The Case of the Volga Germans

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Supervisors Inpartialtheof fulfillment requirements for the degree of :Professorand Pap ProfessorAndrasAlexei Miller the Volga the NationalismProgramStudies CentralEuropeanUniversity Patrick James KinvillePatrickJames Budapest, Hungary Budapest, MastersArtsof Submittedto 2013 Germans By

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- CEU eTD Collection StavrouProfessor Professor Theofanis Miller and forsetting Matthew path. onthis me for everything they have throughout done forgetting.I Similarly, especially to grateful am Drekovic ChristinaJasmina Rosivack and Karolina Koziura, Aliaksandr ByrstrykFligler,Mary Bojan , anyone Miller, and else I am my Budapest, colleagues in and friends here espec to grateful am my family and providingguidance the Pap forhis willingnessthroughout Prof process, this and help to meThough way, along have many aided the people I Acknowledgements

for their unwaveringfor their the critical the comments necessary this complete to thesis. forme

this endeavor. Finally, endeavor.this I thank to would like ii love and

ially Wade Trosclair, Ramos, Carse would like support. I to thank like support. would also essor for Alexei Miller

to to th ank ank Professor Andras

I CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusion NationalChapter The 8: NKVD Operations ClassChapter Theto from 7: Shift Chapterthe The P 6: Friendship of ChapterThe 5: Volga G ChapterColl 4: Chapter 3: ChapterThethe Bolsheviks Question2: and National ChapterGermanEmpire Settlement 1: in theRussian Introduction Contents ofTable 5.2: Nazi5.2: Irredentism and the 8.4: The of 8.4: End The the8.3: “Russification” Volga of Germans The the 8.2: Eradication Evangelical of Lutheran Church The 6.2: Reemergencethe Russians of 4.2: Population3.2: Social Managementand Categorizations in the1920s The 1.3: Volga Germans and theRevolutions The Special 1.2: Revocation of Status Korenizatsiia

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1 earlyThe nationalitSoviet

Gerd Stricker,Gerd thnic Germans the in Soviet Union followinginvasion the ofNazi Germany in , the Volga, the Soviet - states. states.

- Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas, RußlandOstenDeutscheEuropas, im Geschichte speaking lower along inhabitants the Consequently,Germans Volga administrative granted an the were

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- Germans retained t Germans retained es acculturational

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Though the unique culture of culture Though Volga unique the the were were

R he dialects,he traditions cultures, and oftheir ussification verys -

capitalist New Economiccapitalist Policy of Volga River an received

was designed to imilar the to characteristicsimilar of (Berlin: Siedler, 1997), 42 (Berlin: 1997), Siedler,

of the Volga Germans be can facilitate what te - sponsored sponsored - 43.

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forced deportation of forced approximately German ofthe inhabitants autonomous 25,000 3 2 the in internationalVarious factors repression arena contributed the to of GermansAs Volga historically the had perceived been

Timothy Snyder, IrinaMukhina, 2 , as the , as the irredentist claims ofthe becameThird Reich increasingly audacious enacted principles, onnational the process would inhabitants of the Volga ofthe inhabitants Republic attempt forge an to in them into loyal Soviet

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The Germans of theUnion GermansSoviet The of - Ger Bloodlands: BetweenBloodlands: Europe Stalin Hitlerand - mans mans German considerably sentiments increased FiveFirst during the -

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(Ithaca& London:Cornell 2001). University Press, American Journal of Sociology, AmericanJournalof 9 8 poli a Having inherited

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th Novorossiya goals imperial center, ofthe tsaristthe

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AndreasKappeler, WillardSunderland, Ibid.,295.

Alexander II ofGermany Unification 1860s the and the in 1871. in later later Sovietthe Union. As booksuggests, this - building, society building, and nation building, society nation invariablyand building, intertwined

and east to to Volga east and the River

or service and that potentialthey aid a to invading would provide army.

The Russian Empire: a Empire: RussianMultiethnicThe History that these nationalities would possess ultimate loyalty an towards Taming the Wild Field: ColonizationWildField: thethe on And Steppe Taming EmpireRussian n Volgathe River

21 22

, and the, and primary authorities imperial strategy ofthe in

provides an examination of provides examination an

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regime favoredregime u German settlers in the 18 the in 13 basin ttlement Volga along the River the in long 23

- a general framework in which framework which general in a studyto the

rule among Volga German colonists among prior Volga rule focuses on the non focuses onthe kulaks . Sunderland shows process this . Sunderland that th

and 19 and

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during collectivization, isit

polyethnicity is th

(Essex:2001). Longman,

centuries, a process a centuries, through the the colonization ofthe region - Russian nationalities of indirect rule an important and and important an . p to p to reformist the In fulfill to order

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shift

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For CEU eTD Collection WarI, University1988). Press, of Nebraska am For thecredit. landholdings example, ofGermans in providRussian which German communities, First eve ofthe development Worldcredit ofmutual the War to due associations among the Germans Russian that Empire ofthe prodigiouaccumulated consequently deportation to propertyLohr and subject Eric expropriation. specifically borderlands, western living the in categorized were as enemy and aliens ever untisettlement warp c argues that formstraditional of Volthorough ofthe narrative history Volga ofthe colonies quite limited,Long Revolution are James Ministrythe Interio ofthe established a authorities Volgamany the Germans have not l did nationalities, identification their communities, contributedwithin which the to VolgaThus, the Germans19 the in eliorated around eliorated of around turn century,the the raising 1.2million from - - changing circumstances - Cambridge:University Harvard Press(2003).

undisturbed, untouched, and beginning and the from isolated untouched, undisturbed, 18 oftheir 25 24 policy ofimperial As result a First World the during Though works specif dealing

Eric Lohr, JamesW.Long, ontrary of Volgathe stereotypical Germans depiction the time to as livinga in

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identification among the

From Privileged to Dispossessed: The VolgaGermansFromThe 1860 Privileged Dispossessed: to special administrative system r and enabled the enabled special settlerspracticer and a to ofself form

. ga Germans specifically structure social regards in the and to in the Russian the in Empire

ically with the Volga Germans Volgatheically to Bolshevik the prior with century were grantedcentury were 24

examines the political,examines the economic, social and

-- ed the landless the sonsed of Germans

14 the truth is that is that they truth remarkablythe adapted to

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ocal noble ocal the and elites, imperial the Lower the Volga River Valley Byso, doing hisa bookprovides , the , the

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CEU eTD Collection & Company, Hurst 1986). 1920s 1930s, events and thushistorical the in inadvertently Fleischhauernationalism, Pinkus & broader, ignore multinat the to subject assimilatory R ofthegeneralizations Germans i urbanGermans, the centers in those and homogen Volga a Germanconstruct Soviet identification. Volgathe Republic national factor may“the at have work” been well ethn not were century, that explain certain to neglect and famine events historical (i.e. collectivization) and Pinkus and Hirsch, and Martin among others. works completely omit as being nation of narratives even quite are regime w limited, countryside during the of fate duringdetermining factor ofthetheir spirit extirpation capitalism the from the aggressivewas to due acquiland capitalistic million scarcer 28 27 26 Though scholarly worksthe to Russi pertaining desiatin

e Ibid.,63. IngeborgFleischhauer Benjaminand Pinkus, Ibid. ous group between Volga ignoring differentiations Germans, and any Black 27 . The majorityhave ofsuchworks , nationalizin , 89. , ically all affected the and in based nationalities Soviet Union. who concentrate on victimizationwhothe concentrate Soviet ofthe Germans 20 throughout the -

based from the the from moment thebased Bolshevik power. consolidated Such regime in 1914. in

, the authors

dekulakization the the 26 ussification 1930s thein late ussification g which historiography,

orks addressing Volga the Soviet Germans are the regime under crucial crucial aspects of The remarkable oftheThe Volgawealth Germansimperial era the in

omit n the Sovietn the Union Thi

the fact that thethe Bolsheviks systematically so

s is especiallythe in work byFleischhauer apparent campaigns , the authors use an umbrella, the use an authors term t sition techniques,sition would become and the primary Soviet policy nationalities 15

The Sov The a tendencya victimhood towards utilizing

28 While While treating Soviet the Germans as a portray of

, and imply, and Soviet all that during faminesdekulakization and the in collectivization. . Lacking. any iet Germans:iet PastPresent and an Germansan during imperial the

the repression of the Volga ofthe repression Germansthe implyin ional character ofvarious g that inclusion oftheories of inclusion

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(London: C. C. (London: ught to to ught s were

Sea Sea of the of the th

CEU eTD Collection No.3,2002,pp.327 4, RepressionSuccessfulofStudyRussian GermansCase asof a Genocide ofmillions execution and ofSoviet citizens, regardless ofnationality. criteria; national to was rather,a it class and importance of the addressing scholars other Germans Volga neglect the during Sovietis the to the era ment 1950s 1960s the and in the settlements. special in fir the in homeland common Volga a possessed Germany neither towards the identity orientation noran servedcatalyst “lived as that a Therefore, commonality” Volga experience. the Germans Germanidentity national di identificationconcentrates onthe ofthe Soviet Germans, common a argues and that sense of Bolshevik the from collapse the Revolutionto ofcommunism. thus policies, providingnationalities ofnationalism utilizesMukhina theories as major recent as the well works onSoviet she providessettlements, brief a yet narrative useful Mukhina. Germans interwar periodtowards Soviet the in in on ultimate an to leading Thoughclassification ofgenocide. article the concentrates primarily describe dekulizakization Soviet Union were assimilatory i policies

Sinner 30 29 thorough most oftheThe account Volga Germansis by era during Soviet Irina the

the Soviet policy Russian Germans towards the Soviet throughout the period as IrinaMukhina, EricSchmaltzwillJ. Sinner, and ““You D. Samuel TheRuins Snow”:Soviet and Under die 30 )

, Mukhina neglects, Mukhina stress to that Though concentr Mukhina

campaigns, examples. among other korenizatsiia st two decades ofSoviet rule; rather, suchsentiments developed would be the onlythe was nationality that –

356. The Germans of theUnion GermansSoviet The of

n the post n the d not exist until the forced deportations until the provided exist 1941,which d not in a

Si - milarly,Fleischhaer like much and World War

a thorough account of the Germans Soviet ofthe ofthe Union thorougha account ates primarily post the in onlife - based operation that operation ledbased dekulakization 16

Two era

subject to repression to duringsubject the a similara Fleischhauer vein as and

The major fault ofMukhina as theas well (New York: Taylor(New York: & Francis, 2007).

on the Volga German Republic Sim , the the the depict authors Soviet policies ilarly

was implemented not according ,” Journal of Gen Journalof ,”

