, defined by the laboratory procedures which establish it: What cannot be and legions of lesser semantical theorists. tested cannot then be understood. Language The Positivists, like the Pragmatists, By a curious irony, this exceedingly techni­ took science as the canonical intellec­ tual activity—Dewey was after all con­ cal enterprise has reactivated the most ro­ cerned to extend the procedures of sci­ entific inquiry to the resolution of the bust impulses of metaphysical specula­ problems of men—and the prevailing Linguistics belief was that the Criterion captured tion. . . . The political geography of scientific procedure exactly. Philos­ ophy could only have a use as hand analytical philosophy was reversed in this maiden to the positive sciences, and through the decade of the 1950s, main­ decade: Semantical theory was very much Literature stream philosophy was pretty much the philosophy of science, so construed: It an American export, and Oxford dwindled was a massive endeavor to analyze such concepts as theory, law, explana­ to a province of California." tion, confirmation, observation, and re­ Philosophy duction. Symbolic logic was to provide at once the instrument of analysis and explain its use. Needless to say, if it called knowledge. Austin and his fol­ a kind of perfect language, free of am­ had no use (like the sentences of meta­ lowers offered similar redirective anal­ biguity and immune to paradox, in physics!) it had no meaning, and the yses of many central philosophical which whatever was meaningful could purgative part of the new philosophy terms, "true" and "good" being typical; be expressed with perfect clarity. Alas of language consisted in demonstrating with each success dissolving away Religion for this bold collective program, the the uselessness of the language of phi­ whole domains of traditional philo­ Criterion displayed alarming flaws. For losophy. But this was accompanied by sophical concern, or seeming to. the powerful theories that gave science, a positive program of examining the Though Austin did not live into the especially physical science, its im­ actual uses of ordinary language made sixties, Oxford was pretty much re­ Social Science mense authority, seemed not at all as by ordinary persons in the ordinary garded the Mecca of advanced philos- 21 ophy by Americans, who returned to was reversed in this decade: Semantical American counterpart, Richard Rorty, their country after their pilgrimage theory was very much an American ex­ who but exemplify a history each has there to teach students to see philos­ port, and Oxford dwindled to a prov­ set out to repudiate. Derrida's program ophy yielding to a clearer understand­ ince of California. is to study philosophical texts as works ing of "what we say when." John Now the Verifiability Criterion had of literature; Rorty's, believing philos­ Searle's Speech Acts is perhaps the ma­ been long gone before the news of its ophy to have no subject matter, is to jor expression of this approach, but by expiration reached beyond the borders engage in edifying conversations with 1970, The Descriptivist Fallacy seemed of philosophy. It was particularly late disciplines that do. But seriously to ad­ as though it, too, wanted to die, and the in reaching psychology, which under dress texts as texts is going to require program appeared increasingly sterile. the leadership of B.F. Skinner had harder work than literary enthusiasts Indeed, it seemed as little capable of sought to model itself into what Posi­ of Derrida have recognized if the fierce understanding meaning as Verifica- tivism regarded a science ought to be, formalisms of semantical theory con­ tionism had been. admitting into its vocabulary no terms stitute the first steps; and edifying con­ In part, this is because of the sen- that did not meet the most exacting ob­ versations with literary theory, if tence-by-sentence focus of both servational specificity. Behaviorism re­ responsibly executed, will find philos­ schools of analysis, when it seemed stricted itself to correlating observed ophy face to face with itself: Mean­ very much closer to the truth to think responses to observed stimuli under while the word is out that Deconstruc­ of language holistically, as a network experimental conditions, but even so tion, too, wants only to die. connected only at the margins with exiguous a base was all that Skinner I have sought to sketch, from a reso­ sense-experience, and capable of con­ supposed was required to explain all lutely Olympian distance, the linea­ siderable reciprocal adjustments ac­ our higher functions. His Verbal Behav­ ments of mainstream philosophy cording to need. Such a view had been ior aimed to show this for the develop­ through two and a half decades. Dis­ enunciated by W. V. Quine early in the ment of linguistic behavior. This book tance is required, for the texture of 1950s in his "Two Dogmas of Empiri­ was demolished in a famous review by philosophical work is a density of po­ cism," and in his curiously neglected Chomsky, who of course supposed lemical interchange, with massive "For Wittgenstein, the book, W ord and Object. But more even there has to be an innate mechanism charges against positions rendered ob­ than that, the primordial fact about or­ rather than a history of conditioning if scure by the smoke of battle, or elegant meaning of a sen­ dinary language, according to a linguistic competence is to be possible, sniping against targets that only sym­ profound observation of Noam Chom­ and the question of how the mind must bolize deep movements of the philo­ tence was a matter of sky, is that competence in its employ­ be if it is to acquire a natural language sophical mind seeking self-conscious- ment consists in the production and was taken up in an influential study by ness. O f necessity, I have had to omit its use in the facilita­ comprehension of a virtual infinitude Jerry Fodor, The Language of Thought of many marvelous victories of clarifica­ of novel sentences that the user has not 1975. Fodor argued for a "medium or tion and conceptual advance, especially tion of a form of life, specifically learned to use. In some way representation" in which the grammar in ethics and applied ethics, including this seems connected with the internal of the language to be acquired may be the magisterial contribution of John so the questions of structures of sentences, to which both formulated, and lays out a computa­ Rawls; in aesthetics and the philosophy Verificationism and Oxford Instru­ tional model of mental activity which of art; in logic and the theory of knowl­ understanding were mentalism seemed blind, and in connects the philosophy of mind edge; and of course in the logical illu­ Chomsky's view, nothing less than henceforward with the disciplines of mination of the great theorists of the to be answered with some internal native mechanism could cognitive science just as the semantics past. I have also had to omit incursions account for the fact that every child of natural languages connects the phi­ from alien directions: Marxism, exis­ reference not to how (and none but human) is capable of ac­ losophy of language with formal lin­ tentialism, even phenomenology, have quiring natural languages. One philo­ guistics. One striking feature of con­ not penetrated very deeply into the we know it to be sophical response to the rediscovery of temporary philosophy is the erasure, or mainstream of philosophical reflection. structure was Donald Davidson's the blurring, of boundaries between Even so, I would hesitate to say true, but how we "Meaning and Truth," of 1967, in philosophy and these other disciplines. where philosophy is today or what it is which Davidson seeks to connect these But since boundaries have two sides, today. I doubt it can be grasped in ab­ would explain its two concepts by defining meaning as a the psychologization or the linguistifi- straction from the history it has lived matter of truth-conditions, thereby be­ cation of philosophy means the through, but the shape of the present use. Needless to say, ginning an explanation of how, on the philosophication of pyschology and will present itself only to the historians basis of a finite vocabulary, an infinity linguistics as well. Philosophy has a of the future. I have the sense, how­ if it had no use (like of sentences can be generated and way of internalizing its own exterior. ever, that most of the analytical pro­ grasped. Davidson's program then was This is perhaps nowhere more evi­ grams have lost their energy, and if not the sentences of to develop a semantics for natural lan­ dent than in literary theory, currently dead want to be, since part of what guages, using the logical forms central in a turmoil of philosophication each of them strove to demolish as­ metaphysics!) it had to Formalism in the elucidation of the through the heady stimulation of the sumed a fresh form and strength in the natural languages superficially studied writings of Jacques Derrida. For Der­ programs that superseded them. I see no meaning, and the by Oxford: Until we know the logical rida, the entire history of philosophy no bright new programs. In a way the form of the sentences in which a term was given over to the production of present of philosophy is like the pres­ purgative part of the occurs, Davidson wrote, "we do not self-deconstructing artifacts, in that ent of art, the wild effervescences of know the first thing." We evidently do each system of philosophy presup­ the recent histories of both having new philosophy of not know the