Jackie Robinson, Who Broke Baseball’S Color Barrier in 1947

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BARRIER BREAKERS by Richard Lapchick

The term “barrier breaker” describes that rare individual who took down walls that previously had inhibited or barred a group of people from the equal opportunity that American society holds as the hallmark of democracy. No name resonates more with this description than that of Jackie Robinson, who broke baseball’s color barrier in 1947. By his side at the time, his wife Rachel helped keep his strength intact. After his early death, Rachel continued his legacy and created her own by helping hundreds of young African-American students attend college and succeed in a world where they were preordained to fail. Herman Boone and Bill Yoast combined forces to lead the Ti- tans of Alexandria, Virginia to a state football championship in their first year of coaching together. But their story is even more about the successful integration of their team in the 1960s in spite of tre- mendous opposition. Boone and Yoast became household names after the release of the movie Remember the Titans, which chronicles their remarkable story. Billy Mills, Ryneldi Becenti, Phillip Castillo, and Pamela White- Hanson are four Native American athletes who broke barriers in their own sports and then went back to help younger Native Americans use sport to fight high drop out rates and alcoholism on Native Ameri- can reservations. Becenti became the first Native American woman to play in the WNBA while Mills became the first and only Ameri- can to win the 10,000-meter race in any Olympics. Two female rowers who not only created opportunities for women in rowing, but inspired generations of women who followed them are Ernestine Bayer, considered the “mother of modern row- 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 8

8 Chapter 1 ing,” and Anita DeFrantz, the first African-American female to win a medal in the Olympics in her sport. DeFrantz subsequently led the protest against President Carter’s boycott of the 1980 Olympics. She became a Vice President for the Los Angeles Organizing Commit- tee in 1984. As a senior member of the IOC today, she is considered sport’s most powerful woman. Donna Lopiano, a great softball player, became a pioneering athletic director for the women’s program at the University of Texas. For more than a decade, she led the Women’s Sports Foundation in its barrier-breaking role for women and girls in sports. Nancy Lieberman elevated the game of women’s basketball in the 1970s at Old Dominion University and then throughout a distin- guished professional career inhibited only by the lack of opportunities for women in basketball when she was at the height of her game. Annie Boucher, already a grandmother, used the sport of ten- nis to help her achieve her high school and college degrees. Lee Elder became the first African-American to play in The Master’s golf tournament, and paved the way for Tiger Woods and other people of color. Eddie Robinson, who led Grambling State University for 56 years, was the winningest coach in the history of the sport upon his retirement and had sent more players to the National Football League than any other coach in the history of college football. Dr. Roscoe C. Brown Jr., and Colonel Lawrence Roberts were Tuskegee Airmen who this nation is greatly indebted to. Brown and Roberts piloted during the boom of American aviation and fought for democracy and freedom abroad despite not being treated as equals in their home country. Finally, Muhammad Ali has led a life that is unparalleled in the world of sport. The Muhammad Ali Center in Louisville was recently opened as a living tribute to a man who, by his work in and outside the ring, gave hope to millions. In their own time and in their own way, each of these distin- guished women and men changed the face of sport and the societies in which they lived. Their work to make a better world should serve as a stimulus to inspire us to do more ourselves. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 9

Rachel Robinson

Barrier Breakers by Jessica Bartter Duffaut

Perhaps best known as the wife of Jackie Robinson, Rachel Robinson is a woman of countless achieve- ments and accolades, both in her own right and those achieved jointly with her husband. She has earned the titles of civil rights leader, humanitarian, activist, author, teacher, nurse, and leader, though none of them came without opposition. And that was just in her free time as her life mainly con- sisted of being a wife and a mother. Strong, compassionate, loving, determined, elegant, and stylish are just a few of the words used to de- scribe Mrs. Robinson. Born in 1922, Rachel Isum