, Schmaltz and Sinner and , Schmaltz In

to the arrest, deportation, theto arrest,

doing Mukhina so,

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. Pinkus. 29

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CEU eTD Collection 2005 demonstrate By attempt clarify so,to doing will thesis this 1930s order in Sovietofthe the Terror to attempted Soviet throughout the Union that extirpate to class the from enemies countryside. mid the immediately 1917, in Bolshevik will thesis this argue following to that prior the Revolution that portraysnarrative Germans Volga systematic to the as being repression subject experiencesVolgathe ofthe Germans loyalty the questions categories. ofthese as “dia category used as a should be refer such historians to While categories ofpractice. ofpeoples category, idiom, claim.” as an stance, and Thus, as Brubaker “but suggests, Ro does provide useful “diaspora” not a categoryanalytical study to which processes. in these Bulgarians, Germans, etc. “diaspora nationalities”towards the of Many,question. authors, all not though making nationality.”“diaspora ByGer Volga categorizing the faul major nationalizingcongruent the with historiographies pertaining the to VolgaOne Germans. works onSovietmajor policies nationalities gersBrubaker ): 1 ): spora nationalities,” impliesit strong a towards the homeland, and orientation thus - 31 will thesis This attempt gaps bridgeto relevant the order in literature ofthe clarify to significant is a gapThus, there the in literaturethat this will thesis attempt fill. Theto - 19. implications that implications reader that lead the to draw 1930s, aime repression

Rogers Brubaker,“The Rogers ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,”

t ofmanyt historians

the paradigmthe class from shift 31

suggest

s that the term the s should“diaspora” be that nottreated homogenous as a In the case oftheIn Soviet case T the

, however, d towards theGermans Volga broader ofa operation was part

during the interwar during interwar era. the theGreeks, SovietKoreans Union, such as Poles,

describe the national operations as being directed is their reference the to Volga their a Germansis as - based to nation to based , primarilyMar 17

Ethnic and RacialStudies, Ethnicand certain conclusions certain about t error ofthe 1930s,error late the term mans as a “diaspora, as a mans - based repression. based tin’s and Hirsch’s, and tin’s

Contrary common the to Vol.No.1 28, ” historians” are he grouphe in

“diaspora” “diaspora”

are not not are

( January , CEU eTD Collection Hitler’sfollowing con claim amongdiasporic the among ofthe policies earlyeconomic 1930s throughoutFirst agricultural collectivization and Five the socioe to according the extirpationdimension, ofthe from spirit the capitalism countryside purely was enacted campaignsdekulakization collectivization held ostensibly an during agricultural national kulak to attempt themanage ofthe health social body. population the categorize bysocially ascribingethnically and classifications determined an in German language ASSR.and culture the in of existence the German as some culture, suggest,scholars actively regime the promoted to order Autonomous in emulate nation modern Republic a Bolsheviksthe promote sought to implementation integrity Russianofthis Ancomponent Empire. integral former decision was ofthe the whyexplain sought regime national the utilize self to twoexaminesWar. Bolsheviks Chapter the question 1917 national in the and culminated i beganperceptions gradually to number a ofconvergent to which factors, change due perc territGermanic Russian longthroughout Empire the 19 eived as privileged subjects of s class as a the Germans Soviet Germanthe state the ofthe Union. While incrementally a imposed

In order to do so, chapter one In doso, to chapter order n Russian orial states initially special were a status,granted generally were and

during collectiviz

korenizatsiia conomic status.conomic - solidation of power, chapter fivesolidation ofpower, chapter Germans beingFirst categorized during as “enemy World the aliens” Volksdeutsche Volksdeutsche , which is subject ofthe the third Aschapter. be will

German consciousness th in national ation the imperial regime.the Consequently, policy the of

contributed contributed

will examine history the German the settlement in of th , four chapter which

century to demonstrate that agriculturalistscentury demonstrate from to of the Soviet becameof the Union, which audacious

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Such measures facilitated the liquidation facilitated Such measures of to to the development of the diasporic stancea - determination to preserve to determination territ the

will demonstrate Volgawill that the By mid - Year Plan. Nevertheless, these Nevertheless, Plan. these Year -

state. will address. Though the korenizatsiia korenizatsiia - e Bolshevike regime century, however, suchcentury, however,

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sought to

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explains how designation omitted this explains Volgathe diasporic Germans other (and mans did not possess not did an mans to strong attachment a external “homeland,” though both Chapter seven Chapter ties) the from “Friendship campaign Peoples” beginning ofthe mid the in - Lutheran the from Volga Church affirm the to region, as efforts loyalty as well C onstitution of1936,which symbolized offocusfrom shift a class to

examines this shift shift demonstrate this examines to order thatin the after claiming to ussocentric notion Such sentiments ofSoviet patriotism.

g ofNazi invasion Germany, the German Volga ASSR the 19

incided withincided eradicate operations to the

In 1937 - 1938, the NKVD enacted NKVD enacted 1938, the eared which was to

Germans, is which korenizatsiia -

1930s, were were Chapter Chapter lities CEU eTD Collection borders,patrolled bydefendable Cos loyal civilizing steppe, indigenous missionagainst they ofthe the nomads would provide steppe of settling the were considerably only not settlers embark intertwined; wouldona the Russians “Little and region Russia, steppe ofSouthern while same at promoting the time of migration the aliens.” convergent onthe and eve factors, of1917,they subject the were to categor however, the tr f demonstrate, will the transform steppe to into loyala civilized and bysteppe settlers enticing civilization, and enlightenment Catherine’s the task about set government ofcolonizing the physical, the transform cultural, politicalspaceand ofthe of frontier. In name the the notion of“civilizationenlightened versus barba be to “civilized”who needed by way of European a adoption the adopting The oflife. increasinglybecame by frontier region as a inhabited perceived nomads disloyal barbaric and With Catherinespace. II’s implementation ofenlightened been had viewedUkraine by 18 the Lower the to and Black Sea east is today what River the in Volga in Russiasouthern and build steppe to order the in legitimizeand itself. empire Thethe step the in longauthorities with increasingly nineteenth an centurydealt of task settling complex With t 1 Chapter ansformation to civilization to ansformation loyaltyand Germanwere settlers. he Russian Empire’s rapid Russian Empire’she rapid territorial in preceding expansion the the centuries, imperial In 1763, Catherine IIIn manifestopermitting a 1763,Catherine settlement offoreigners issued the the in

: privileged status GermanEmpireRussianthe Settlement in or imperial the authorities, actors preferred implement to the this

Russians” to , both Slavic, both Orthodox foreigners, inhabitthe and to region order in

of the Russiaof the

the the th

century imperial authorities as an empty and centuryalien imperial region.For im the sacks and others “whose faithfulness others sacks and could only be n Germans began to deteriorate for n Germans number begana deteriorate of to 20 rism” signified rism” shift would a that completely

facet of Russian As Empire. the facet chapter this perial thecenter, perial two primarygoals reforms, however, steppe the

By mid the

pe region north of the ization of“enemyization - 19 th

century, CEU eTD Collection enticing ma resulting offers, a in many invited were theGermans settle to steppe, nationalities received by most the far of spiritmanifestation the ofmodernization development. economic and states particular,German in wer territorial course maximum the charting to settlement utility.” ‘uses occupations,’alldifferent ofwhichand (ideally) be to accounttaken into needed when ‘nations’ bydifferent influenced were ‘climates’ different (env possessingeach customs,’ and empress own its advisors ‘morals her the and knewthat foreigners certain As explains, “in worlddivided intoa should settle. ‘nations,’ Sunderland Slavicand settlers. government Catherine’s utilized dete ethnographers to Russia, ofSouthern foreignsteppe were settlers Western Russian Europe preferred from to with consistent imperial loyal entice to the settlers colonize attempt region civilize an to in steppe while the remaining empire the neither River be regionto deemed loyal were dyna the to center. the various the connect territoriesto societies and ofthe one with empire another as well as with Petersburg. territories so frontier long could as these exist harmoniously policiesofSt. the with cer of Russian byguaranteed ofdirect imposition imperial administration the and more ardentthe promotion tain pre aspects ofthe 34 33 32 of1763 According manifesto that initiated the the to large oftheAs pre rule general a

Sunderland,81 Kappeler,114. Sunderland,58. 33 - . In to order style improvement.” style

The perception of perception The However, pre the

continue continue policy the rule, the imperial authorities ofindirect sought to policy. - existing social, economic, economic, administrativeexistingand social, structures ofthe

- loyalty was tsar ofcrucial the importance, to as existing nomadic structures of existing nomadic

32 ssive influx ofGerman Privilegesto colonists. guaranteed

- modern Russian Empire, the government Russian the Empire, respected modern e perceivede by St. Petersburg the as being 21

Western from Europeans, those and sty nor congruent with the the of with aims sty norcongruent Novorossiya ironments) and predisposed and to ironments) - scale migration the to scale

Consequently, while rmine where

and the Volga the and

loyalty served CEU eTD Collection NationalMinorities.” perceivedmanifestation of were as the modern agriculturalists and loyal were and citizens, 1804ukazMennoniteIndeed, settlers omitted as the from forsettlement,the criteria they widely th in praised German settlersother own throughfrom charter their the 1800. Such Anabaptists in tsar were modernize to attempts the steppe, were privilegesand promised even than greater those of Danzig from Mennonites West and Prus functions.economic specific regardsin though German such to insisted settlers, he that migrants brought be to in perform entry.”allowed growing, silk in AccordingAlexander I’s to ukaz massive ofsettlers, Alexander I influx strict imposed offactors, number a 1820. Dueto primarily inability authorities the handle the to oflocal Little and discourage large foreign colonization. The wavesGerman settlemen of switchedemigration between the promotion of foreign the settlement and attempt to under Paul continued alongcolonies Volga the River 1764 from taxes; and all reimbursement Russia; in oftravel uponarrival months thirty funds; a year from exemption included German promise settlers settlewherever to the lodging they free forsix pleased; 38 37 36 35 GermansAs ethnicity as an as hardworking perceived loyal were subjects, and During estimated wave an 27,000Germans first 104 ofemigration, the founded

Ibid Ibid VolgaAnna“The Sheehy, Tatars, Germans, CrimeanTreatment Meskhetians: ofand Soviet some Ibid Russia . . .

, 11. , 15. , 86 , permanent from exemption military among many service, benefits. other 37 - - culture, and in animal in and husbandy…. were village also culture, and craftsmen be to

87. during reign of Alexander the I 1802 in came The tsar tsar The thethus sought ofhis policies fat continue to Minority Rights Group Rights Minority

e imperiale administration work ethic fortheir strict moraland code.

I during policy reign and, Alexander the I,German of imperial towards

of 1804, “only competent farmers,“only wine specialists in of 1804, competent

no.6 sia in particular were deemed particular were in especiallysia for useful

- 1768. 22

The promotion ofGerman emigrationThe

regulations onforeign colon - 1804, 1808 t in Southern in t Russia her her grandmother and - 1809, and 1819 1809, and ists . 35 - 38

- CEU eTD Collection Imperio andPeasants inProblems of CulturalUkrainianImperial the ofIdentification ProvincesLater Russia,” 1830 Ukraine, and Russia Canadian& Toronto, 1994 Press, of Ukrainian Institute Studies German theirRussian status Stundists rejected as “Little Russian Orthodoxpeasants,” beganand century, gradually after traditional Little their distancing themselves from identification, imagesuniversal and notions ofreformed Christianity.” regionalist id traditional LittleGreat Russians, Russians,Stundist others and the replaced whomovement their joined to Stundists religious wasemulate constructed the German Protestant ofthe settlers. ethos movementevangelical known as Stundism. considerably Anabaptist in sects the t from Prussia, became which ecclesiastical beliefs ofGerm institutionalization the oftheto All thewhich to steppe, contributedideas a to spiritual awakening among many prior Mennonites radical ofWestern reformations Europe,of the millennial brought and them with ecumenical imperial authorities the of both as well as nationalist groups. Ukrainian Russian and Little influence onthetheir Russian and Russian in peasantry adversethe an eyes effect had though and outsiders, they culturally economically, flourish and did however,Anabaptist communities settlers, founded more that not were often than closed to forothersignificantly than foreign forthem Germans lower settlers. other and family, grantedper 65dessiatines, were Mennonites and tax dessiatine per the w LutheranGerman and settlers following the 1804ukaz granted 60dessiatines were of land t hus the primaryhus the emulate. to Slavic Orthodoxpeasants forthe models - 3 (2006):147 3 43 42 41 UkrainianRelation 40 39 Mennonite settlers ofSouthern The

SergeiNation” Imitate“”ASeparate “Thosewho Germans:”Zhuk, of Ukr SergeiZh Kappeler Detlef Brandes, Sunderland,117. , uk, 146 - 148.