first thing even about the poses concepts the system cannot ac­ abated, leaving only a kind of stunned simplest modes of connecting language count for and which may be dialecti- pluralism as the practical fact. There is language consisted to the world, to judge by the intense cally incompatible with the system that this difference: Philosophy is too con­ and as yet unresolved investigations requires them. The history of nected with everything else the mind in demonstrating the into naming and reference conducted twentieth-century philosophy, Derrida does for it to stand alone in its failure by Saul Kripke, Hilary Putnam, David being no exception, has been marked to find identity. If this is the case with uselessness of the Kaplan, and legions of lesser semanti­ by a certain cruelty and a certain com­ philosophy today, it will have to be the cal theorists. By a curious irony, this edy. The cruelty consists of consigning case with everything that borders on language of exceedingly technical enterprise has re­ the entirety of past philosophy to the philosophy tomorrow. The present of activated the most robust impulses of flames, including the elaborate tech­ philosophy is, I believe, the future of philosophy." metaphysical speculation, as semanti- nologies evolved in executing the pro­ human thought. The humanities are in cists seek to frame a picture of how the grams each previous consignment to for a difficult, I hope an exciting world must be if language is to be true the flames offered as a path to intellec­ period. of it. Kripkians find themselves talking tual redemption. The comedy consists —Arthur C. Danto about sets of possible worlds with the in the cruelty just described. The Mr. Danto, a professor of philosophy at Co­ casualness of a Leibnitz, or mooting the rhythm of purgation-and-program de­ lumbia University, is the current president concepts of essence, of de re necessities, fines the progress of philosophy down of the American Philosophical Association. and of natural kinds with the ease of the ages, immensely accelerating in the His most recent book is The Transfigura­ medieval Aristotelians. The political past twenty-five years. It is repeated in tion of the Commonplace, Harvard Uni­ geography of analytical philosophy the work of Derrida, as in that of his versity Press, 1981. RECENT NEH GRANT AWARDS

Some of the items in this list are offers, not final awards. trate how the use of urban space for recreational and America between the two World Wars. GM C. Muhlberger: $6,112. To plan a temporary ex­ Archaeology & activity has changed over time. GM CUNY Graduate School and U. Center, NYC; hibit on Brtish painting from 1770 to 1840, focus­ Jim Salvator, Boulder, CO: $500. To research the Barry S. Brook: $11,353. To complete the second ing on group portraits, conversation pieces, topo­ tales of the Texas kickapoo. RY five-year cumulative index to RILM, an interna­ graphical views, and thematic presentations of Anthropology Save Our Cemeteries, Inc., New Orleans, LA; tional bibliography of music history and criticism. figures in nature. GM Charles E. Pearson: $41,775. To conduct system­ RC Music Library Association, Wellesley, MA; Don­ American Museum of Natural History, NYC; atic archaeological investigation and analysis of De Paul U., Chicago, IL; Sally Chappell: $111,521. ald W. Krummel: $8,431. To conduct a study of Thomas D. Nicholson: $145,878. To plan a major the material cultural remains in the late 18th- To conduct a five-week summer institute for the feasibility of developing a national program temporary exhibition on the life and culture of the century above-ground tomb and vault cemetery thirty faculty members on the teaching of urban for bibliographic control and eventual preserva­ Asante people of Westem Ghana which includes in New Orleans. RO architectural history. EH tion of American sheet music collections. RC a public lecture series and a symposium involving Science Museum of Minnesota, St. Paul; Orrin C. Detroit Institute of Arts, MI; Alan P. Darr: New Jersey State Museum, Trenton; Suzanne C. prominent scholars of the Asante. Artifacts will Shane, III: $350,000. To plan a traveling tempo­ $111,739. To plan a temporary exhibit devoted to Crilley: $112,736. To plan a traveling exhibit on be loaned from the British Museum. 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To plan the reinstallation of permanent traveling interpretive photographic exhibition Merritt Chase and the transformation of Ameri­ and analyzing the relationship of poetry and cul­ anthropological and archaeological collections. and accompanying programs on the Lacador and can art. RY ture. A scholarly article, annotated bibliography, GM Tzotzil Maya. GM Tufts U., Medford, MA; Margaret H. Floyd: and lecture-presentation will result. GY U. of North Carolina, Charlotte; James Daniel Marion Knoblauch-Franc, Chicago, IL: $10,000. $39,997. To prepare a book, "The Terra Cotta Re­ Flowerdew Hundred Foundation, Hopewell, VA; White, Jr.: $500. To research ancient Indian birth To complete a history of the Federal Music Proj­ vivals," that will chronicle the origins and use of James F. Deetz: $182,499. To conduct three five- myths and ancient Indian medicine. RY ect, WPA, 1935-43, drawing on archival materials architectural terra cottas in modem times. RO week summer institutes in archaeology for teach­ Washington State U., Pullman; Robert E. Acker­ and taped and transcribed interviews with partici­ U. of Kentucky Research Foundation, Lexington, ers at the high school and university levels in or­ man: $16,632. To analyse, synthesize, and inter­ pants. RO KY; Rey M. Longyear: $500. To conduct research der to allow the incorporation of an archaeologi­ pret archaeological materials recovered from Luther College, Decorah; IA; Richard G. Cole: on Stefano Pavesi and 19th-century Italian music. cal perspective in the teaching of American seven seasons of research in southwestern Alaska. $500. To research the cultural significance of RY history. EH .RO 16th-century German woodcuts. RY U. of Maryland, College Park; Howard Serwer: Peter H. Getzels, Chicago, IL: $12,930. To com­ Morningside College, Sioux City, IA; Susan L. $262,174. To conduct two five-week summer in­ plete a film documenting the most important in­ Arts—History Richards: $500. To research the academic archi­ stitutes for 30 faculty members to provide inten­ digenous pilgrimage and festival in the Southern tecture of Allison and Allison, 1910-1942. RY sive training in the teaching of the editing of Ba­ Andes of Peru which will illustrate present-day Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA; Eu­ roque and Classical music texts. EH links with the pre-Columbian past and will ob­ & Criticism genia W. Herbert: $37,784. To plan a temporary U. of Minnesota, Minneapolis; Lyndel I. King: serve the interaction between Catholic and pagan exhibition of 50 copper and copper-alloy artifacts $15,000. To plan a traveling exhibition about beliefs. GY Augustinians of the Assumption, Milton, MA; from Zaire, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Westem Af­ Richardsonian architecture on the Plains. GM Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; Jane Ayer Scott: Richard E. Lamoureux: $14,037. To plan a perma­ rica, highlighting the antiquity of the trans- U. of Missouri, Saint Louis; Diane H. Touliatos- $32,390 OR; $16,195 FM. To continue the services nent interpretive exhibit on Russian religious Saharan copper trade and focusing on the cultural Banker: $500. To prepare research on the cata­ of a research assistant for three years to prepare icons. GM role of copper and its alloys. GM logue of the Byzantine musical manuscripts in the bibliographies, illustrations, indices, and check Susanne L. Bessac, Missoula, MT: $500. To re­ Municipal Art Society, NYC; Theodore H. M. Vatican. RY proofs for the manuscripts of three volumes of search a comparison of Miao designs for China Prudon: $15,000. To plan a traveling exhibit on U. of Southern California, Los Angeles; Eunice publications on the excavations at ancient Sardis. and Laos. RY the history of American architectural terra cotta, D. Howe: $500. To research an English edition of RO Cantors Assembly, NYC; Mark Slobin: $90,000 illustrating the growth of urban America and the "A Renaissance Guidebook to the Churches of Indiana U., Bloomington; Linda Degh: $84,750. OR; $26,410 FM. To plan a historical study of the rise and fall of an American trade. GM Rome" by Andrea Palladio, 1554. RY To study the ethnography and folklore of a Hun- cantor as an individual, the cantorate as an institu­ Museum of American Jewish History, Philadel­ Virginia Polytechnic Inst. & State U., Blacks­ garian-American community. RO tion, and the art of the cantor in American Jewish phia, PA; Alice M. Greenwald: $44,378 OR; burg; Jacqueline E. Bixler: $500. To conduct re­ Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Phila­ music and liturgy. RO $5,000 FM. To plan a temporary, interpretive ex­ search on a history and critical study of Mexican delphia, PA; Edward L. Schieffelin: $82,000. To Magdalena E. Carrasco, Sarasota, FL: $500. To re­ hibition exploring the impact of Philadelphia film theater. RY study the Bosavi people of Papua, New Guinea, search a stylistic and iconographic study of an pioneer Siegmund "Pop" Lubin upon the Ameri­ Wadhams Hall Seminary-College, Ogdensburg, 1915-1982, focusing upon their reactions to early French book of medieval church music. RY can film industry. GM NY; Edward G. Clarke: $45,500. To develop intro­ outside influence. RO