Courtesy of the National Consortium for Academics and Sports.Courtesy of the National Consortium for was raised in Northern California before moving to Southern California to attend the University of California, Los Angeles in 1940. A shy, nursing student, she was soon introduced to the big man on campus, Jackie Robinson. Jackie was the first student to letter in four varsity sports at UCLA and did not go unnoticed by his fellow students. But Rachel was surprised to learn he, too, was shy. She also noted he was a serious man, proud to be a black man, with a warm smile, a pigeon-toed walk and ex- tremely handsome looks. Needless to say, they felt an immediate connection and the courtship blossomed.1 After two years at UCLA, Rachel transferred to the UC San Francisco School of Nursing to become a registered nurse. Her days were filled with a full course load and eight-hour hospital shifts. After three years of this arduous schedule, Rachel graduated in June 1945 with the Florence Nightingale award for clinical excellence. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 10

10 Chapter 1 Two months later, her fiancé, Jackie Robinson, signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers, joining forces with Dodgers president and general manager Branch Rickey in a fight to change the world. It has often been said, “Behind every strong man, there is a strong woman.” Rickey took this to heart knowing the task he pre- sented to Jackie of integrating Major League Baseball was going to face much adversity, confrontation, and perhaps failure. Rickey chose Jackie for his character and skill, and made him promise that he could silently endure the racially motivated physical and mental abuse that was sure to follow, but not before he asked Jackie if he had a girl. Though Rickey knew Jackie would need the support of a woman by his side to dilute the pain of deep rooted racial segregation, even Rickey could not have predicted Jackie would become “the target of racial epithets and flying cleats, of hate letters and death threats, of pitchers throwing at his head and legs, and catchers spitting on his shoes,”2 as Sports Illustrated described two years later in 1947 when Jackie Robinson officially broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball. With Rachel’s support and encouragement, Jackie responded to the provocation of racial insults and inequities that often included violence with his play on the field, earning the respect of his teammates and, in time, the opposition. Jackie even earned the National League Rookie of the Year title with 12 home runs, a league- leading 29 stolen bases and a .297 batting average along with the greatest achievement of all: social change. Several teammates of Jackie’s credited Rachel for being his co-pioneer and anchor and acknowledged her beauty and intellect that “replenished his strength and courage”3 for the 10 years he com- peted in the big leagues. Jackie, himself, later wrote of Rachel as “Strong, loving, gentle and brave, never afraid to either criticize or comfort. When they try to destroy me, it’s Rachel who keeps me sane.”4 After Jackie’s successful career as a professional athlete, his mission in life to help others and commit to a changed and more eq- uitable America was only strengthened. Together, Rachel and Jackie thought their work could best be utilized in politics and in the civil rights movement. Most notably, the Robinsons supported Dr. Mar- tin Luther King Jr., and even organized an outdoor jazz concert on their property to raise funds to be used as bail money for civil rights activists who had been jailed for their involvement in the movement. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 11

Barrier Breakers 11 For 26 years, the same concert was held the last Sunday every June in Connecticut and then in New York City. After years of homemaking and raising their three children, Rachel returned to school to get her master’s degree at New York University and later worked as a