Russia’s Lost Reformation: Peasants,Sects inMillenialism,and Southern Radical Reformation: Russia’sLost - - 147. 1917 “German Colonists in“GermanColonists SouthernUk

entification withentification the international “new evangelical culture on based in HistoricalPerspectivein

(BaltimoreThe155.Johns& Hopkins London: University 2004), Press, an Anabaptistan Southern colonies in

- Russia n Baptist Union in the 1860s.n BaptistConsequently, the Union in the

42 Russia, as representat

ed. Hans ed. 23 The distiThe

raineto Repealtheup Colonial the of - ), 17. ), Joac nct nct identification among 43 him Torke & JohnhimTorke

Indeed, towards the end of end Indeed, 19 towards the the

ives Anabaptist wing ofthe Russia diverged he foundation for the 41 39

by the

ainianEvangelical Whereas Catholic Whereas Catholic - PaulHimka late 19 late 40

Russian Russian as The The

th (

Statute, Edmonton

century, Ab Ab

” in” th

CEU eTD Collection Studies, Mennonite fortheForeign GuardianshipOffice of Settlers ruled were under special settlers a administrative system, GermanVolga settlers signif halted. region been had 1850s, forallcentury, intents foreign and late purposes, by the systematic colonization the in regionsthe continued Russia ofSouthern and sporadically f the during self st social implement political stabilityand region. the in instabilitysocial Souther in St. Pete in authorities populations significant ofRussians,with Little Chuvash,Kalmyks, The Russians, Tatars, etc. German culture emulated to order in cre lost Little Little had Russian peasants their traditional Russian identifications had and Russian peasantry. intellectuals by were Ukrainian Similarly, troubled that these notion the culturalcreated confusion,” that threat “undermined a the ideological Russian foundations political ofthe system, and development and economic perceivedmodernization steppe, Stundist ofthe the movement as imperial authorities,the while acknowledging German settlement co that themselvesreferring to as eppe, German settlerseppe, the represented rural, privileged class, middle practiced and of form a - government thatgovernment was after modeled their state oforigin. 48 47 46 45 44 half second ofthe the 19 Prior to Lower German settlersThe along a the territory entered diversity, Volga ofcultural

Sunderland,144. FleischhauerPinkus,and19. LeonardFriesen,in “Mennonites Neighborstheirand UkrainePeasant Befor Ibid Ibid . . , 160. , 152. , Vol.57. (1992), 10

rsburg worried that such ethnic and linguisticrsburg and such ethnic diversity that worried create could 48

“ n Russia a separate nation.” separate a 45 icant amountsicant reign ofautonomy.Up ofAlexander the II, to the

which challengedwhich o notion the

, and thus relied heavily thus relied owners, and estate to onnoble ate own identification their nation. separate as a th

century, government’s the granted policies the 24 44 , but commonly, but known as the

Considering the rise ofRussian nationalism,Considering rise the 46

In socio the officially Saratov known as the 47 f the f the traditionally Little loyal

While foreignWhile settlement in - ethnic hierarchy the ethnic of irst half of half irst the 19 ntributed ntributed to the e 1900,” 1900,” e Kontara Journal of , which , which th

CEU eTD Collection nationalism”Nationality,” “official of the I’sNicholas reign Uvarov’s Count Despite triad of“Orthodoxy, misinterpreted Autocracy, often and stability inclu which Russian Empire, ofthe INicholas (1825 policyImperial did significantlysettlers not during reign towards foreign the alter of 1.2: deteriorate. of 19 the middle further which colonies, theaugmented identification regional settlers.among the This, servedidentification. turn, in t settlers,helpamong which of explains the the lack Kontara shortage acute ofgovernmental integration coo and however, year terms. village elder. given the to region ofthe those with ofthe and empire general. in representation. The hands village the in placed ofthe assembly,sent household member a each which as a to was under The 50 49 German regional With all administration going through the

allowed substantial allowed levels ofvillage schism to autonomy, policy this contributed Revocation ofRevocation Status Special Ibid., 21. Long, the the jurisdiction of jurisdiction Ministrythe the of Interior.

Schulze

re 49 20.

was lack ofhorizontal a The elder and his eldertwo ormore and assistantsThe ( th -

1855), as the tsar’s top priority was to maintain the priority tsar’s political top 1855), as the social was maintain and to

century, privileged began the ofGerman status to however, settlers

assembly that ensure to officials would con elect lawslocal were (later called the

o perpetuate the particularismso perpetuate the separate ofthe German Vorsteher

communication betweencommunication villages, an therefore and ded the the withded cooperation loyal non 25 ), which was the was ), which the to Russiancounterpart the

an allan peration peration colonies.among the

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in Saratov,in - Russian elites. elites. Russian 50

In the

civi While the While gruent two c CEU eTD Collection 66.European University 2003), Press, Research began settlements decay.Germans to steppe, the ofthe Indeed, ofnon been that had historicallypeoples “dominant” “privileged,”and considered such as the gradual adoptionWith ofRussian the nationalist policies, status the ofthe categorie adverselyBelorussians were that in by ofRussian nationalism affected rise the the empire. R national thethe movements in borderlands, western an both Ukrain that the danger ofUkrainian the nationalism, as it was authorities widely among believed imperial the to EmancipationFor prior St. Edict, Petersburg example, was overly about not worried behind thedecades West grasping in t Russian As Empire. suggests,the Alexei Miller Russian autocracy several “the least was at imperial regime’sthe inability the various movements national fully to within comprehend Polishagainst nobility. the PolishIndeed, uprising the to Polish uprising part the in of1863 liberator. many non empire’s ofthe remembered as theis often great reformer ofthe national liberator serfs,and the history of Russia multi Alexander II,son, a 1855signified in as opposed to nationalism a ussification ussification ef - ethnic one to to one ethnic Russocentrica empire. greatly shift This the settler affected , bot 53 52 51 Polish Uprising ofthe As tsarist result attempted a of1863,the authorities suppress to reappraisalnationalitiesThe ofthe questionAlexander II during reign of the was due (Budapest: Central (Budapest:

52 AlexeiMiller, Kappeler,171 Alexei

h Slavic Orthodox and foreign settlers such as theh Slavicforeign Orthodoxand Germans. settlers Alexander II Though

forts Miller, Miller,

ian ian Belorussianand languages ofRussian. merely were dialects .

- The UkrainianRussianQuestion:19 The the Nationalismin 172. The Romanov Empire and Nationalism: Romanov and TheEmpireMethodologyHistorical Essays the of in

It was not only the national movementsIt of was only national not Poles, Ukrainians, the the and European University 2008 European Press,

- Russian oppressor peoples as an tsar rather portray the more more ex

clusive nationalism. ethnic , which initiated a systematic initiateda , which R he importance ofnationalistic importance political principles.”he transformation 26

in in Russian from Empire the that ofa 146. d significantly their increase

of 1863 was yet of of 1863wasinstance another

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Century - Russians began to be be to Russians began

(Budapest:Central s of S than a s of

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CEU eTD Collection of Germany antian formation the and assimilated Germans. and naturalized urban was interpreteddirect abroad as a tothreat loyalty the ofRu adoption ofa German Empire’s citizenship policy onethnicity based included German whohistorically nobles had as conservative loyal held and been The subjects. traditionalthus Empire, questioning the loyalty ofRussian would eventuallymovement the German mobilize Russian Empire. theown consolidate agendaSlavs to into empire singlea the ofthe nation under it Empire, motivatedthe the Russian imperialnationalists and authorities to theirameliorate empires. the German center between colonies the and relations along deteriorated the with of two the was augmented bythreat of unification Germany the relationsPrussia 1871,and in by the imperialareas, c “German Question.”the ofSouthern byenough German 1870s, Russia subject population became that the of the the the to perceptioncontributed ofGerman colonists as as wellperceived as theasEmpire well imperial administration, became German increasingly colonies Little Russia anti popular betweenof relations the imperial and Germancenter was colonists accompanied the by strikingly in perceived negativeEdict. following Emancipation terms the 56 55 54 general the to In shift policyin addition St. Petersburg non towards of the Alexei Miller, Lohr, 93. Lohr, Sunderland,189. Not only official increase this popular did and anti - German sentiments, many been had apparent which of prior to this period. this to Inprior pop eyes the the ofboth 55

- off, and were associated were off, and aggressive with land

It among that wasbelief widely the authorities a held Pan

enter’s of perception the German The Romanov Romanov and TheEmpire

- Russian coalition of powers, coalition central Russian European the N 56 ationalism,

27 Indeed, as a result of the Unification ofthe of Indeed, result as a

- speaking inhabitants of the Russianspeaking ofthe inhabitants

a “threat,”becamea and problematic communities 22.

- Germans, specifi ssian - ular imagination of the Russian German throughout sentiment - buying techniques. techniques. This buying - Germans, long even the to

in Southern Russia as a Russia Southern as a in in Southernin Russia and

The deterioration cally Baltic the - German Volksdeutsche

guise ofthe - Russian Russian - CEU eTD Collection Germans. of instrument integration though sense contributed of also the it to alienation among the compulsoryextended the to German military settlers,fu service which despite revocationplace the ofthe special 1871, in status Russian societyinto guaranteed privileged.their many by revoking of ofGerman settlersperception as disloyalthe author subjects, implementation ofloyaltythe and imperial tsar dynasty. the the to necessarily to attempt instill cultural an AlexeAs Russian G t and education, the Russianbodies. became official language settlements as well language ofthe as the of revoked, settlers were the of abolishment self includingthe their administrativepolitical, and spheres. T authorities ultimateimperial was the amalgamation offoreign peasants settlers and in social, fromimmigration German territorial states intention Russia Southern ceased. The to ofthe Russian throughout the communities Empire. theformally and authority bureaucratic was abolished, augmented state the in German ofthe their R thus enacted on multiple separated dynastylevels, the them as equivalentviewed categories of German Baltic noblesLittlethe Southern in and German Russia settlers and Russia were Germansfactor Baltic a geopolitical became the in 59 58 57 preThough ofthe aspects numerous legalIn offoreign status special 1871,the Southern in (German) Russia settlers was

i Miller Miller goali explains, ofR the Kappeler Miller, 26. Long, ermans were now subject to the to now were subject ermans R

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265. ussific

ation policyation accordingly.