Clemson U., SC; Loretta Carrillo: $500. To re­ Museum of Arts and History, Port Huron, MI; ductory courses in music, art, and poetry to fulfill Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, NE; Theodore W. search dance in America for a reference guide. RY Stephen R. Williams: $28,660. To plan a tempo­ a new graduation requirement in the arts which James: $19,828. To plan a permanent exhibition College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, rary traveling exhibition on the relation of the for­ includes library acquisitions to support the new and catalogue interpreting the collection of late VA; Glenn D. Lowry: $14,505. To plan a traveling mal, popular, and traditional forms of music and courses, for consultant assistance, and for travel to Bronze Age to Hellenistic period pottery in the exhibit on four architectural competitions held culture indigenous to the state of Michigan during conferences. EK context of Greek culture. GM from 1937 to 1941 which were significant in intro­ the past 150 years. GM Wake Forest U., Winston-Salem, NC; Susan H. Ellen M. Kuras, New York, NY: $14,205. To pro­ ducing modernism and modernist aesthetics into Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA; Jonathan L. Borwick: $500. To research the private papers of duce a film which explores the transition of Lao­ American architecture and urban design. GM Fairbanks: $100,000 OR; $25,000 FM. To conduct Lotte Lenya in the Weill-Lenya Archives. RY tian refugees into mainstream American culture College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, final editing and publication of a catalogue of the Washington U., St. Louis, MO; Gerald D. Bolas: through the eyes and experiences of the younger VA; Stanley J. Lourdeaux: $500. To research a American sculpture collection at the Museum of $14,700. To plan a traveling exhibition and cata­ generation who now face critical choices between critical survey of Catholicism in American cin­ Fine Arts. GM logue on the aesthetic transformations within Jap­ two cultures. GY ema, 1908-83, or, the analogical imagination as Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Jonathan L. Fair­ anese painting resulting from contact with French New York Folklore Society, Saranac Lake; Steven metaphoric event in film. RY banks: $15,000. To plan an exhibition that will art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. GM J. Zeitlin: $15,000. To plan a traveling exhibition Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; Bar­ present arts and crafts objects as products of a de­ Wave Hill, Inc., Bronx, NY; Leslie R. Close: on play in urban areas which will explore how the bara S. Moore: $94,200. To implement a traveling sign reform movement (1875-1930) intended to $15,000. To plan a traveling exhibition examining urban environment is transformed when it is used exhibition on surrealist photography in the con­ influence and transform society. GM the life and cultural significance of the turn-of- for traditional games and sports. It will also illus­ text of the artistic and literary worlds of Europe Museum of Fine Arts, Springfield, MA; Richard the-century landscape architect, Beatrix Farrand. GM 23 Europe. RY which helped shape this image. GM pretation which they, in turn, will impart to visi­ U. of Wisconsin, Parkside, Kenosha; Thomas C. Historical Society of Old Newbury, Newbury- tors. GM Reeves: $67,277. To conduct two summer insti­ port, MA; Peter Benes: $15,000. To plan a tempo­ SUNY Research Foundation, Albany, NY; John Classics tutes on American and world history for 25 Wis­ rary exhibition and catalogue demonstrating the M. Spalek: $6,473 FM. To continue compilation consin social studies teachers. ES cultural dimensions of tradition and change dur­ of a guide to the personal and professional papers Washington State U., Pullman; Thomas L. Ken­ ing two centuries (1635-1835) in the history of an of 350 German humanist emigres. RC Emory U.( Atlanta, GA; Herbert W. Benario: nedy: $500. To research the autobiography of American community that was both a rural settle­ Tallahassee Junior Museum, FL; Gwendolyn B. $500. To research recent work on Tacitus (1974- Mrs. Nie Zeng Jifen (1850-1941). RY ment and a growing urban/maritime center. GM Waldorf: $9,118 OR; $3,000 FM. To plan inter­ 83). RY Wayne State U., Detroit, MI; Martin J. Irvine: Hope College, Holland, MI; Marc B. Baer: $500. pretation of two historic sites, the Bethlehem Bap­ Emory U., Atlanta, GA; Robert A. Bauslaugh: $500. To study unpublished manuscript sources To research the O. P. Riots: ritual, violence and tist Church and Big Bend Farm, during the period $500. To research the posthumous Alexander for medieval literary theory. RY politics in early 19th-century Westminster. RY 1840-1880. GM coinages of western Asia Minor (ca. 280-160 Yale U., New Haven, CT; Jack Hexter: $13,612. Iowa State U., Ames; Clair W. Keller: $80,334. To U. of Arkansas, Fayetteville; Frank R. Prassel: B.C.). RY To continue the editorial work on the proceedings conduct a four-week institute for 40 secondary $500. To research changing concepts of American Bettie L. Forte, Roanoke, VA; $500. To research in the English Parliament of 1625 and 1626. RE school teachers of history and government for the outlawry. RY the illuminated manuscripts of Vergil; Flaxman's purpose of deepening their knowledge and un­ U. of California, Berkeley; Claude S. Fischer: "Shield of Achilles." RY derstanding of the ideological origins, the writing $75,000 OR; $20,000 FM. To research change in Linfield College, McMinnville, OR; Helen Nagy: and ratification, and the subsequent development American communities caused by increasing use $500. To research a catalog of Caeritan votive History—U.S. of the American Constitution. ES of the telephone, 1890-1940, taking Northern Cal­ terracottas in the Lowie Museum. RY Knox College, Galesburg, IL; Stephen C. ifornia as a case study. RO Marquette U., Milwaukee, WI; Oliver K. Olson: Fineberg: $500. To study Thomas Jefferson's U. of California, Los Angeles; • Hilda Bohem: $500. To conduct research on a biography of Mat­ Alma College, MI; Michael J. Yavenditti: $500. Greek grammar. RY $11,315. To continue subject indexing to the pho­ thias Flacius. RY To research the origins of the 1965 Immigration Margaret Woodbury Strong Museum, Rochester, tographic collection produced by the Los Angeles Saint John’s U., Collegeville, MN; Ivan Havener: and Nationality Act. RY NY; Harvey Green: $13,553. To plan a traveling Daily News, 1923-1954. RC $500. To research the Greek "Lives" of Gregory Appalachian Consortium, Inc., Boone, NC; Barry exhibition, catalogue and lecture series which will U. of California, Santa Cruz; James A. Borchert: the Great. RY M. Buxton: $83,818. To conduct a summer insti­ examine the physical culture, health, and physical $500. To conduct research on mid-Lakewood Vanderbilt U., Nashville, TN; Scott Colley: tute on four different campuses for 200 social fitness movements in the United States between (Ohio); the making of a middle-class landscape. $77,013. To conduct a summer institute for sec­ studies teachers on Appalachian regional history. 1830 and 1940. The resulting exhibit will travel af­ RY ondary humanities teachers on the political, so­ ES ter being on view at the Strong Museum for one U. of Georgia, Athens; Thomas L. Purvis: $500. cial, and cultural crisis of fifth-century Greece. ES David H. Battenfeld, Keene, NH: $500. To re­ year. GM To research the social impact of the seven years' Westminster College, New Wilmington, PA; J. search the influence of the 1934 San Francisco Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Louis war upon British North America, 1755-1763. RY Hilton Turner: $96,764. To conduct a two-year general strike on writers of the San Francisco Fed­ L. Tucker: $9,470. To conduct an internal study of U. of Houston, TX; Clifford L. Egan: $500. To program of summer institutes for 40 language eral Writers Project. RY the Massachusetts Historical Society to be con­ conduct research on a history of the American teachers in Latin and classical cultures. ES Reginald T. Buckner, Golden Valley, MN: $500. ducted with assistance from eight outside experts. embargo, 1807-1809. RY To conduct research on Major N. Clark Smith's GM U. of Illinois, Chicago Circle; Mark W. life and contributions. RY Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam­ Friedberger: $40,000. To conduct a historical History—Non-U.S. California Historical Society, San Francisco; bridge; Warren A. Seamans: $70,490. To plan an study of rural land tenure and inheritance pat­ Kenneth Kann: $15,000. To plan a comprehensive exhibition and catalogue on the pivotal role of the terns in two California counties, 1895-1950. RO interpretive program on the history of San Fran­ banjo in the development of popular culture in U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque; David R. cisco, tracing its growth from a frontier village to a America, particularly from 1800 to 1940. GM Maciel: $500. To conduct research on a history of American Council of Learned Societies, NYC; Pacific metropolis which includes an audio-visual Metrocenter YMCA, Seattle, WA; Jarlath J. Chicano labor organizing, 1880-1983. RY Herbert L. Bodman, Jr.: $43,986. To continue the presentation, a permanent exhibit, pamphlets, Hume: $14,825. To plan committees for public U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Walter Licht: Islamic Teaching Materials Project. The activities and curricular materials. GM education programs on the Constitution, with the $264,890. To