Courtesy of the National Consortium for Academics Courtesy of the National Consortium for and Sports. researcher and clinician at the Al- bert Einstein College of Medicine’s Department of Social and Com- munity Psychiatry. Five years later, Rachel became the Director of Nursing for the Connecticut Mental Health Center and as Assistant Professor of Nursing at Yale University. Her independence and self- sustaining capabilities proved vital to her existence at the untimely death of her husband in 1972. Early on, Rachel had “to learn to be both [her] selves without letting ‘Mrs. Jackie Robinson’overshadow ‘Rachel Robinson.’”5 Within weeks of the loss of Jackie, Rachel was faced with the challenge of taking over his business that was originally intended to be a construction company. Though new to the business world, Rachel decided the company lacked the resources to be the construction company Jackie envisioned but rather, was capable of being a real estate development company. Thus the Jackie Robinson Devel- opment Company was born. By 1980, 1,300 housing units were built for families of low to moderate incomes in Jackie’s honor. Rachel was so proud of her husband and what he had accom- plished that she wanted to continue to improve society through Jackie’s name. Although Jackie Robinson will always be remembered for being the first man to integrate baseball, she wanted to do something else that would carry on Jackie’s legacy and continue to make a difference in society. Thus, the Jackie Robinson Foundation was created in 1973—a not-for-profit organization that provides leadership and education opportunities to academically gifted students of color with financial need. According to their website as of 2010, the Jackie Robinson Foundation distributed $21 million in scholarships to 1,400 students, enabling them to attend the college of their choice. The students chosen to carry on Jackie Robinson’s legacy have sustained an impressive 97 percent graduation rate. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 12

12 Chapter 1 In 1997, Major League Baseball celebrated the 50th anniversary of the integration of baseball. According to The New York Times, Rachel reflected, “This anniversary has given us an opportunity as a nation to celebrate together the triumphs of the past and the social progress that has occurred. It has also given us an opportunity to re- assess the challenges of the present. It is my passionate hope that we can take this reawakened feeling of unity and use it as a driving force so that each of us can recommit to equality of opportunity for all Americans.”6 While she is very proud to have helped so many over the years, it is important to her to see the process of change continue. Rachel Robinson’s commitment to helping those in need, to the fight for racial equity and to bettering society in general, deserves a promi- nent and enduring place in our social history.

Notes 1. Rachel Robinson, Jackie Robinson: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1996), 22. 2. William Nack, “The Breakthrough,” SportsIllustrated.cnn.com, (May 5, 1997) http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1010023/1/index.htm, (accessed January 12, 2010). 3. Rachel Robinson, “Black Biography: Rachel Robinson,” http://www.answers .com/topic/rachel-robinson, (accessed January 12, 2010). 4. Valentine’s Day, “The Robinsons,” The History Channel, http://www.history .com/content/valentine/great-romances/the-robinsons, (accessed December 9, 2005). 5. Rachel Robinson, Jackie Robinson: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1996), 162. 6. Murray Chass, “Standing by Her Man, Always With Elegance” The New York Times, April 16, 1997. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 13

Jackie Robinson

Barrier Breakers by Jessica Bartter Duffaut

If his life was measured by his own words that “A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives,”1 Jackie Robinson’s life was one of the most important of the 20th century. However, by account of all who knew him, that would be an understatement. Robinson—who was an athlete, entrepreneur, civil rights activist, actor, author, father, and husband—is remembered by many as a spectacular ball player, but it was the mere fact that he stepped onto the field in a Brooklyn Dodgers uniform that had such an ever- lasting impact on the United States. In 1947, Robinson became the first African-American to play for any Major League Baseball team in the modern era. By donning the Dodgers uniform, Robinson integrated professional athletics and broke the color barrier that ex- isted in Major League Baseball for decades. But Robinson could not have done it alone. It took the foresight of Branch Rickey, president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, to recognize that Robinson was an individual with the requisite determination and willpower to affect such social change. Rickey knew the task any player of color would face would be detrimental to one’s spirit and play in the form of abuse and threats, but chose Robinson because he believed Jackie had sufficient strength and staying power to get the job done. Rickey challenged Robinson to endure the abuse in silence and fight back with his brilliant play on the field instead. And brilliant he was. In his debut season, Robinson had 12 home runs, a league-leading 29 stolen bases, and a .297 batting average that earned him National League Rookie of the Year as his team was crowned National League Champions and nearly beat their archrivals, the New York Yankees, in what is still considered one of the most ex- citing World Series ever played. Robinson’s accomplishments did not come about easily. He was forced to tolerate racial insults from the stands, was haunted by hate letters and death threats to himself and his family, and even suf- fered abuse from on the field where he was the target of many wild pitches and spiked cleats. In upholding his promise to Rickey, Robin- 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 14