- he he majority preexisting privilegesguaranteed ofthe to ussification, especially w borderlands, the in linguistic predominance, but linguistic but predominance, rather the wasintention - ussification ofthe ussification efforts imperial authorities. reform societyreform settlements in ofthe remained 57 28

, 54. , For al

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l intents purposes,l and new

59 Southern Russia due RussiaSouthern due theto

the Mili the ities attempted to them integrate - administrative governing 58 tary of1874 Reforms

With the newfoundWith the rther servedrther as an

peoples and as not as not CEU eTD Collection 19. 1986), Press, ofGermanof Russianprovinces subjects origin certain western in the borderlands. in with Slavic peasantry,comparison the a l enacted polity. the in acresthe24 million within Russian Empire, was ofwhich much fertile most among land the bylandholdings wealth and ofthe turn century.By the 191 GermansGermans, Rus throughout and the as possible wealth ensure to amongprevalent these communities provided incentives for of following death their parents. the as their practices well sons ofinheritance,which that would ensured all receive compensation from the affluencebenefitted economic in their region, to due the agricultura produced products,grainshipping other and and century, of by ofthe turn Saratov the province black region’sclosely the to earth production and processing tied agricultural the growto continued 1860s 187 and ofthe following reforms the the Russian Empire between Germanand s status special settlers’ signified the ofthe abandonment century the observers ofexemptionannulment alike, military from the and revocation service ofthe States,United Brazil, Argentina, and especially amo emigration ofat the least 50,000Russian Germans and Ukrainian abroad, mainly the to exemption mandatoryguaranteed from 1874Military the military service, triggered Reforms 63 62 61 60 wealth Germanic the Nonetheless, ofthe communities Volga along the River

Ibid. 90. Lohr, DonaldRaleigh,J. Sunderland,188. more flourmore than any territory other 63 , 89. ,

The imperial authorities,The alarmed byvast ofGermans wealth in the

Revolution on the1917on Volga: Revolution Saratov in

that youngerthe newland. sons purchase could

The systemThe primogeniture that ofinheritance was ettlers. sian Empire, vastaccrued Empire, sian

in the empire. the in 29

aw in 1892thataw in limited land acquisitions the

ng Mennonites. 61 4, German agriculturalists4, owned

families to to families accumula (Ithaca& London:Cornell University Germans, in particular, Germans, particular, in 0s. The region’s0s. The economy was - old special relationship special old 60

amounts of amounts For andsettlers 62 l efficiencyl as

The VolgaThe

te te as much and and CEU eTD Collection 2009): Relocation Forced WorldofWar RussianGermans duringI,” levelssignificant ofsuchactivity region,from of brief steppe aside a period the large in was little revolutionarylarge, there German there settlers, activity norwere among the of German u century ofthe turn German identification. possess not national did salient a linguisticall reasons, primarily because contemporaryAmericans. German same dis the retained have authors some gone the argue Volga so as to of that far turn Germans the the at century that enabled maintenance each individual particularisms.community their retain to Indeed, Volgaalong the generally remained generallyProtestants people faith ofthe same married religion. amongGermans Volga traditionally b had been livesentire contact Germany. without with forms predominant Indeed, the ofidentification By ofthe majority 18 original 1905,the ofdescendants 1.3: 1914. until increased this Despite scrutiny, along wealth ofsettlers Volga the increase the to continued

The VolgaG 592. 66 65 64 T 64

he 1905 Revolution and subsequent 1905Revolutionand he October Manifesto Ibid. CynthiaM. Mukhina,7.

Roman CatholicsLithuanians,Roman with generally Poles and though intermarried y formore than century,a that said the assimilated be Volga the can at Germans it nions and clubs in all major in clubs nions and German centers

ermans Revolutions and the Vakareliyska,

interested attitudeinterested towardsGerman affairs that is among apparent

Americans of German descent have been haveAmericans ofGerman been descent culturally, socially, and

“Due Process in“DueImperial Wartime?Process FilesSecret the RussianPoliceson 66

closed boundary contributing outsiders, to the to Though this claim is highly claim this Though va dubious fora 30 ased

NationalitiesPapers

on regionalism

and nationality and th

century lived their had colonists throughout the throughout the Empire , however, , point oforigin, and . Vol. 37, No. 5 (SeptemberNo. Vol.37, 65

The German villagesThe

led led the to creation . By and riety of riety - scale scale CEU eTD Collection CanadianToronto: ofUkrainianInstitute 199 Press, Studies HistoricalPerspectivein UkrainianRelations and undertakingsconfiscated, commercial to “subject were compulsory if they alienation of the enactment “ c category,Germans Jews, and such as categorization of the to “enemy aliens loyalty wa their loyaltydeclared the German in waragainst tsar Empire, the towards the Germans Germans Russian Though Empire. Baltic ofthe and the German settlersthe Dumas. second and first conservative loyal thus and siding tsar, the parties to center and moderate with mainly the in “Germanness.” Little RussiaSouthern and Russia held singulara ofid form nationalprimarily that the movement fact presumption held that the the German settlers in group.national attempted to movement variousamalgamate the German communities Baltic stronga intelligentsia, villages towns German significant and with populations. large concentrationswith ofGreat Slavs, Russians other no and were and Saratov 1905in strongest movements in peasant generally province in were regions located movementspeasant among “Little Russians” 1905 in ombat ombat are 71 70 69 68 67 outbreak ofth The

Kappeler, Ibid.,25 FleischhauerPinkus,and24. Raleigh, AndreasKappeler,1914,”“Ukrainiansin in Ukraine,Germans1870sto and Southern s questioned, and Russians LittleGerman and and s Russiansdescent became questioned, of subject as , and became disenfranchised became , and through property expropriations 69 70 -

Revolution on theon Volga Revolution 26. Moreover, majority politically the Germans Russian were Empire the in of This attempt, however, attempt, endeddueThis failure number in a offactors, to The Russian Empire:RussianTheA MultiethnicHistory, liquidation 500,000 laws,” ofGerman hectares landholdings were

e First increasinglye an World Warsituationforthe created difficult - German Russian representatives ofthe

, 29. , were forcib . ” ed. Hans ed.

Individuals in the borderlands Individuals ascribed the to in this 31 - Joachim Torke & JohnJoachimTorke

ly the from deported 4), 59. 4), - 1906.

348. 68

Though Russian 67 entification ontheir based

Indeed, the most violent most Indeed, the and - Paul Himka (Edmonton & Paul (Edmonton Himka - German national regions the near into a homogeneous a into t apparent apparent t the in . With the - Germans lacked Germans lacked 71

their hitherto hitherto their German - CEU eTD Collection widespread become former throughouthad Russian the Empire. Revolution, however, sought newregime the t end an put to devastating Germans Soviet forthe ofthe Union. privileged perceived and status dynasty loyalty imperial the towards be to would prove would against (which enemies class national take ona later dimension Government. Provisional Little Russiaunconditionalof Southern and Russia support granted almost towards the German settlers’time, the loyalty disappeared. all but had tsar In the to ge ofGerman have physicallyto descent been were attacked deemed were be to that German Inameliorated. destroyed Mayand Moscow businesses rioted, and of1915,workers firms in holdingsindustrial through expropriation. itGermans; process began rather the and German ofnationalizing land commercial a First authoritiesimperial during the Wo wer e not working not owners’ warindustry,e blocked.” accounts were the forthe (and) 75 74 73 72 February The brought majority the Revolution an by to and such measures end, of this

Ibid Vakareliyska,595. 7. Lohr, FleischhauerPinkus,and27. . , 28. ,

With the BolshevikWith the ensuing the Revolutionand campaigns

- owned. An estimated 700individuals whomAn owned. estimated

rld War no longer attempted to R to Warrld nolonger attempted 73

Anti 32

German sentiments throughout the Empire In the immediate Inaftermath immediate ofthe October the

during incident this o the anti

- German that sentiment ), the traditional ussify individual neral, the the Germansneral, . 74 were believed

nd The CEU eTD Collection withNationalism, 1840s 22.(Cambridge: Harvard1997), University Press, national ofthe powerbehind aware sentiment Russian the in former as manyEmpire, non to advancement.dedication promotionits and Bolshevik The however, regime, was fully and stre nationalism the nationalisteasily sentiment, thus replace amongwidely capitalist states in belief that socialists socialist held internationalism would ofcapitalism that product fa a imposed society. population mobilizeto the strataamong of upper the and both lower givena national strength the acknowledge multiple institutions of ofthe conflict. nationalismability with withoutinternationalism replace experiencing to any national major states wherecapitalist nationalist sentiment they lingered, conf had industrializedcapitalist socieand (internationalism). socialism Their writings would rise socialism in presupposed that had within pettyisolation capitalism (the ofnationalism nation rise and states); only had philosophers predicted m in writings,nationalism their was be socialism would first believed as it incepted that the in Marx Engelscomposition. leftand very had guidance mattersin ofnationality little and territormaintaining the Revolution,theFollowing Bolshevik October the difficult faced of regime the task 2 Chapter ore economicallyore particularly ofWestern Europe, states advanced Germany. 77 76 Though Engels powerofnationalism, Marx and underestimated theythe did 77 76

Michal Kasprzak, “To RejectMichal Reject“To notKasprzak,Nationalism: or to andMarxDebatingStruggles Engels’ RichardPipes,

Despite this acknowledgement, this Despite nationalism was deemed bourgeoisa and concept : The Bolsheviks :the The and National Question

- 1880s,” The FormThe ial integrity Russian as Empire well former as its ofthe polyethnic ngth ofindividuals’ Nationalities

ation of theUnion: 1917 of SovietCommunismNationalism, ation and three stages development: ofhuman Feudalism (ethnic ties that alreadyhad as formulated

lse lse consciousness onsociety.was a Consequently, it Papers, underestimating compelling the powerof

ultimate loyalty nation ultimate particular a and to 33 Vol. 40, No.4 (JulyVol.40, 586. 2012):

nation - states, includingstates, their potential idence in socialism’s in idence

nation

- - states, andstates, in states); states); a These These - 1923, nd - CEU eTD Collection “self writing that proposedthat territorialStalin autonomy for protection the ofnationalwas crucial r over typea ofnational Austrian Democrats the opposed to Social his writings. rightovertly forthe self to ofnations call ofa through creation minority the did system.Though at point this Stalin education not equalitycivic autonomy, regional broad and as “Marxism essay and National for Stalinthe called entitled Question.” of the establishment nationalitiesLenin and the question, StalinpresentBolshevik to the commissioned an in plan Russian political all time, other this parties definite progra adopted had that be would later question implemented following party’s ofpower.By the consolidation what theycontrol process inevitable saw ofdecoloniza as the nationalism, and peripheral their nationalitiesthus enacted policiesaccordingly to order in of October Revolution, the time Bolshevikthe of power aware was regime the well of Bolshevikinternationalist party variety fora 1917.T ofreasonsupto leading political entered first supportactivism to order movements, in national joined the and Pole with Bolshevik ofthetwo echelon partythirds upper of elite, composed Ukrainians,Jews, movements. Indeed, Russiansnational ethnic substantial a were minority the within Russian Bolshevik s, Latvians,s,Armenians, Georgians, and others. their own cultural matters own separation cultural regardlesstheir and ofspatial irrespective ofterritory, 79 78 BolshevikAs the party early as 1912,however, policy a nationalities adopted onthe

Pipes,38. Riga,649. 79

For Stalin - -

determination determination with rights,endows nation complete a w

cultural autonomy thatcultural each nationality entailed which control would have

cadres had previously been national previouslynational had been activists respectivecadres their in peripheral