conduct a series of three summer in­ will include publicizing the eight units of the proj­ California State College, Bakersfield; Ray A. Seattle YMCA serving as the central coordinator stitutes and follow-up workshops for Penn­ ect, acquiring permission for the Islam-fiche unit, Geigle: $75,946. To conduct an institute on under­ for scholars in history, jurisprudence and other sylvania social studies teachers on local history and purchasing republication rights. EH standing the Constitution through 17th- and 18th- areas of the humanities. GP and historical methods. ES Bucknell U., Lewisburg, PA; Barbara A. Shailor: century political philosophy. ES Mississippi State U., Mississippi St.; John F. Mar- U. of Texas, Dallas; Stephen G. Rabe: $500. To re­ $3,956. To continue planning a catalogue of 850 California State U., Dominquez Hills, Carson, szalek: $500. To conduct research on a biography search the Latin American policy of the Eisen­ manuscripts dating from the fourth through the CA; Judson A. Grenier: $500. To research the in­ of Civil War General William T. Sherman. RY hower administration. RY sixteenth century. RC fluence of Mexican war veterans on California Municipal Museum of the City of Baltimore, Washburn-Norlands Foundation, Livermore Case Western Reserve U., Cleveland, OH; political customs and institutions, 1849-1860. RY MD; Barry L. Dressel: $9,650. To plan the lecture Falls, ME; Ethel W. Gammon: $42,533. To imple­ Thomas Esper: $500. To conduct research on life Cape Ann Historical Association, Gloucester, symposium portion of a public education pro­ ment a year-long series of lectures, dramatic per­ ajid labor in the Ural Mountains, 1700-1917. RY MA; Martha L. Oaks: $10,000. To conduct a self- gram, exploring the role of the local history mu­ formances, slide presentations, and programs Thomas E. Cogswell, Athens, GA: $500. To con­ study as part of a long range plan to reinstall the seum and its purpose in the urban community. with audience participation at the Norlands Living duct research on the Crown, Parliament and war, Association's permanent collections and to de­ GM History Center. The 19th-century ideals and val­ 1623-26. RY velop new public programs. The museum's col­ Northern Kentucky U., Highland Heights; John F. ues will provide the public with a context for un­ Community College Humanities Association, lections will be reviewed as they relate to the his­ White: $500. To conduct research on art and the derstanding past, present and future. GM Cranford, NJ; Warren S. Curry: $135,840. To tory and culture of Gloucester from 1825 to 1925. New Deal in Minnesota. RY Washington State U., Pullman; Raymond S. Au­ conduct an institute designed to assist two- and GM Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority, Al­ gust: $500. To research the court systems of Span­ four-year college faculty in restructuring the in­ Chicago Historical Society, IL; Ellsworth H. exandria, VA; Susan A. Borchardt: $15,000. To ish and Mexican Texas as a contributing factor to troductory history course to incorporate the "new Brown: $15,000. To plan a permanent exhibit fo­ conduct a series of interpretive docent materials, the Texas revolution. RY history." EH cusing on the Chicago Historical Society's recent lectures, house tours, and other public programs Worcester Polytechnic Institute, MA; Michael David G. Egler, Macomb, IL: $500. To conduct acquisition of three important original docu­ which will examine the history of the Carlyle M. Sokal: $500. To research the biography of research on the Japanese mass political organiza­ ments: the Declaration of Independence, the Con­ House and the life of the Carlyle family, house­ James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) who was a tion in Manchuria, 1928-1945: the ideology of ra­ stitution of the United States, and the Bill of hold management in the 18th century, and the psychologist, editor, and scientific organizer. RY cial harmony. RY Rights. GM roles of a gentleman and his wife in an upper- Yale U., New Haven, CT; William Peters: Carole K. Fink, Wilmington, DE: $500. To con­ College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, middle-class society. GM $20,232. To complete the script for a three-hour duct research on Marc Bloch and the French Re­ VA; Philip J. Funigiello: $500. To research Ameri­ Pennsylvania State U., Ogontz Campus, Abing- film on the making of the U.S. Constitution and sistance, 1942-1944. RY can-Soviet commercial relations in the Cold War. ton, PA; William I. Roberts, III: $500. To research the Bill of Rights. GN Georgia Southern College, Statesboro; John M. RY the history of the American potash industry. RY Carter: $500. To research rape in medieval Eng­ Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, VA; Robert Pensacola Historical Society, FL; Sandra L. John­ land: crime, punishment, and society, 1198-1348. C. Bimey: $36,730. To develop onsite audiovisual son: $11,506. To plan reinstallation of exhibits Interdisciplinary RY interpretations of selected sites in Colonial Wil­ which will depict the social, political and eco­ Peter G. Jeffery, New Haven, CT: $500. To re­ liamsburg for physically handicapped visitors, in­ nomic development of Pensacola from 1880 to search the origins of MS Paris Lat. 17436. RY cluding the placing of captions for the hearing im­ 1920. GM North Carolina State U., Raleigh; Charles H. paired in the film Williamsburg. GM Plimoth Plantation, Inc., Plymouth, MA; Richard Alabama A. & M. U., Normal; Samuel B. Carlton: $500. To research the biography of Arch­ Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, VA; John E. L. Ehrlich: $45,279. To research and prepare inter­ Olorounto: $500. To research African culture for bishop William Laud. RY Ingram: $15,000. To plan development of an ex­ pretive materials for Plimoth Plantation, an out­ inclusion in an undergraduate humanities pro­ Piscataqua Gundalow Project, Portsmouth, NH; panded museum interpretive program at the door living history museum interpreting the lives gram. RY Alex Herlihy: $60,660. To plan a permanent exhi­ Printing Office bookbindery in Colonial Wil­ of the English settlers who established Plymouth American Assn. of State Colleges & Universities, bition, a traveling exhibition, and an outreach liamsburg which will interpret the colonial bind­ Colony during the 1620s. GM Washington, DC; Frank H. Klassen: $106,978. To program showing in broad historical perspective ing trade in its social and economic context. GM Jean B. Russo, Kensington, MD: $500. To conduct conduct an institute for 30 college and university the impact of human and technological interac­ Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Isaac Kramnick: $125,035. research on establishment and early development teachers on Islam, the Middle East, and world tion on the environment. GM To conduct a summer institute for 25 high school of Annapolis, Maryland, as a colonial capital. RY politics, on the campus of the University of Mich­ U. of California, Berkeley; Ira M. Lapidus: teachers on the history and development of the Saint Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's igan at Ann Arbor. EH $81,000. To produce an interpretive history of Is­ Constitution. ES City; Dana K. Greene: $500. To conduct research Bellevue Art Museum, WA; John P. Olbrantz: lamic societies. RO CUNY Research Foundation/Queens College, on Evelyn Underhill: an introduction to her $40,555. To plan travel of an exhibit on Ashkenazi U. of California, San Diego; David R. Ringrose: Flushing, NY; Andrew A. Beveridge: $75,000. To thought. RY and Sephardi Jewry entitled, "A Tale of Two Cit­ $100,000. To study the role of Madrid in directing study the industrial development of an agricul­ Barbara K. Scott, Lawton, OK: $500. To conduct ies: Jewish Life in Frankfurt and Istanbul, 1750- the rural economy of 19th-century Spain. RO tural community based on financial records, research on the Oklahoma Federal Gallery Sys­ 1870." GM U. of Iowa, Iowa City; Paul R. Greenough: $500. 1820-1955. RO tem/Works Progress. RY Center for Southern Folklore, Memphis, TN; To conduct research on a history of smallpox and Drew U., Madison, NJ; John P. Leavell: $500. To Sleepy Hollow Restorations, Inc., Tarrytown, George W. McDaniel: $60,484. To plan seven vaccination in South Asia, 1700-1975. RY study James Bryce's "The American Common­ NY; Renee Friedman: $15,000. To plan the inter­ permanent outdoor exhibits, a 32-page guide­ U. of Maryland, Baltimore; James S. Grubb: $500. wealth." RY pretation of Van Cortlandt Manor during the pe­ book, walking tours, and a symposium exploring To research a family chronicle of the northern Fordham U., NYC; Rodney Muth: $500. To con­ riod, 1790-1810, when the Van Cortlandt family's the cultural and historical significance of Beale Italian renaissance. RY duct research on Harold D. Lass well: an annotated contribution to the political and social forces Street in Memphis, the famous home of "the U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor; William G. Rosen­ bibliography. RY shaping the nation were greatest. GM blues" and noted for its black history. GM berg: $89,307. To collaborate research leading to a Franklin and Marshall College; Victoria S. Mid­ Social Science Education Consortium, Inc., College of Charleston, SC; Amy M. T. McCand- detailed history of labor unrest in Russia in 1917. dleton: $500. To research a biographical mono­ Boulder, CO; James R. Giese: $213,319. To con­ less: $500. To conduct research for a history of RO graph on Lydia Lawrence. RY duct a four-week summer