14 Chapter 1 son fought back on the diamond and used his unselfish team play and magnificent skills to earn the respect of his teammates and eventually the nation. In particular, he was befriended by shortstop Pee Wee Reese, himself a Southerner whose friendship helped mute the worst of the abuse. According to Rachel Robinson, Reese “went out of his way to convey his support publicly. His gestures dramatically demonstrated what an individual can do.” 2 In just his third season, Robinson was named the National League’s Most Valuable Player. Robinson led the league in 1947 and 1949 in stolen bases. In 1949, he won the batting title with a .342 average. From 1949 to 1952, Robinson led second basemen in dou- ble plays and was named to the National League All-Star team every year from 1949 to 1954. Stardom as an athlete was nothing new for Robinson, who let- tered in baseball, track and field, football, and basketball in high school and college. He was the first to do so at the University of California, Los Angeles, but before UCLA, he attended Pasadena Junior College to be near his mother. Since track and field and baseball had the same season, Robinson managed to break his older brother’s broad jump record of 25-feet 1⁄2 inch and star in a baseball game in the same day. Robinson was named Most Valuable Player of the junior colleges in Southern California after leading his team to the state championship in baseball. After transferring to UCLA, Robinson earned All-American accolades for his accomplishments on the gridiron. Unfortunately for UCLA athletics, Robinson was forced to leave college because of financial challenges. Robinson enjoyed a short stint with the Honolulu Bears playing semipro football but left Pearl Harbor just two days before the Japanese attack in 1942. Shortly thereafter, he received a draft notice and joined the armed forces to put his patriotism into action. But segregation was still common- place in the military and Robinson felt he was fighting a war at home, rather than overseas. Robinson spoke out against racial injustices he witnessed in the military and stood up for his rights and those of other African-American soldiers. An intelligent man, Robinson was well aware when army regulations changed to outlaw racial discrimi- nation on any vehicle operating on any army base. In 1944, when Robinson was ordered to the back of the bus by the driver, he re- fused, causing him to be court-martialed and eventually leading to 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 15

Barrier Breakers 15 his honorable discharge. His discharge was blamed on the bone chips in his ankle from football. Upon leaving the military, without a college degree and with little experience in the working world, Robinson began his professional baseball career with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro Leagues. Rickey first discovered Robinson as a Monarch and called him to New York. Robinson’s wife Rachel recalls that it was here, in 1945 during a role-playing session that, “Rickey subjected Jack to every form of racial attack he could imagine to test his strengths and prepare him for the ordeals sure to come.”3 Robinson believed Rickey was sincere and determined to rid baseball of its social in- equalities and “promised that regardless of the provocation he would not retaliate in any way.”4 After suffering through an excruciatingly painful spring training in Central Florida, Robinson spent the next year with the Dodgers’ AAA team, the Montreal Royals, while he and Rickey continued to expand their relationship. Robinson scored the winning run in the seventh game of the Little World Series in 1946, leading to his debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947 thus changing the face of baseball forever. In 1949, Robinson decided to end his silence and become true to himself. After a decade of success with the Brooklyn Dodgers in which they went to six World Series and finally beat the Yankees in 1955, Robinson announced his retirement. His impact on our society in general and professional sports had been etched in stone, and Robin- son had paved the way for many to follow to continue the journey to social equality that he initiated. Robinson recognized the magni- tude of being the first, but knew that if he was not followed by more players of color in the big leagues, his accomplishment would be in- significant. As a sign of success for the great “social experiment,”5 many other African-Americans were signed including teammates Don Newcombe, Joe Black, and Roy Campanella. The New York Giants quickly followed suit, signing Monte Irvin and Willie Mays, and the Cleveland Indians integrated the American League when they signed Larry Doby, followed by Luke Easter. Robinson remained active after he finished playing. He opened a men’s apparel shop in Harlem, served a radio station as the director of community activities and was vice president of Chock Full O’Nuts. Robinson balanced his business endeavors with his civic engagements. While still a ballplayer, Robinson marched with Dr. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 16