, the principle ofnational principle rights , the wasimportance. ofparamount As

- determination, the principal the wasdetermination, implied through , led by, led Bauer, Otto Karl and Renner 34 well as the protection of protection as the minoritywell languages

The majorityThe non ofthese tion.

ms for the solution ms forthe to hereas national national hereas herefore, by the

who proposed - Russians had had Russians ights, CEU eTD Collection 53 1975), Russian former of the Empire. koren the socialiststruggle promote to agenda. naturally Bolsheviks provide turn their wouldthe in in allies which class emerge, with s granting national nationalismBolsheviks was that thus held “maskinga ideology,” was by believed it and that separatist everyand to movement the in nationalist borderlands. freedom ofsubjugated peoples.the T equated opposition oppressionprinciple the ofanyto favored therefore type and ofnational Lenin Thoughdetermination. on did self expand Stalin not notion, and this LeninRevolution, however, Bolsheviks the and a held promotion of the capitalism, and nationality the Prior to end. an to was means thus a Lenin, believe to 1913. continued would disappear however, nationalism that with Lenin until notionprincipal how make the c to determined of self autonomy rights.” cultural with only endows it izatsiia - determination his essay,in determination Bolshevik officially not did the the party line condone 81 80

Martin, JosephStalin,

utilized national self The Affirmative The Action Empire, elf

- Marxism and the National the and Marxism determination, classdetermination, national divisions society each within would

- determination in order in addressdetermination to nationalities the question his policy thus inadvertentlygranted endorsement line 81

4 Consequently, policy nationalities Soviet the of - - ColonialQuestion 5. 35

Indeed, though Stalin promoted Indeed, though promoted the Stalin notion very of self definition ambiguous ongruent with ideology Marxist in (SanFrancisco:Proletarian Publishers,

As suggests, Martin the - determination in in determination - CEU eTD Collection the Until implement that the religion, and two formsnational mostlythe elites generally were overlapped, clergy. traditionallythe forms ofidentification predominant amongGermans Volga locality were and level, local and region an as lacked the intelli ofVolgaissues government German lack was Bolsheviksthe the posts fill onthe to regional incrementally more throughout successful prominent most 1920s. became Oneofthe the was initiallyGerman Republic by obstructed numero territory. implementation of The language ofnational each territorial unit, the within cadresand promotion govern to the ephemeral oftheexistence Volga Republic. perspectiveASSR the increasingly from produced positive ofMoscow the results throughout that despitedemonstrate numero the argued that Marxist Volgamethodically a mold Germansought to national suggests, as Mukhina expression,” modern nation emulate territoryeach simultaneouslywhile creating national Soviet systematically regime consciousness national titular the nation ofthe promoted within nationalitiesGermans omissionofthe is the policy of significant most ofthe faultsPerhaps one historiographies national of the o 3 Chapter 83 82 integralThe aspect of - Leninist authors, ideology. some While notablyPinkus, most Fleischhauer and have

Fleischhaueran Mukhina,31. : : Korenizatsiia korenizatsiia korenizatsiia

ation of direct ation ofdirect in Volgaimperial 1870s, rule the the Germans had mostly

d Pinkus,35 d - states. Insteadstates. ofmerely forcultural room allowing “some project in the largely Volga Republic failed, korenizatsiia

and the Volgathe Germanand ASSR us setbacks in the 1920s, the us 1920s, setbacks the the in - korenizatsiia 37. 82

this chapter will demonstrate Bolsheviks that chapter this the

was of the m promotion the

gentsia with revolutionary given Indeed, roots. 36

and the policies the and associatedwith it thein Volga

us factors, thoughus policy factors, the territorial units meant that were to korenizatsiia. korenizatsiia. identification that was congruent with korenizatsiia

Through policy, this the ajority and culture 83

f the Volga project project in the this section will sectionthis will CEU eTD Collection Revol own receive nationalto Lower their territorial unit 1918,the in Volga region, Socialist as a following Volga Volgasubstantial the the While Germans in Republic. first among were the theGermans from originate who not did Volga region. upper oftheexistence Volga prisoners German former manywere Republic ofwar,and the of The majority unit. Executive Central Committee C ofthe little with nofamiliarityto o Bolshevism, to war whoconverted had Volga notably most the Commission Reuter, Ernst the to Volgaconnection region. headed bycommission, Karl establishe Austrian asGerman former and pr well leaders ofthe werenational Volga Germans ethnic Moscow Republic from Petrograd and as territory 1920s. throughout the Bolsheviks the more loyal much a held following Russians among and the in Ukrainians a Germansmajority reached P ofCommunist traditional their lifestyles with conflicted Soviet ideology.Indeed, generalGermans asattachment their property, as well private to elements internal of basic the wholoyalFurthermore, were cadres socialism. to given levels ofpiety the Volga among Consequently,Anabaptist churches. Bolsheviks the initiallynationa recruit were to unable been unofficially - utionary witnessed stronghold, (SR) level leadership positions 1920s throughoutsimilarly leadership level were the by ethnic filled 85 84 woulIndeed, it Consequently, act the

Mukhina,30. FleischhauerPinkus,and43. d Volgathe Soviet address Commission to “German order Question.”in the The governed by the ecclesiastical Lutheran,governed oftheauthorities by ecclesiastical Catholic, the and

d not be until the be d not followingthat decade Bolshevismgain a would f the region was f the

ors behind theors behind Petin, was comprised mostly was comprised Petin, little Germans ofMuscovite with

84 85

With the With ofvarious the aid German Austrian and prisoners of isoners ofwar. wide korenizatsiia

able to to establishable arty members in their own autonomousarty their republic; in members 37 -

spread spread

InFebruaryBolsheviks of1918,the peasant dissent dissent the peasant in ear

project as wellproject as the majority ofthe hairmen throughouthairmen

the Volgathe German territorial

it was not until 1933 was until not that it the short ly 1920s - lived . l

CEU eTD Collection 1992):510. (October 88 University ofPittsburgh2001), Press, DimensionsSovietProvincialLocal of Power, Landscapes: 1917 the knowingly regime that it develop.to allowed happen. environment climate and therefore and the Bolsheviks willingl the especially region the wasthe to that famine due devastated the ofthe lands former Russian Empi kind. in pay tax a ofthe result introduct as a trans threat. April, Army te Red however, the entered forces the them from Greenhide Bands, districts generally German the rebels. By the roseupwith cases numerous were Germans ofVolga the to providing Bolsheviks local shelter and aid to ofthe leftist SRmuch programforthe peas provided framework a presence the without ofmonarchists, were officially not with SR party,the affiliated though Bolshevism attempt restore Constituent Assembly an to in the parliamentary a and system the movement of1921. joined March in The Greens, th who eradicate sought to beginning of1920,and Volga large summer a ofthe the German in portion Commune had peasantregion. bands disaffected Indeed, the the in of“Greens” territory active were famine the situation, and that ravaged the wholesale discontentcountryside caused i War forced of Communism’s acquisition peasantry, grain the from worsening the economic

the faminethe the in Volga unit was German territorial - Volga regions throughout the early regionsVolga the throughout was though greatly 1920s, such discontent reduced 86 87 86 introduction NEP, much the ofthe Prior to hostility ofthis Bolsheviks towards the in 87

Nevertheless, popular Nevertheless, popular anti JamesW.“TheLong,Germans Volgaand Faminethe of 1921,” DonaldRaleigh, J. “APopular Kronstadt: in ProvincialatUnrest EndCivil of Saratov thethe War.”

the trans the Though politics undoubtedly contributed undoubtedly Though the to politics oftheextent contributed it famine, is doubtful

- Volga region.Volga S

ion of the New ofthe ion Policy Economic

- 91. - Soviet among sentiment nationalities all persisted the in ome authors, most notably James Long notably most authors, ome James

38 rritory, rebel quicklythe and eliminated

As suggests, Raleigh is more Donald it - 1953. 1953. largely

(NEP) Ed. DonaldEd. Raleigh,J. y to famine the allowed The Russian Review,RussianThe due to politics as opp politics to due , which allowed peasants to allowed , which ant While rebellion. there , have argued that argued that , have

(Pittsburgh: e areaof e Vol.51 n the n the osed to osed to re, and and re, CEU eTD Collection seen be byas can and prodigiousland wealth their levels of Germans more Volga much ofthe were the in Volga,apparent lower was this lack not of a to due divisions.estate include Crimea,projects Tatarstan, Chuvashia. and isdivisions, weakconflict ethnic popular v and givenintelligentsia… conflict minimal over possession land noinvidious and historic estate has, in and developed comparison other to regions, Soviet well eastern a Volga the in German asVariant,” “The Republic Tatar Nevertheless,dimension. erroneously Martin type the to refers of wasthis onpolitical ideologies, based did and not overt therefore an contain national period. generally that theme ofemigration;would continue a form the interwarthroughout took the Germans feelingthe increased among ofdiscontent many trans the in by dropped Commune 150,000. perhaps was b triggered ofthe of1921 result famine a Nevertheless, hasfamine. it estimated perhaps been Germans 48,000Volga that perished as requisitioning was thro applied that Long’scontrary suggestions; to not did regime “bungle” the treatment its Volga handling ofthe and Germans particular, in that therealistic Bolsheviks w local the ignored

91 90 89 88 was Though in certainlyLowerviolence there the

. Martin, Raleigh,“AKronstadtl”, 100. Provincial “TheLong, GermansVolgaand Famine,”the5 Raleigh,98. “AKronstadt,” Provincial

Though a number of Germans joined the the ofGermansThough“Green” number peasant joined rebels, a recalcitrance y offoodin countryside, Volgathe lack ofthe population German the the The Affirmative The Action Empire,

1922 89

rather it was Warrather policy Communism’s grain offorced . In addition to . In addition ughout polity the the to ofextent contributed the that

90 affluent thanaffluent their Ukrainian Russianneighbors, and

57. The policies that policies led the to The of extent famine the

39 iolent conflict conflict entirelyiolent absent.” arnings impending ofthe famine.

11.

the largethe

Though such ethnic conflict was conflict Though not such ethnic in which “the reg which in - Volga region in the early regionVolga the in 19 - - - ownership on the eve ofownership onthe the Volga region, not only the region,Volga only not the scale emigration emigration that movement scale

korenizatsiia - ion is relativelyion well developed developed national Rather, the Rather, 91

implemented implemented 88 Similar

Indeed, Indeed, 20s, 20s, - CEU eTD Collection 1927). (Pokrovsk, 1927). (Pokrovsk, Nizhney Volgi, languag one veryanother,between and Highthe that became German fewspoke dialect the official they republic, autonomous variety wide spoke a were at that ofdialects times unintelligible the within territor policy the with of Russians with UkrainiansVolga and being minorities. significant Republic, lower the significantly had fact that historicallythere the to amounts scant been wa republic autonomous Kazakhs,was home Mordvins, and among others. Tatars, communities. these ethniclived compact in e was 30official republic home more also to autonomous nationalities, than manywhom of 1920s.throughout ThoughGermans the Volgamajority a the were region, the the in was comparatively a proc peaceful with whic intelligentsia, Revolution.

the case ofthethe Volga Germans, 96 95 94 93 92 According Soviet the to Though criteria behind definitive Variant” many “The Tatar incongruent ofthe are e. Consequently, the Soviet Consequently, the the implemented e. regime usage ofHighGerman the in

Predvaritel'n SoyuzaSovetski Atlas Sozialisticheskii Izanie Republik CikUSSR “Predvaritel'nyeitogipo ASSRPerepisiVsesojuznoj goda Nemcev 1926 Naseleniya Povolzh'ya”, A.Tazhurizin, 89. Lohr, Volga region, continued which during socialist era. the 92 (Stalingrad:NizhnevolzhskoeKraevoeGosudars

Similarly, o

y korenizatsiia . Though German speakers made upa German made speakers . Though h was absent in case of the 93 ye itogiyepo ASSRVsesoyuznojperepisinaseleniya goda Nemcev 1926 Povolzh'ya,

Ocherki o Hozyaystvennom i Kul'turnom Stroitel'stve v Nacional'nyh Rayonah OcherkiKul'turnomStroitel'stveRayonah Nacional'nyhHozyaystvennom v i o Indeed, aside from Germans, Russians, Germans, Ukrainians, from and Indeed, the aside territory s 87.2%rural, nc ne of the cr ofthe ne laves only with groups co small oftheir

census of 1926, Germans comprisedcensus of1926,Germans German was made the official the German was made language ofadministration ess, and region little witnessed no the to conflict ethnic

it can be said that can said be it iteria iteria variant of this 95

the multi the

40 the Volgathe Germans.