humanities institute for higher education for women in the South, 1920- U. of Minnesota, St. Paul; John K. Munholland: Friends of Independence Nat'l Hist. Park, Phila­ 60 elementary and middle school teachers. The 1940. RY $500. To research the trench and the garden: a delphia, PA; Margaret P. Duckett: $15,000. To participants will study the history, literature, re­ Dora P. Crouch, Troy, NY: $500. To research an­ study of France between 1917 and 1940. RY plan an exhibition "Becoming a Nation," com­ ligion, and arts of the period from 1783 to 1830 in cient Greek water systems. RY U. of South Carolina, Columbia; William R. memorating the Bicentennial of the U.S. Constitu­ American life and develop curricular materials. CUNY Research Foundation/Graduate School, Stanley: $500. To research German commercial tion. GM ES NYC; Edward Rosen: $52,000. To prepare a biog­ maritime contacts with West Africa's grain coast. Gettysburg College, PA; Gabor S. Boritt: $68,066. Strawbery Banke, Inc., Portsmouth, NH; John W. raphy of Nicholas Copernicus by two historians RY To plan an exhibition of prints which examine the Durel: $14,000. To research and plan interpreta­ of science. RO U. of Washington, Seattle, Imre Boba: $500. To complex relationship between Lincoln's image tion of the institution's five furnished houses by CUNY Research Foundation/Queens College, research the formation of states in East Central and the printmakers within the political culture educating the interpreters to the process of inter­ Flushing, NY; Judith Pasamanick: $154,000. To 24 plan a one-year humanities program consisting of Piscataqua Gundalow Project, Portsmouth, NH; hibit comparing and contrasting the life styles of To conduct research on Rivall Friendship: an one four-week summer institute and an in-service Alex Herlihy: $60,660. To plan a permanent ex­ the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma and the Wichita anonymous "Arcadian" romance from 17th-cen­ follow-up activity for approximately 125 teachers. hibit, a traveling exhibit, and an outreach program and Affiliated Tribes. GM tury England. RY ES showing in broad historical perspective the im­ U. of Oregon, Eugene; Richard H. Hersh: Bemidji State U., MN; William D. Elliott: $500. Duquesne U., Pittsburgh, PA; Constance D. Ra­ pact of human and technological interaction on $120,000. To conduct a two-week institute for 25 To conduct research on Grove's Manitoba accord­ mirez: $94,362. To implement six courses in a new the environment. GM high school principals which analyzes issues of ing to the manuscript version of "Settlers of the integrated honors program to include 12 fresh­ Princeton U., NJ; Marion J. Levy, Jr.: $155,532 leadership with reference to traditional humani­ Marsh." RY man and sophomore level courses as well as jun­ OR; $26,000 FM. To enable a small research ties texts and current pedagogical research on the Boise State U., ID; Jayne A. Widmayer: $500. To ior and senior seminars. EM group to prepare approximately 800 slides on structure of school improvement. ES research "carpe diem" and women poets: revision Eastern Michigan U., Ypsilanti; Daryl M. Hafter: China and 800 on Japan together with detailed U. of Pittsburgh, PA; Deane L. Root: $10,000. To and reconstruction of a literary tradition. RY $500. To conduct research on guildwomen in notes and bibliographies which will be sold in conduct a self-study project which will analyze Bradley U., Peoria, IL; Peter Dusenbery: $145,949. 18th-century Rouen, France. RY much smaller sets for use in a variety of courses. the holdings and exhibition facilities of the Ste­ To conduct two summer institutes for 40 secon­ East Hampton Historical Society, East Hampton, EH phen Collins Foster Memorial at the University of dary English teachers in the field of American NY; Jay A. Graybeal: $15,000. To plan an orienta­ Princeton U. Press, NJ; Herbert S. Bailey, Jr.: Pittsburgh. GM literature. ES tion center to the Society's museums and histori­ $11,748 FM. To conduct the purchase of Penta U. of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA; Robert F. Gar- Cleveland State U., OH; David A. Richardson: cal buildings through brochures, maps, an audio­ Tele/Media Interface for translating word- ratt: $139,839. To aid three visiting professors for $29,318 FM. To continue preparation of the Spen­ visual presentation and tours. GM processing codes. RP one semester each to conduct faculty seminars re­ ser Encyclopedia. RT Hebrew Union College, Los Angeles, CA; Isa E. Purdue Research Foundation, West Lafayette, lating to three core interdisciplinary humanities CUNY Bernard Baruch College, NYC; Martin Aron: $11,792. To plan development of an orien­ IN; Darlene C. Hine: $150,000. To conduct an 18- courses and to provide summer and semester sti­ Stevens: $500. To research the English Corpus tation space to provide interpretation for an ex­ month large-scale program of public participation pends for faculty development related to Christi cycles: an interpretation. RY hibit from the Hebrew Union College Skirball in the learning and doing of history. Under the di­ strengthening those courses. EL CUNY Research Foundation/City College, Museum permanent collections. GM rection of scholars, archivists and librarians, peo­ U. of Virginia, Charlottesville; Olivier J. Zunz: NYC; Saul Brody: $300,000. To conduct a four- Elizabeth Hodes, Santa Barbara, CA: $500. To re­ ple will collect, catalog, archive and display his­ $99,847. To study the rise of the white-collar week institute on comparative literature for Eng­ search the impact of the Depression and New torical records about black women in two middle workforce in the U.S., 1870-1920. RO lish teachers who will develop a senior course and Deal on the organization of American science. RY western states, from 1866 to the present. GP U. of Wisconsin, Madison; Charles Szabo: to integrate student writing into the curriculum. Holy Family College, Philadelphia, PA; Mary K. Saint Xavier College, Chicago, IL; Robert G. $5,000. To continue preparation of a catalogue ES Dobbs: $500. To research the social change result­ Kleinhans: $500. To research images of black reli­ and index to Festschriften in the humanities pub­ CUNY Research Foundation/Queens College, ing from conflict between the Anglo/Hispanic gion in Afro-American literature. RY lished in North America and the United King­ Flushing, NY; Rolf Kieser: $52,000. To prepare a peoples and the Apache Indians of southeastern Social Science Research Council, NYC; Kenneth dom. RC biography of the Swiss playwright B. F. Arizona. RY Prewitt: $214,120 FM. To conduct 20-25 research Whitman College, Walla Walla, WA; David M. Wedekind, an influential precursor of such mod­ Indiana U., Bloomington; D'Ann M. Campbell: projects on Southeast Asia by leading American Deal: $101,738. To develop a computerized bibli­ em dramatists as Brecht, Durrenmatt, Frisch, and $73,000. To study women in the military during and refugee scholars collaborating in a national ography of 4,700 works in English on China Genet. RO World War II. RO program. RO which will update the Hucker Bibliography and California State Polytechnic U., Pomona, CA; Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Phila­ Springfield Science Museum, MA; John P. be of use to teachers, scholars, and students. EH Thomas J. Elliott: $500. To research the literature delphia, PA; Igor Kopytoff: $25,000. To study "se­ Pretola: $15,000. To plan a permanent exhibit on Willamette Science and Technology Center, Eu­ about medieval pilgrimages (guidebooks, diaries, cret power" in African societies. RO Native American culture and history. GM gene, OR; Alice Carnes: $5,000. To plan a perma­ etc.). RY Paul E. Kuhl, Winston-Salem, NC; $500. To con­ Stockton State College, Pomona, NJ; Geert J. nent exhibit on the relationship between technol­ Centenary College of Louisiana, Shreveport; duct research on Francisco Penzotti and the Prot­ Colijn: $500. To research women's international ogy and culture. GM David H. Jackson: $500. To research a scholarly estant intrusion of Peru, 1887-1891. RY political networks, 1915-1945. RY edition of R. L. Stevenson's "The Ebb Tide." RY Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Little Rock, AR: $500. To Texas A&M U., College Station; Bruce E. Seely: College of Saint Teresa, Winona, MN; Joseph research the American Indian and Alaska Native $500. To conduct research on engineers and Jurisprudence Kolupke: $30,000. To strengthen the English De­ newspapers and periodicals, 1826-1983. RY American highway policy. RY partment by providing faculty leaves to pursue Maine Dept, of Educational & Cultural Servs., Tufts U., Medford, MA; Sheldon Krimsky: study in areas in which the department is weak Augusta; Patricia O'Connell: $195,455. To con­ $142,126. To continue a national summer institute and by convening a summer workshop to prepare duct two summer humanities institutes and exten­ of four weeks for 40 secondary school teachers on Duquesne U., Pittsburgh, PA; Cornelius F. Mur­ faculty to teach a new core course, "The Princi­ sive follow-up activities for Maine humanities four themes in American history: the conceptual phy: $500. To research studies of world order. RY ples of Interpretation." EL teachers and school administrators. Participants environment, the geographic-economic environ­ Pembroke State U., NC; Frank A. Schmalleger: Dallas Institute of Humanities & Culture, TX; will study French literature, European history, ment, the organization of work, and, the role of $500. To research the history of criminal