16 Chapter 1 Martin Luther King Jr. and his involvement in the civil rights movement only increased after retirement. In 1963, Jackie and his wife Rachel organized an outdoor jazz concert on their property to raise funds to be used as bail money for civil rights activists who had been jailed for their involvement in the movement. For 26 years, the same concert was held the last Sunday every June in Connecticut and New York. Robinson served on the board of directors of the NAACP for eight years and was one of their leaders in fundraising. Robinson traveled the country making appearances and demonstrating his support for numerous causes, proving one person can make a difference. In one of Robinson’s last efforts to serve others, he established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company. The Construction Com- pany’s mission was to build homes for families with low and moderate incomes. In 1972, Jackie Robinson’s jersey, number 42, was retired along- side those of Roy Campanella and Sandy Koufax at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles. Years later, number 42 was permanently retired throughout Major League Baseball. Indeed, after Mariano Rivera re- tires from the Yankees, no baseball player in MLB will ever wear his number again. Sadly, Jackie Robinson lost his life to diabetes and heart dis- ease on October 23, 1972. Though his life was tragically short, his impact on others will last forever. Today, Rachel Robinson recog- nizes that despite the progress that was made by her husband and so many others in so many hard fought battles, challenges and threats still remain. Yet, she hopes that we can look back on “Jack’s tri- umphant struggle to cope with both the opportunities and the obstacles” while realizing that we “need not despair. The example of Jack’s life shows that a fighting spirit and hard work can overcome great obstacles.”6

Notes 1. The Official Site of Jackie Robinson, “Quotes,” Jackie Robinson, http://www .jackierobinson.com/about/quotes.html, (accessed January 12, 2010). 2. Rachel Robinson, Jackie Robinson: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1996), 75. 3. Ibid., 37. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., 38. 6. Ibid., 12. 150Heroes_Text.qxp 9/7/10 7:47 PM Page 17

Herman Boone and William Yoast

Barrier Breakers by Jessica Bartter Duffaut

A follower of Dr. Martin Luther King, Herman Boone practiced King’s civil rights beliefs in his everyday life as a high school teacher and football coach. So when the Supreme Court handed down a rul- ing that ended all state-imposed public school segregation in 1971 it is no surprise that Boone became a part of what some considered at the time to be a radical movement. The Rocky Mountain, North Carolina native was one of 12 children in his family who grew a passion for sports early in life. After a successful career as an athlete, he accepted his first job at I.H. Fos- ter High School in Virginia, where he taught and coached basketball, baseball, and football. He returned to North Carolina in 1961 to coach football at E.J. Hayes High School. In his nine years as head coach, Boone led his team to a record of 99 wins and just eight losses. His 1966 squad was named “The Number One Football Team in America” by the Scholastic Coach’s Magazine. Despite the unmis- takable success Boone enjoyed as a head coach, he was asked to sit as an assistant coach at Williamston High School in 1969. The chair- man of the local school board was hoping Boone would accept the position to help assist Martin County integrate their schools, academically and athletically. Boone valued his experience and skill too highly to serve Williamston High as its “token black coach.” His wife was carrying their third daughter at the time, so Boone quickly looked elsewhere for another opportunity to support his family. The opportunity arose in Alexandria, Virginia where Boone accepted the assistant coaching job at the all-black T.C. Williams High School. A year later, Virginia, too, began integrating its public schools by combining T.C. Williams High School with one white school and another black school.1 Boone heard through the grapevine that the T.C. Williams athletics director was looking for an African-American head coach to take over the consolidated football team and that he was hoping for Boone. As a man of values, Boone was not about to accept a job on the basis of his skin color after turning one down for the same reason just one year prior. After talking with the athletic