- national character of national region contributed the tvennoe Iizdatel'stvo, 1934),Iizdatel'stvo, 17 tvennoe korenizatsiia 94

majority ofthe ofinhabitants

is a wellis a

As the population of Asthe population the , (Moscow, 1928), 45 ,(Moscow,1928),

- -

established national established ethnics

in thein Volga Republic 66.4% (379,630)ofthe of ethnic violenceof ethnic in

96 living outside living outside

Consistent Consistent - 18. - 46.

CEU eTD Collection warthe 9. Publishing,2008), Weg as well republic, as largerautonomous Soviet trends whole. the Union as a in served pu the mid dailythe were and shut d readership, Revolution, the to theyprior generally not were did and have a religious publications wide Though smalldialect. number a German 11mainthe newspapers in published Vol homogeneous vessela national promote to Consequently, cultures. Sovietsinitially the of print standardized each language aspect of was integral an ofnationalestablishment language the schools as well possibilitythe effect and cognitive ofcultural storage centralization.” and as of “literacy, reasonablya standardized establishment and script, the means in permanent suggests, printestablishing standardized within culture national region. each Soviet the east, Sovietas in the leaders attempted nationalize to the byterritorial units ofidentification. form Though processwas this nearly Volga not the in Republic dr as Soviet the regimenationalities, utilized languagegroup to into order common in peoples a been that place had in boundaries since the settlersarrived first 18 the in cultural educational and an spheres in attempt eradicate to regional the peculiarities and - 1930s, which focused primarily on ideological and political and primarily1930s, focused which issues. Such publications onideological to to

againstPoland and 100 99 98 97 goalsAs ofthe of one Der Kollektivist Der Kollektivist

Nachrichten, FleischhauerPinkus,and55. Gellner, Ernest Hirsch,174.

common language primary ofthe common is one th unifyingin bonds Fo rexample, rpose of both exposingrpose ofboth population secular developments the the to the in

Nachrichten

Nations and Nationalism: SecondNationalism: Nations and Edition published an an Union published and ofregional even mix the Civilthe War. and and own 1918. in Die Rote Sturmfahne,

korenizatsiia on

September 22, 1920extensivelySeptember reports 22, issues,regionalasonwell as 99 - ga standardized a all in Republic, HighGerman language newspapers circulated in the in language Volga newspapers circulated region

The VolgaThe German newspapers, headed by Soviet was the of amalgamation peoples into 41

among others, all with among a all others, circulation of dissemination ofpublications a in (IthacaBlackwell& York: New

korenizatsiia 97 -

wide material wide the until Indeed, e formation of formation e nation a th 98 centur

and functionedand as

The The 100 as Gellner as

y. From

astic astic Stalins Stalins - , CEU eTD Collection Question, National 5 1936), WirtschaftlichenWolgadeutschen,”Kulturellen der und AufbauASSR der (DetuscherStaatsverlag: Engels, 38 (Stalingrad,1934), through standardizededucation a curriculum was guarantee Sovietto meant that the literate cate education colonists’ factcontributed the to Russian Germans that the among were most the liturgical text theamong in region, Protestants national titular a culture an in productions attempt forgeto Volga a German region. identity the in 1920s, the in the Bolsheviksthat promotion ofGerman the the Culture in Volga allowed merely Republic Germans.Volga victimhood Volga Contrary the ofthe to narratives Germansinsinuate that various and German exhibiti Culture networks.broadcast capital city the in theofradio and of52cinemas, ofEngels,construction creation the bywas ofGerman furthered publication the language. society. identification, of national and integrateto national the categorization i attempt unify an to in both culturally Volga the Germans singular heterogeneous a form into 3 ,000 to 5,000 per issues, 5,000per ,000 to

107 106 105 104 103 102 101 Similarly, played pivotalrole both a in promotion education language of native the the distinctly ofa Such promotion German throughculture national standardized a dialect 102 Vakareliyska 103 Ibid. BeschlussdesUnionPrasidiums“Ueber Zentralvollskomitees der SSR, des den der Sowjet: Hirsch,14. NizhnevolzhskiyKrayplan Natsional’naia1930), politika278 VKP(b)(Moscow, Mukhina,31.

By 1936, of the 29 newspapers published in theBy in ASSR, 29newspapers published 1936,ofthe Germanwere 21 gories in Russian ofpeoples the Empire.

105

the Sov the

157. 1.

104

592.

iet regime actively regime funded and iet cultural publications and promoted Similarly, promoted the party Museum creation leaders ofthe local of s well as promoting Marxist

101

the regime promoted regime the publication native the

Krayunhu ons that demonstrated the achievementscultural ofthe , Statisticheskij Spravochnik, Nizhney1929 Volgi. - language bo language 42 106

the ecclesiasticalthe ofthe base Volga - 107 LeninistGerman ideology. As was the

- 279 in279 Smith, The utilizationThe ofnational language oks, the creation of a national ofa theater creation oks, the The Bolsheviksthe The and nto nto Sovietthe and state - language newspapers

- - 1933 gg. 1933

CEU eTD Collection oftotal preexisting order the andmobilization imperial adopted authorities’ management population management through the warmobilization, Bolshev oftheWorld ofefforts amelioration European War powers engage an to brought onbehalf in use by in put been imperial 19 authorities the ofthe end at usagethe ofmanaging categorizing and into population collectivities the that had in transform state to resources.themorder into knowledge, off convertattempting “peoples” to “populations” into through use ofstatistics and the scientific conditions and populations’ theenhance health well and gainsought knowledge of to preceding the in throughout Europe century, management polity’s a ofpopulation usage givenattention point “population” as a ofpolicy. the to predominant a Having tool become oftheAn social an component integral 3.2: German attended pupils 1926, ofGerman number foreducation 1918wasin when earmarked Russia was by devastated hunger. warand high agenda be fortheto onthe Bolsheviks, state total budget as 8.5%ofthe for RSFSR strong would developnationalities into politicalforces. and Indeed, unified education prov Population CategorizationsSocial and in the Management 1920s 109 111 110 109 108

and at the pinnacle at and ofeducational

Holquist, 113. Holquist, Smith,“Education,”302. FleischhauerPinkus,and54. Ibid.,283. icials held that iticials held was control and to possible manipulate social processes in

- language grew Volga 236in the schools from in Republic

- language schools. the inhabitants territorythe ofa augment to attempt the an in

d political structure of Sovietthe Union was the 110 korenizatsiia 111

Upon taking power, the Bolsheviks continued BolsheviksUpon taking power,the continued

- in 1927,98.2%ofall Volgain German being of the socialbeing body. ofthe By th iks merely inherited theiks inherited merely century.FirstIndeed, as the

1919 to 396in itially 108

The The ed ed CEU eTD Collection &London: Row,Harper Francisco,25. 1973), 129. 2001), Stalin, and Lenin ImperialinPoliticsRussia” Late InSoviet and denote term to umbrella deviance,criminal andaction but political represent soon to came Civil War in and removedsuch be social “elements” needed realm. to the from courseThroughout the ofthe bymeasures population into nationality social categorizing the and classes that event the in Solzhenitsyn as “socia to referred societyremake image. regime’s idealized the in social body the Socialist promote the both ofthe to health order system in as as well to realm to social led the enactment ofpolicies desi perceptionprevalent of“elements”that served within “parasites” the as malignant larger health societal ofthe preservation ofthe body polity. the Soviet throughout The regime’s NKVD’s predecessor). Extraordinary Counterrevolution Sabotage and Combat to Commission ambiguous of and categorization “enemy people,” shortly establishedof the and the thereafter perspective.political themselves, unto insteadexist were but members ofcollectivities onclass, based nation, and transformation int their thenecessary inhabitants Russian Empire ofthe formulate to former an in attempt to facilitate in implied similar whom were a supplycapacity to by authorities, tsarist the information the employed regime so, the ethnographers, statistici became turn in onetechniques, which ofthe ofthe newsocial cornerstones order. 115 114 113 112 Bolsheviks’The population in engagement politicsfacilitat

Peter Holquist, “TPeter Weitz,54. Ibid.,123. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn,Aleksandr I. Ed. RonaldEd. Suny MartinGrigor Terryand & (Oxford Ne to the the to mid

113

o loyal citizens.Bolsheviks Soviet The individuals that not did held

Within weeksWithin oftaking the introduced regime arbitrary power,the o Count, o andExterminate:PopulationExtract, to to StatisticsPopulationand - 1920s, the regime increasingly regime 1920s, the term “banditism” usedas the an

The Gulag Archipelago: 1918 Archipelago: Gulag The l prophylaxis,”l

A StateNations:Nation of and A Empire 44 114

115 gned forces remove such to detrimental from ans, and otherans, and social scientists, many of

Through Alexander process ofwhat the the regime sought regime the take preventative to - 1956 w York: OxfordUniversity York: Press,w (New York,San(New Evanston, ed whated they saw as the — - Making in of the Making Age the the Cheka 112

(the (the In doing CEU eTD Collection History,Modern Journal of difference between material three peasantthe classes prodigious negligible, was the often the be epicenterto deemed ofanti oftheir rest families.the in offamilies.terms defined Allyoung relatives, same ascribed statusthe were old, and as not did Such categorizations merely individ to apply large families,had ordisagreedlocal with regardlesspolitical actors, actual oftheir wealth. was often example, attached individual to simplypeasants they clothes or because worenice positions of as those social indiv as well the arbitrarilywere basic former ofcurrent indicators and onthe professions based ascribed and bourgeois or ( Russia’s. the in system, which final analysis, did old ofthe abolition stigmatized who the and wouldallies be class The reclassing enemies. the ofsociety required forsocietythought crucial order it in de “reclassed” to be to emigration ofprescale the an seredniak y

Bolshevik agenda. antisocial phenomenon, was which generally antisocial anyoneto tantamount to who was inimical 120 119 118 117 116 theory Marxist While that society insinuated the with “classed,” and large was be to 117

Sheila“AscribingFitzpatrick, TheClass:Constructionof So 130. Holquist, Naimark,58. Viola,18. Ibid.,756. ), and wealthy), and (