justice Louise S. Cowan: $157,364. To conduct two sum­ pastoral literature, and artistic movements of the women. ES ethics. RY mer institutes each for 45 high school teachers 19th and 20th centuries and develop curricular re­ U. of Arkansas, Fayetteville; James F. Ford: Harold S. Stone, Evanston, IL: $500. To conduct during which participants will read and discuss visions. ES $113,590. To conduct a summer institute of two research on documentation for Montesquieu's major works of literature in terms of genre. ES Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul; Nicholas sessions with follow-up activities for middle "De 1'Esprit des Lois." RY Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH; Laurence J. K. Westbrook: $15,000. To plan a major traveling school teachers of French and Spanish. ES U. of Montana, Missoula; Thomas P. Huff: $500. Davies: $60,000. To prepare volumes three exhibit on Hidatsa history, with emphasis on the U. of California, Irvine; Richard L. Regosin: To conduct research on a philosophy of judicial through five of the edition of Joseph Conrad's let­ processes of Indian acculturation and moderniza­ $310,539. To conduct for each of three years an review. RY ters. RE tion. GM institute for 45 secondary school teachers on the Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA; Beverley D. Monmouth College, Illinois; William O. Amy: content and methodology of study in the humani­ Eddy: $500. To research Peter Nansen's gifts of $299,815. To develop general education courses ties disciplines. Participants will study classic lit­ Language & literature. RY to strengthen the new curriculum, three summer erary and historical texts and explore strategies of Emory and Henry College, VA; Robert D. institutes taught by outside scholars, three new study in the humanities with special emphasis on Linguistics Denham: $500. To research an annotated bibliog­ humanities positions, and a weekly convocation critical thinking, ethics, and aesthetics. ES raphy of works written by and about Northrop program. EM U. of California, Los Angeles, Museum of Cul­ Emory U., Atlanta, GA; Lee Pederson: $4,200. To Frye. RY Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, tural History; Doran H. Ross: $316,766 OR; continue preparation of a linguistic atlas of the Fort Hays Kansas State College, Hays; Albert J. MD; George Usdansky: $174,800. To conduct two $15,000 FM. To plan a traveling exhibit on the Gulf states. RT Geritz: $500. To research an edition of John Ras- three-week humanities institutes involving 30 traditional arts of the Igbo speaking peoples of Oklahoma State U.( Stillwater; John E. Joseph: tell's "The Pastyme of People and a New Boke of teachers each plus follow-up activities for high Nigeria. GM $73,356. To conduct a four-week institute for 15 Purgatory." RY school English and social studies over a two-year U. of Chicago, IL; Keith M. Baker: $50,000. To French and 15 Spanish teachers in each of two Iowa State U., Ames; Theodore D. Nostwich: period. ES create three pilot graduate research workshops in summers during which participants will improve $500. To research a critical edition of Theodore Newberry Library, Chicago, IL; Frederick E. the humanities aimed at strengthening graduate their language skills and study the respective cul­ Dreiser's "Newspaper Days." RY Hoxie: $413,785. To conduct three conferences education by providing for closer collaboration ture and civilization. ES William A. Johnsen, East Lansing, MI: $500. To for the teachers of the U.S. history survey, a mod­ between faculty and students and by focusing on Presbyterian College, Clinton, SC; Constance research James Joyce's early fiction, the futility of est series of publications, fellowships for Indian issues broader than a single discipline. EH Colwell: $28,855. To integrate two native-speaker modernization, and the redefining of the modem and non-Indian teachers and scholars, and the U. of Delaware, Newark; Bonnie K. Scott: $500. teaching assistants into the introductory foreign tradition. RY continuation of the Center itself as a promoter of To research a feminist revision of modernism in language courses. Classroom hours will be in­ David A. Lowe, Nashville, TN: $500. To research teaching, inquiry and dialogue. EH England. RY creased from three to five, permitting the intro­ Russian writing since Stalin. RY Newberry Library, Chicago, IL; David Buisseret: U. of Georgia, Athens; Jose L. Gomez: $500. To duction of additional materials on culture as well Barbara T. Lupack, Wayne, NE: $500. To research $12,077. To produce a manual explaining the use conduct research on Latin American thought: an as greater mastery of the language. EL a book-length critical study of the works of Jerzy of North American maps in teaching and re­ annotated bibliography. RY U. of Hawaii, Honolulu; Roger T. Ames: $14,400 Kosinski. RY search. EH U. of Illinois, Chicago Circle, Chicago; Vashti C. FM. To continue work on a Chinese compendium Mankato State U., MN; Suzanne L. Bunkers: Northampton Historical Society, MA; Nancy E. Lewis: $500. To conduct research on a determina­ of existing knowledge from the Han dynasty (206 $500. To conduct research on 19th-century mid- Rexford: $80,363. To implement historical inves­ tion of transfer of life experiences and personal B.C.—25 A.D.). RL western American women's diaries and journals. tigation of American women's clothing. RO world-view in black women novelists' creation of U. of Maryland, Catonsville; Robert A. Sloane: RY Northern Illinois U., DeKalb; Martin D. Dubin: genteel. RY $176,819. To conduct a series of three summer in­ Motlow State Community College, Tullahoma, $500. To conduct research on task expansion in U. of Illinois, Chicago Circle, Chicago; Susanna stitutes for Baltimore language teachers on con­ TN; Helen White: $118,441. To conduct a four- the League of Nations secretariat. RY W. Pflaum: $33,510. To develop three core course temporary French and Hispanic culture. ES week institute for 50 teachers of junior and senior Northern Illinois U., DeKalb; Cosette N. Kies: sequences for Freshmen in the Honors College. U. of North Dakota, Grand Forks; Demetrius J. high school English and social studies on 20th- $500. To prepare a book, "A Bibliographic Guide Senior faculty will be given summer stipends to Georgacas: $130,000. To continue preparation of century history and literature from 1920 to the to the Occult." RY prepare the courses. Students will read primary a Modem Greek-English dictionary. RT present. ES Northwestern U., Evanston, IL; John N. Paden: sources and write a significant number of papers. U, of Texas, Arlington; Luanne T. Frank: $500. To Nashotah House, WI; Linda D. Schlafer: $500. To $200,000 OR; $90,000 FM. To conduct research EH investigate the semiotics of the hermetic text, with compare alternative fiction manuscripts in the on the "learned people" ('ulama) of Muslim Soci­ U. of Maryland, College Park; Gladys-Marie Fry: special reference to the works of Heinrich O'Connor collection. RY ety in western and central Africa, examining their $75,000. To study slave-quilting in the ante­ Khunrath, 1560-1605. RY Charles A. Owen, Storrs, CT: $500. To research literary output and social background from ca. bellum south, analyzing Afro-American aesthetic U. of Wisconsin, Stevens Point; Mark R. Seiler: the pre-1450 manuscripts and the alternative 1700 to the present. RO values, uses of work and leisure time, gender $182,948. To conduct three summer institutes for reading of the Canterbury Tales. RY Ohio Historical Society, Columbus; Martha P. roles, and group traditions. RO high school teachers of German in Wisconsin Newark Board of Education, NJ; Joelle M. Zois: Otto: $6,719. To plan a major permanent archaeo­ U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque; Peter S. Briggs: which will update language skills and provide $30,000. To plan a possible collaborative project logical exhibit on the cultures of the Paleo-Indian, $15,000. To plan two temporary exhibits on the knowledge of the culture of German-speaking in which Newark English teachers would work Archaic, Woodland, and Mississippian tribes of images of Maya civilization in Europe and countries. ES with Rutgers University faculty in the study of the Ohio area. GM America at the Maxwell Museum of Anthropol­ great works of literature. ES Pasadena City College, CA; Phyllis Mael: ogy. The exhibits will treat varying philosophies, Penn State U., Hazelton; R. Alan Price: $500. To $57,087. To introduce an integrated, team-taught research strategies, and technological develop­ conduct research on American authors involved humanities, social science, and expository writing ments which have affected interpretations of Literature in relief and refugee programs in Europe during block of courses to satisfy general education re­ Maya civilizations. GM World War I. RY quirements. EH U. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill; Matthew Pennsylvania State U., University Park; Glyn P. Pembroke State U., NC; Linda E. Oxendine: N. Hodgson: $25,000 FM. To acquire a word Amherst College, MA; William W. Heath: $500. Norton: $500. To conduct research on interpretive $2,560. To research, design, and produce a nar­ processing and typesetting system. RP To research an extensive revision and updating of contexts of Quintilian's Book X:6-7 in Renais­ rated slide presentation on the history of the Lum- U. of Oklahoma, Norman; Gary D. Schnell: "Elizabeth Bowen: An Introduction," (1961). RY sance France. RY bee Indians of North Carolina. GM $52,274. To plan a regional tour of a traveling ex­ Arizona State U., Tempe; Jeanie R. Brink: $500. Rutgers U., Newark, NJ; Virginia M. Tiger: $500. 25 To research Franco-American cultural and liter­ Lombard. RE supported. RO ary history. RY College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, MA; Ran­ Saint Joseph's U., Philadelphia, PA; George W. Ellin Sarot, NYC: $500. To conduct research on dall K. Burkett: $500. To study antebellum black Dowdall: $500. To research the social develop­ Sylvia Plath: an introduction to the poetry. RY P h ilo s o p h y Episcopal clergy. RY ment of the mental hospital: Buffalo, 1880-1980. Curtis C. Smith, Houston, TX: $500. To research Anne B. Cushman, Bronxville, NY: $12,806. To RY the bibliography and biography of W. Olaf produce a video documentary on religious accul­ Temple U., Philadelphia, PA; Daniel J. Elazar Stapledon. RY turation and assimilation centering on the role of $96,500. To conduct a four-week summer insti­ United States Coast Guard Academy, New Roger Ariew, Blacksburg, VA: $500. To research women in American Zen Buddhism. GY tute for 30 secondary school teachers on federal­ London, CT; Jordon L. Pecile: $500. To research late scholastic and Cartesian cosmology. RY Margot E. Fassler, New Haven, CT: $500. To re­ ism and the American government. ES Katherine Anne Porter's unfinished "Vision of Bronx Community College of CUNY, NYC; search the late sequences in Paris and 12th- U. of California, Berkeley; Robert N. Bellah: Heaven by Fra Angelico." RY Ruth G. Bass: $32,000. To develop an introduc­ century religious reform. RY $65,571. To continue a collaborative study of cur­ U. of Alabama, University; Gregory S. Jay: $500. tory, interdisciplinary course in aesthetics as a re­ Bruce D. Forbes, Sioux City, IA: $500. To re­ rent American attitudes toward individualism, so­ To conduct research on Eliot, Laforgue, and the quirement for students who have chosen the Art search the historical relationships between Meth­ cial obligation, and community. RO design of literary history. RY option within the Liberal Arts and Sciences Cur­ odism and American Indians. RY U. of Iowa, Iowa City; Donald N. McCloskey: U. of Alabama, University; Alice A. Parker: $500. riculum. EK Linfield College, McMinnville, OR; Stephen H. $30,000. To compare the rhetoric and style of ar­ To conduct studies of gender and power in 18th- Canisius College, Buffalo, NY; Keith R. Burich: Snyder: $500. To conduct research on unwanted gument used by economists to those used by liter­ century French fiction. RY $500. To conduct research on Henry Adams and critics: women religious outsiders in American ary and legal thinkers. RH U. of Alabama, University; Johannes M. Ultee: the critique of classical determinism. RY history. RY U. of Oklahoma, Norman; Bret Wallach: $500. To $500. To research European unity and scholar­ Case Western Reserve U., Cleveland, OH; Robert Middlebury College, VT; Robert L. Ferm: $500. develop a famine-relief policy for India, 1859- ship: the republic of letters. RY A. Rynasiewicz: $500. To research the electro­ To conduct research on Joseph Bellamy and his 1947. RY U. of Arizona, Tucson; Richard Hosley: $73,160. magnetic asymmetries and the origins of special school for prophets. RY Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State U., Blacks­ To complete a study of all known English play­ relativity. RY Oklahoma State U., Stillwater; Joseph F. Byrnes: burg; Clifton D. Bryant: $500. To research the re­ houses of the period 1575-1642. RO Georgetown U., Washington, DC; Tom L. $500. To support preparae an intellectual history cent social history of "briney crime": ocean re­ U. of Arkansas, Fayetteville; John W. Van Hook: Beauchamp: $85,000. To conduct a study of moral of the work of Emile Male. RY lated law and criminal offenses in the $500. To research counter-orthodox Renaissance obligations that arise in journalism, applying clas­ Princeton U., NJ; Albert J. Raboteau: $85,579. To contemporary United States. RY poetic theory. RY sical and modem ethical theory to case experi­ conduct a four-week institute for 24 college and Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State U., Blacks­ U. of California, Berkeley; Hugh M. Richmond: ences of the last three decades. RO university teachers on Afro-American religious burg, VA; Donald J. Shoemaker: $500. To re­ $84,263. To produce videotapes and a supple­ Iowa State U., Ames; David R. Roochnik: $500. history and its place in the teaching of American search a recent social history of "briney crime:" mentary videodisc to provide students with essen­ To research the authenticity of Plato's "Cleito- religious history. EH ocean-related law and criminal offenses in the tial background material for the study of works phon." RY Santa Fe Community College, Gainesville, FL; contemporary United States. RY by Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton. EH Northern Illinois U., DeKalb; Donald A. Cress: Sherry S. DuPree: $500. To research an annotated U. of California, San Diego; Ronald S. Berman: $500. To research Pierre Daniel Huet's critique of bibliography of Afro-American Pentecostalism. $400,000. To conduct one six-week summer insti­ Cartesianism. RY RY tute and follow-up activities over an eighteen- Elaine Spitz, NYC: $500. To conduct research on Southern Methodist U., Dallas, TX; Richard P. month period for high school teachers to study Locke's learned lady. RY Heitzenrater: $500. To conduct research on John Capital letters following each grant show the division significant literary and historical texts from the U. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu; Eliot S. Wesley's Georgia diaries. RY and the program through which the grant was made. Westem tradition. ES Deutsch: $119,635. To conduct an institute for 20 U. of Colorado, Boulder; Lawrence G. Desmond: Education Programs U. of Houston Central Campus, TX; Peter A. college and university teachers on comparative $500. To research the Templo Mayor photo EK Central Disciplines in Undergraduate Edu- Stitt: $500. To research the authorized biography Westem and Asian philosophy with a focus on archive. RY EL cation of James Wright. RY the problems of identity and causality. EH U. of Texas, Austin; Guy H. Miller: $500. To re­ EM U. of Kentucky, Lexington; John E. Tidwell: $500. U. of Nebraska, Lincoln; Robert N. Audi: search religion in Texas, 1821-46. RY EH Exemplary Projects, Nontraditional Pro- To research the critical realism of Sterling A. $104,146. To conduct a six-week summer institute EG grams, and Teaching Materials Brown. RY for 25 faculty members to study, in a philosophi­ ES Humanities Instruction Elementary and U. of Missouri, Saint Louis; James E. Tierney: cal context, the nature, explanation and assess­ ET Secondary Schools $500. To research an edition of the correspon­ ment of human action. EH Social Science Program and Policy Studies dence of Robert Dodsley (1703-1764). RY U. of Utah, Salt Lake City; Don J. Garrett: $500. OP Planning and Assessment Studies U. of Missouri, Saint Louis; Richard M. Cook: To research the empiricism of David Hume. RY General Programs $500. To examine Alfred Kazin's journals for a U. of Washington, Seattle; Lyman H. Legters: California State Polytechnic U., San Luis GP Program Development book on American public criticism. RY $500. To conduct research on Bruno Bauer: se­ Obispo; Donald P. Lazere: $500. To research the GY Youthgrants U. of Texas, Austin; John W. Velz: $500. To re­ lected contributions to the young Hegelian de­ influence of television on literacy and socializa­ GZ Youth Projects search the letters of Joseph Crosby, 1875-78; bate. RY tion. RY GL Libraries Humanities Projects Alexander and Caesar in Shakespeare's thought. W. D. White, Laurinburg, NC: $500. To conduct Delaware Agricultural Museum, Dover; Paul B. GM Humanities Projects in Museums and His­ RY research on surrogate mothering: ethical and legal Parvis: $15,000. To plan a permanent exhibit on torical Organizations U. of Texas, Dallas; Gary F. Schamhorst: $500. To considerations. RY Delaware's farm life and farm culture in 1850. GN Humanities Projects in Media Humanities research a bibliography of the works of Charlotte WSBE-TV, Providence, RI; Peter Frid: $55,582. GM Projects Perkins Gilman. RY To continue the promotion of a 60-minute dra­ Erie Community College, Buffalo, NY; Wayne Research Programs Western Carolina U., Cullowhee, NC; Marilyn matic program about the life and ideas of George M. O'Sullivan: $7,975. To conduct a two-day RH Humanities, Science and Technology Jody: $500. To research the Gullah stories of Am­ Berkeley. GN workshop for high school and community college RC Research Resources brose E. Gonzales. RY faculty on ways of articulating a structured hu­ RD Research Conferences Western Montana College, Dillon, MT; John S. manities curriculum. EH RE Editions Scheckter: $500. To research a thematic and rhe­ Georgia State U., Atlanta; Donald C. Reitzes: RI Intercultural Research torical study of the Australian novel. RY Religion $500. To research the Alinsky legacy: a sociologi­ RL Translations William M. Whitby, West Lafayette, IN: $500. cal biography. RY RO Project Research To research an edition of Luis Velez de Guevara's SUNY Research Foundation, Binghamton, NY; RP Publications El Triunfo Mayor de Giro. RY Catholic U. of America, Washington, DC; Wil­ Immanuel Wallerstein: $80,000 OR; $20,000 FM. RS State, Local and Regional Studies Wichita State U., KS; Frank S. Kastor: $500. To liam A. Wallace: $39,000 FM. To continue work To study households in Mexico, southern Africa, RT Research Tools conduct research on Milton at the Wade Collec­ on the edition of St. Thomas Aquinas's commen­ and the United States, 1873-1967, comparing RV Conservation and Preservation tion, Wheaton College, Illinois. RY tary on the third book of The Sentences of Peter ways this basic human institution is defined and RY Travel to Collections