Nevertheless, the peasantryNevertheless, three strata: the divided into was poor( proletariat. There were no There were criteriacodified forsuch proletariat. ascriptions;class categories

soslovie soslovie

116 - Vol.No.4 751. (December65, 1993): revolutionary bourgeoisie 120

kulak

To the Bolsheviks, the To of echelon upper peasantry the was social structure Marxian exchange in socioeconomic more fora

), and urbangenerally), and were inhabitants as categorized either - socialist forces in the in socialist countryside. forces Though actual the

not actuallynot significantly ofImperial differ that from idual’s 45

during Civil Bolsheviks War, the the

parents. uals; rather, peasant socialuals; class was

118 termine who trust would be termine cialinRussia,” Soviet Identity

The labelThe o f kulak, for f kulak, bedniak ), middle ), middle The ed ed 119 -

CEU eTD Collection former of been inscopes had midst conducted Russian as the Civil the War,the and latter the nationality. previous The post language had time viewed at religion,which asthe and been prim classified 1897,had Russianin Empire the citizensEmpire ofthe according native to ofnational notions Soviet identity. populace’s previous The large structure. Firstsocioeconomic The All nationality, to according was process that a arbitrary even ofcodifying more that the than Soviet as the regimepinnacle, enacted policya kulaks class.the as a liquidate to decade, bythe and other and class kulaks unmaskinga reached enemies 1929,the of c widespread, becamepractices more however, ambitiously cadres “unmask”sought to such since occupation the not did label contain any ph determining lishentsi social occupational,geographic, and mobility,who would normally many as categorized be education, and denied rations.and for receive to being ineligible social politicalrights,and obtaining opportunities and resources generallydisenfranchised and discrimination to public sphere.subject the in Aside from classificationlegal of priests, Nepmen, members of kulaks, and imperial nobility the overwhelming majority b and landholdingswealth Volga agriculturalists the ofthe resulted Republic in ofthe lass enemies and reveallass and enemies their true identity. Such sentiments throughout gained momentum lishentsi lishentsi 122 121 as classes ascribed,Just defined and were was population furtherthe categorized stigmatizedIn main 1920s, categories in the the Soviet ofpeoples the Union were were were abl

Weitz,65. FleischhauerPinkus,and46 was difficu e e evade thisto classification by ofresidence place abandoningand their

lishentsi lt, lt, manyand their homes, from from evicted were barred employment eing categorized as eing categorized

. Me - revolutionary censuses, taken in 1920 and 1923,had 1920and revolutionary in censuses, taken limited - 122 47. mbers of this juridical mbers juridical ofthis category legally were

In ofhigh 1920s, however, the era an during - Union Census of1926transform December in Union seredniaki seredniaki 46

and and kulaki ysical characteristics. As these — all of whom fell under ofwhomthe fell all - . scale census, taken by scale the 121 ary of aspects

ed the the ed

CEU eTD Collection terms. national Asand Loveman,Brubaker, “race, Stamatov and ethnicity, explain, and of 1926 case such asthe the census, as dividing worldof So social the the nationality, process understand the can nationalities, of“official” one ofchoosing list a from identifica categories,ethnic territory.of their rights, national thatto those were and 200“official” some groups.contained nationalities national Onlywould entitled “official” be individuals picked from the officialan Soviet list ofthe Union, which ofnationalities wereidentification appropriate. the ethnographers father, ensure the to respondents’ hoped that nationalclaims to self such as mother information nationality peoples formany wasthey meaningful the not of registering. were identities,subjects’ despite the fact that the administration knewthat the of concept on Soviet gather data both the Union as well begin as to process the oftransforming the to according each individual’s would serve confirm their to responseclaims ofself to self their the to nationalaccording respondents’ self exclusivelybeing confined data of The areas. urban to - conscious community.”conscious natsional’nost’ 127 126 125 124 123 census majorityWhereas the the serves in ofracial quantification societies as a of Sovi tion wheretion they previously not did exist.

Hirsch,106. An Ibid.,121. Ibid.,112. Ibid.,102 et ethnographers worked to develop ethnographers a workedto fortheet questionnaire 1926census that derson, 168. derson, natsional’nost’. natsional’nost’. 126 127 -

103.

, which had been had defined, which group population as “a united into nationallya

the Sovietthe sought regime construct forms salient ofnational to

- 123 tongue, religion, and national self tongue, national religion,and

The SovietThe 1926 categorization the in census was to intended

125

However, while choosingHowever, while the

omitted would be would be omitted assimilated theinto majority nation - identification. Both asked respondents had the identification. 47

While usingWhile cognitive of the perspective

these been two censuses had compiled - identification ofmother and ir self ir - identified nationality, - identification viet Union ethnic in 124

While usingWhile - -

CEU eTD Collection 45. (2004):Vol. 33 thoroughgoingstate regards in Brubaker Soviet explains, the policy, nationalities to is distinctive… “what is the Soviet ofnatio regime’s gradual adoption individual. structuringthe The 1926 beginning ofthe census, the however, signified ofthe proclaimedCountry,” nationality citizen’s a potentially was considered for not detrimental Republic. 1926 Soviet the in 571,822GermansVolgacensus, citizens there were the in German traditionally ofidentification. salient form According a been self not the to served Volga thethe Republic purposeof instillinga sense of“Germann a previously was Though extremes, taken to process1926 existed. this elsewhere the census in amalgamate to clans tribes nationalities and into scant where cultural similarities had AsGermans.was Soviet the especially in East, ethnographers audaciously apparent sough hadAutonomous Republic Socialist but choice Soviet identify little to themselves as Soviet grouof the assign them,and regardless to new of members the members whether identified as being part categorizationSoviet codified Union. The Soviet attempted ofthe regime groups create to attempted to natakers impose self world perspectives onthe categorizations,classifications, identifications. and The nationality interpretations, representations, only through exist and in ourperceptions, - identification a to of200“official”identification list the nationalities, Soviet ethnographers and census 129 128 GermanConsequently, the Perepisi1926. Brubaker,MaraLoveman,& Rogers Stamatov, “EthnicityPeter Cognition,” as 129 p.

During this period prior to SovietDuring to prior mobilization period this a

sponsored institutionalizationofnationhood codification and and

not ontological but epistemological but realities.” ontological not tional identities onmany of minority ofthe the nationalities

- speaking inhabitants livingspeaking inhabitants German Volga the in nality social categorization. fundamental as a As 48

y things world, not the are in but nd Stalin’s in “Socialism One 128 ess” that had - Theory and SocietyTheoryand

identification of identification While limitingWhile t -

CEU eTD Collection Eurasia:An Institut repressionsystematic Volga ofthe Germansfollowing 1926census. decade a the and institutionalization codification ofthe GermanVolga nationality the facilitated nationality exclusively 130

Rogers Brubaker,“Nationhood Rogers and Nationalinthe UnionQuestion Soviet the Post and ionalist Account,

on a subon a

Theoryand Society, - state rather than a state a rather than state 49

vol.50. (1994), 23 - wide level.” wide

130

This This

- Soviet CEU eTD Collection Soviets. ofpride source forthe a the In of1929,while density October ofcollectivization success initial Indeed, the ofo creation Kalmyk was territoriesOblast, first among witness to large the Astrakhan,provinces Saratov, of Stalingrad, Volga and as the German as well the ASSR and dimension. national disproportionatelywere dekulakization, to process this subject contain not did overt an G kulaks deportedAs were 1.8million perhaps Soviet throughout the Union, deported, were suffer Germans, classand national categorizations Volga The overlapped. Germans undoubtedly dekulakizationrather, c argue that Germans disproportionately during suffered perception ofRussian Germanscommon as imperial privileged regime, ofthe subjects Volga ofVolgawealth German agricultur Soviet society newcollective rural order. a farm into structuresvillage order in dissipate to leadership village cohesion an in attempt transformto extirpate theto of aimed spirit capitalism from co the Soviet society.transformed dekulakization subsequent the Collectivizationand of enactment FirstThe Fivethe agricultural collectivization and Plan 1928radically Year in Chapt ermans did not constitute a significant a constitute number not whodeported, did ofthose were ermans thoughand they ed as a result of the dekulakization result as a ofthe ed 133 132 131 Lower Krai,The administrative an created Volga unit in er 4 er

Viola,31. Mukhina,37. Viola,7. ontrary : Collectivizationinthe 132

accounting forapproximatelyGermansVolgaaccounting the in Republic. 16%ofall

to to

the national narratives national the was waragainst a class

alists October prior Revolution the to as well as the

of 1930

VolgaRepublic f kolkhozy kolkhozy , this was not a result ofnation result was, this a not the dekulakization campaigns. dekulakization willthe chapter This - 50 enemies, and in the case of the in Volga case and the enemies,

- 1931, when 24,000 Volga German kulaks 1931, when24,000Volga 131 untryside eradicate to and traditional and and

Given prodigious the amount of sovkhozy

- scale collectivizationscale efforts.

1928 that included the

in in region provedthe be to 133 - based repression;based

the Volgathe

campaigns

CEU eTD Collection 125. Danilov,Ivnitskii,N.A.V.P. KozlovHaven&Denis(New and 158. London: YaleUniversity 2005), Press, 1929 153. 2005), Danilov, LynneViola,Ivnitskii,N.A.V.P. andKozlov Haven&Denis(New London: YaleUniversity Press, inNovember 1929,” the resistance ofemigration.took form In the of fall of1929,in midst the largea orviolentwas as audacious many not as in neigh ofthe than the periphery.reliable national w such factors center’s the with was policies,and undoubtedly elsewhere. apparent nationalsponsoring a in territory, fact that mass this dekulakization the was despite consistent of1930,KalininIndeed, March acc in recalcitrance demonstrated establishmenttowards the ofcollective in farms their territories. short violent, including neighboring Tatarstan. in Kazakhstan and I Western such nationalities as Soviet newagricultural policiesthe triggered mass movements, specifically emigration among more widespread was violentand much Union, it among non 37.5%. to risen had whole yearfollowing successhowever, the lagged behind ofcollectivization the in oftherest Krai, by though the theMolotov the success praised in further Krai.Lower Volga process was moving at averaged polity, 7.5%throughoutKrai rate of12%, the a Lower boasted the the and Volga

,” in ,” - term concession onthe concession pace ofcollectivization certain in term “backwards” regions who had 137 136 135 134 ThoughGermans Volga the collectivization certainly to degree, certain resisted a it Although collectivization resistanceto staunch was apparent Sovietthroughout the The War Against the Peasantry,Warthe The 1927 Against

“FrominbyspeechtheMolotov discussionKaminsky’s15 the V.M. Novemberof G.N. report, “ Martin, NizhnevolzhskiyKrayplan Report byKaminsky TasksReport Further ofG.N. and‘OnResultsCollective the ould contributeould the to leadership’s Russian that the was perception core more , the ASSR ofLower collectivization, the a had rate 27.4%,while the as a Volga The Affirmative The Action Empire, The War Against the Peasantry,Warthe The 1927 Against

a rapid pace. rapid a 136

Krayunhu

134 - Germans, resistance the peasant in Soviet turned east used ASSR Tatarstan’s “counterrevolution” by leaders

- In given speech a following Vyacheslav the month, 1930: The Tragedy of the SovietThe the TragedyCountryside,1930: of , Statistich , 295. 51

- 1930: eskijSpravochnik Nizhney

The TragedyCountryside,ofSovietThe the boring national territories. boring Instead, national - 135 Russian natio Russian n response, the center made a center a n response, the made

The VolgaThe Republic, 137

Later decade, the in

Volgi. 1929 Volgi. - FarmConstruction,’14 nalities. While ed. Lynne ed. Viola, - scale scale - 1933 gg., 1933 ed.