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Why Scholars Travel: The Importance of Intercultural Exchange Picture Credits Page 1, Samuel Clemens and Babe Didrikson: National Portrait Gallery/John Kennedy: The John F. Kennedy Library/pages 2-3, suffragettes With Allen Kassof, Director, International Research and Exchanges Board and Jesse Owens: U.S. Library of Congress/Gain Federico Madruzzo: National Gallery of (IREX); Robert Geyer, Acting Director, Committee on Scholarly Communication Art/James Boswell: Yale University/Samuel Johnson: Haverford Library, Haverford, Penn­ sylvania/Benjamin Disraeli: National Portrait with the People's Republic of China; John Paden on Islam in Africa; and reports Gallery/pages 6-7: U.S. Army/pages 8-9, Louis Armstrong: Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers Uni­ from American scholars who have been to China and Russia, and a historian versity/Armstrong with skeleton: Frank Driggs/George Santayana: Butler Library, Co­ from the U.S.S.R. whose specialty is American Studies. lumbia University/page 10, Marian Anderson: National Portrait Gallery/pages 12-13: University of Illinois/pages 14-15, David's Napoleon: Na­ tional Gallery of Art/China and Albert Einstein: U.S. Library of Congress/Theodore Roosevelt: National Portrait Gallery/pages 18-19: the Beach Family Collection/page 20: Washington Star Col­ lection, Martin Luther King Library ORDER FORM Not all the best things in <0 E « C ' c Cl) To receive Humanities regularly you must subscribe. Yet O cn ■O Q. " '£ o 5 ° this award-winning bimonthly of the NEH costs only $14 is IT) D c ^ T for a whole year. >* ° "D

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NEH Creates Study Group on •"W hat concrete steps should col­ Vice President for Academic Affairs Frederick Rudolph Bucknell University Professor of History State of Humanities in Higher leges and universities take to strengthen the place of the humanities Chester Finn Williams College Education Professor of Education and Public Policy David Savage in undergraduate education? What The National Endowment for the Vanderbilt Institute for Public Policy Studies The Los Angeles Times should be the role of college presi­ Samuel R. Gammon John Silber Humanities has established a study dents, other administrators, and faculty Executive Director President, Boston University group of thirty-two educators to assess in this effort?" American Historical Association John E. Sawyer the condition of learning in the human­ The group has met twice. The first Hanna H. Gray President, Andrew W. Mellon Foundation ities at American colleges and President Linda Spoerl meeting in April was a broad-ranging universities. University of Chicago Professor of English discussion of the problems affecting Karl Haigler In a letter inviting members of the Highline Community College learning in the humanities. At their Principal, Upper School David H. Stewart panel to meet in Washington, Endow­ second meeting, in June, the study Heathwood Hall Episcopal School Professor of English ment chairman William J. Bennett out­ group examined case studies of ap­ Janice H. Harris Texas A&M University lined six basic questions to be Professor of English Donald M. Stewart proaches to teaching the humanities to addressed: University of Wyoming President, Spelman College undergraduates at several institutions. •"Are today's college graduates, ma­ Beverly Harris-Schenz Ewa Thompson The third meeting, which will take Assistant Dean, College of Arts & Sciences Professor of Russian Literature jors and nonmajors alike, well- place in July, will focus on strategies University of Pittsburgh Rice University grounded in the humanities? Are they for strengthening the place of the hu­ Elizabeth Kennan Observer: as well-grounded as graduates of previ­ President, Mount Holyoke College Clifford Adelman manities in higher education. ous decades? Paul Oskar Kristeller Senior Associate Bennett will prepare a final report. Professor Emeritus of Philosophy •"What is the significance, and what National Institute of Education Columbia University are the implications, of patterns and The members of the panel: Robert M. Longsworth trends in coarse enrollments, majors, William Arrowsmith Dean of Arts & Sciences, Oberlin College 1983 Annual Report and student ability with respect to the Professor of Classics Sister Candida Lund, O.P. Emory University humanities? Chancellor, Rosary College Copies of the 1983 Annual Report William M. Banks Ciriaco Moron-Arroyo •"How do secondary and graduate are available from the NEH Public Af­ Professor of Afro-American Studies Professor of Spanish education affect the quality of under­ University of California, Berkeley Cornell University fairs Office. In addition to a list of all graduate teaching and learning in the Robert M. Berdahl Jon N. Moline grants awarded by the Endowment in humanities? Dean of Arts and Sciences Professor of Philosophy 1983, the report contains financial •"Should there be specific expecta­ University of Oregon University of Wisconsin - Madison summaries of awards by program, de­ Wayne C. Booth Philip M. Phibbs tions regarding what all students scriptions of activities supported in the Professor of English President, University of Puget Sound should learn about the humanities at University of Chicago Noel B. Reynolds five divisions and two offices of the En­ different types of institutions? What Mark H. Curtis Vice President for Academic Affairs dowment, and an explanation of how would an ideal core curriculum look President, Association of American Colleges Brigham Young University grants are awarded. Requests for single like? Mary Maples Dunn Diane Ravitch copies of the report should be sent to Dean of Undergraduates Professor, Teacher's College •"Are there model or exemplary the Public Affairs Office, Room 409, Bryn Mawr College Columbia University programs in undergraduate humanities Joseph Epstein David Riesman National Endowment for the Humani­ instruction that should be emulated by Editor, The American Scholar Professor of Sociology ties, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., other colleges and universities? Frances D. Fergusson Harvard University Washington, D.C. 20506. 27 Featured in this issue of Humanities . . . Lifeline: The Evolution An Exile by Nature. of Biography by Marc Does he belong to phi­ Pachter. The history of losophy or literature? that fascinating genre, George Santayana's biography—from Plu­ three-volume autobiog­ tarch to Virginia Woolf. raphy, Persons and Places, Stops along the way in­ reveals how a serious clude Thomas More's and solitary student of History of Richard III, Bos­ philosophy could also be Sylvia Beach and Company. Sylvia Beach's Paris well's Life of Johnson, and a founder of the Harvard bookstore was a mecca for American writers in the some reflections from Lampoon. 1920s. And when she published James Joyce's Ulysses, the father of modem bi­ Cyril Connolly wrote: "In Sylvia Beach's bookshop, ography, Lytton Ulysses lay stacked like dynamite in a revolutionary Strachey. cellar."

Lives That Matter by Booker. The controver­ Thomas Congdon. The Wrecking the Images: sies that raged around publisher of Russell Writing the Biography him while he lived still Baker's best-selling auto­ of Carl Sandburg. How endure. Yet in a televi­ biography, Growing Up, does an author write the sion documentary about tells why publishers love life of a much-loved, two years in the life of biography—not for well-remembered figure, young Booker T. Wash­ profit, but for honor. when the source material ington, we can exult in a "Like readers in general, provides an embarrass­ young boy's single- publishers tend toward ment of riches? minded desire to learn, the vicarious approach to Why History Scorns Bi­ especially in the face of experience." ography by John A. Gar- nearly overwhelming obstacles. A Very Private, Public raty. Does the "funda­ Man. Churchill called mental" difference What Has Happened in him the "organizer of between history and bi­ Philosophy? by Arthur victory." As architect of ography exist in practice? C. Danto. The oldest hu­ the Marshall Plan, he Is history a "science" and manities discipline is ex­ biography an "art"? Are won the Nobel Peace amined over the last Prize. Yet the post he biographies unnecessa­ twenty-five years. Since most wanted eluded rily "restrictive" or "sub­ the author believes that George C. Marshall. jective"? Or is scholar­ "the present of philos­ Why? ship too specialized? ophy is the future of human thought," the hu­ Satchmo. The "Bach of jazz" is chronicled manities are in for a dif­ from his boyhood in a squalid New Orleans ficult, exciting period. ghetto to the pinnacle of fame. Yet he was haunted by insecurity and doubt even as millions of fans around the world applauded 2 Editor's Notes his artistry. 11 Grant Application Deadlines 23 Recent NEH Grants 26 In the next issue . . . Picture credits The Return of Marcus Garvey by Robert A. Hill. In seven short years, 27 NEH Notes and News Garvey shaped a world-wide move­ Subscription Information ment that grew to six million members. Why do we know so little about him?

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