CEU eTD Collection 140. inOformlenien.Grigor'eva, Sovetov,“SamarskomuKomiteta Okrispolkomu,Vyp followingcease the Soviet 1930alone. Union in quality and number German of suggests, Martin are literally there ofpages thousands ofd establish 1930s. the 1920s into and established been 1918,self had in establishedduring be to continued collectivization. instilling “Soviet sensibilities.” titular which in languageunits, culture simultaneously and promoted while would be nationality, to according be to meant were small farms collective promotion ofnational the continue to identity Indeed, by culture. and organizingkolkhozes dekula than national a rather one. triggering movement, emigration this though religious a be to proved this say to suffice below, co that 1917.Though powerin discussedBolsheviks in be taken will had more episode this detail triggered politically most the the in Soviet movement the charged emigration Union since mostlydescent, convergedMennonites, onMo movementemigration Soviet throughout the Union, 10,000Soviet citizens ofGerman

kization order in clear way to newcollectivethe order, the farm the center for sought 140 139 138 Soviet the regime’sDespite break intentto down village through cohesion ed ed mid a

OrgkomitetuSredne Hirsch,247. Martin,“Origins Ethnic Soviet 838. Cleansing,” of - sized German district withi national

end of the First oftheend Five

Istorija RossijskihDokumentahIstorija(1762v Nemcev

Germans neighboring in Samara - VolzhskoyOblasti llectivization significant most proved the factor in be to 140

- 138 language institutions and and throughout institutions territorialunits language the While While

- At same mid time, the determination issues determination to continued throughout the arise the the ofGermancreation national territorialunits would - Year Plan Year -

Prezidiuma Vserossijskogo Central'nogoPrezidiuma Ispolnitel'nogo Vserossijskogo iska iz10 iskaZasedanijaSentyabrya Protokola74, 1928,” ot 52 scow in an attempt to receive to visas, attempt scow an in exit which

, even during early the stages of Though th

n Samara Oblast asas 1928. late - sized territorialunits national ocuments devoted to increasing devoted to ocuments , for example, , forexample, e b e - - 1992) 1992) orders of the Volgaorders ofthe ASSR scale nat scale Moscow: MIGUP,Moscow:1993), - successfully based movement movement based ional ional territorial 139

the the

CEU eTD Collection andCentral (Budapest York: New University 2004),71. European Press, were special to for rehabilitation sent settlements in Soviet the Bolsheviks east. The saw malignant harmful most and “elements” were eliminated, while fit whodeemed those were variousthroughout repressions the political,based and class, nation throughout the potentially “cured” revo 1930,regardless in families ofnationality. administrativethe territoryLower 11,000 KraiVolga extirpate to ofthe national as a Volga entity Republic cleanse be was to according specified numbersthat concrete “capitalist ofthose r elements” be to accordingwas initiated socially the to criteria, and directives determined i region certainlythe German peasants, dekulakization affluent displayed animosity towards embi acquisition amongcapital First Germans the sense to the a prior World War, held of and Volga first ofthe witnessed Republic Orthodox inhabitants countryside du era, were and imperial undoubtedly extirpation of the in thecapitalism from factor a modern capitalist utilized agricultural techniques. d Germanto settlers according IIimplemented nationality. to initially had privileges generous Catherine provided nationa Union forall thecollectivization, sought regime expand to continue to lutionary activists tterment towards these class enemies Soviet popular While of the regime. perceptions in 142 141 ofkulak label The remove operations to The countryside capitalist elements the from thus not were

Ibid. Pavel Polian, to kraito

ring Soviet the regime’s Indeed, war against many “kulak elements.” Slavic and who

ue the to l categories,l including communities. diasporic the

Against Their Will:Their Th Against not not national to territories. In the ofdeclaring words, that other instead

who were exiled were

itself was divided into two separat were often executed without often were and trial, those

popular perception thatpopular such settlers were

to remote regions remote USSRto ofthe e Historye and USSR,ForcedGeography the of in Migrations 141

Such sentiments continued throughout the throughoutSuch sentiments continued the d ofkulaks, responsibility was the it of korenizatsiia - hand thehand aggressive and land

e e categories; . 142 emoved were issuedemoved were

throughout the Soviet - model Such was the formula formula Such was the who could bewho could 14,000 kulak counter ssued byMoscow farmers who -

1930s; the both both

CEU eTD Collection Uni Germans operations orany nationality,the peasants against other were wealthier in rather but national the cadresand as well. because but disconnectcapitalists, ofthe between the inhabitants ofthe autonomous r categorized perceptionsbe only not popular as kulaks that they ofthe because affluent were accusatio and theand furtherleadership constituents, which to contributed the ofdenunciationatmosphere were subject and familiar not withof their issues. local war duringWar One,they World lack were cadres typically major Germans urban the beencenters from orhad prisoners ethnic of as would normally ascribed be ofpoliticalatmosphere denouncement that the in wouldlater decade, prevail peasant whoa nationality, be ethnicity, cannot orclass, arbitrary Soviet process throughwere citizens all which categorized categorization the and the ofpeople into three was frequently inconsistent. material differencesactual between bedniaks, kulaks and seredniaks, standingThough social peasantry the ofthe according three divis the was to codified Sovietto society.As Solzhenitsyn explains, ofkulakcategories versity Press, 2003), 65. 2003), Press,versity 146 145 144 143 specificallyDekulakization campaigns never were directed Volga towards the were Such practices especially in case Germans. Volgaregards the the As to local the peasantry. merely term convictions The in bei through else’s… but someone bylabor and 1930 In a Russian,

Solzhenitsyn,55. Fleichhauerand39. Pinkus, Viola,18. EricWeitz, D. ng so called ns onpersonal based feuds. Consequently, Germans more were likely Volga to 143

as the of as the embodiment the capitalist spir

kulak

- A CenturyGenocide: of A ofandUtopias Race Nation

all peasants strongall management, strong in work, in oreven strong

is a miserly,is a trader who growsrural by not dishonest rich his own

bedniak

ed any previous knowledge of the traditional anyed traditional knowledgelifestyles previous ofthe

would often kulak considered objective decisions

54 was strength smash usedthe to ofthe

be be labeled as 146 all strong peasants in general strong general all peasants in

This created created betweenThis conflict the it it natural therefore and “parasites” kulak (Princeton& Princeton Oxford: , whether according, whether to

were usuallywere minimal,

. due local to feuds. 145 144

Similar to to theSimilar

Indeed, the Indeed, the ions, epublics epublics were were

CEU eTD Collection Polish ofthe Itkilometers border. Poles was feared that the engagedif had large a in regards Belorussian Poles living to zone the SSR Western in border the within along 22 Republic. 45GermanMoscow in of1934.Of writers March the from in 12 were attendance, the Volga First the and whole, a Convention last) German (and Writersin Union ofthe was held within promoted both be theto continued Soviet throughout and the Volga Republic Unio 1926 53,642in rosefrom 1932. 68,085in Volgato Republic sa its height1933,and books in reached the German reaching Volga pinnacle a 1933 Republic, in Korenizatsiia both VolgaGerman the as institutions, wellin Republic the as in Western borderlands. T 4.2 Volgathe Germans. understood overlap ofsocial as an better and categorizations, national case as was with the held overtdimension.dekulakization an national Instead, such class Russians during Romanov d the ideology. minority undoubtedly Certain nationalities the higher a Great than status held terminology socialist basic thus congruentthe premise were with ofMarxist and Such classgeneral. consis were categories hroughout 1930, considerable effort hroughout effort 1930,considerable me year.me :

Korenizatsiia 149 148 147 firstNevertheless, deportation 1930,the in policy ethnic ofan

149 Ibid.,56. Ibid.,53 FleischhauerPinkus,and58. 147

continued throughoutcontinued agricultural collectivization dekulakization and in the Similarly, ofpupils German number attending the -

54. in the Volga Republic

ynasty, which at at authorsynasty,times has led assert to which that

was put during Collectivization tent with the with socioeconomic analysistent Marxist of - 1934. The publication ofGerman publication 1934. The 55 into increasinginto number quality and the of

- language theater opened Engels in theater the language in 148

- German therefore culture language schools in the the schoolslanguage in

- based operations are operationsbased are

was implemented in - language language - Leninist - scale scale n as CEU eTD Collection 1936. nationalities the notPlan, did policies fund transformations ofSoviet society collectivization with came and First that the Five Belorussi Soviet nationalitiesalter policies, new as a districtwas Polish national established along the Allthe by adopted were republican the status,regardless ofsocioeconomic were Such measures, interior. moved however, the to was potentiallyborderlands dangerous. amongwidely Soviet belief the leader held border. Polish would government intervene p and movementemigration (as was with the case German Menno

151 150 Union Council of People’s Commissars. ofPeople’s Union Council Indeed, the given with relations rapidly that were Poland was a deteriorating,it an

Martin, Polian,69. - Polish border less than two years lessPolish than border later. The Affirmative The Action Empire,

level (ofthe Belorussian Republic), Soviet not Socialist and

Ethnic Poles within Poles within proximityclose Ethnic border, the to rovide their to assistance co amentally change until the newamentally the C change until ship that the presenceship ofSoviet that 321 56 - 323. 150

151 Consequently, drastically not did this

Indeed, despite the radical the Indeed, despite nites the previous the the year),nites then - ethnics - Poles in the the Poles in onstitution of

across the - Year Year CEU eTD Collection 1 83. (SpringNo. 1991): thereforemilitary and held a devastation, sense greattheir risk to familiesat order in escape religious to political persecution and as as well initial settlersthe turn at 19 the ofthe 1980s late triggered the in mass Western immigration Germany. to ancestral orientationdevelop towards an an ( homeland question ofthe Germanmembers diaspora, Moscow beganthemand treat turn as such. to in however, strong a stance adopt not diasporic of until the 20 half second the treating idiom,as “diaspora” an stance, or seen be it thatclaim, can the Volga Germans did directlysix, fourpertain towards which in the diaspora, a community several should share ofthe question criteria. in Of the journal issueinaugural ofthe abroad homeland as a paramount to designation criteria forthe majorityUnion. The ontheories considers ofliterature orientation ofdiaspora the and loyalty implications,certain notably most orientation outside homeland towards a the ofthe Soviet were ofwhich “enemy both tantamount to nations,” designation Such“diaspora.” a carr the in 1930s, late peoples, they be to came officially and of foreign known states” as “citizens Thoug “diasporas.” as having perceived separate a to allegiance state simplyaddress such categories ofpeople as existing on The Volga literature the Germans similarSoviet and that nationalities were 5 Chapter 153 152 insinuation that VolgaThe Germans held salient orientationa towards the Reich is able. Instead, pertaining literature Soviet the to

Berlin began aggressively to that the claim Schmaltz347. and Sinner, Williamin“DiasporasSafran,MythsSocities: Modern of Homel : TheVolga Germans“Diaspora” a as

h the Sovieth the did regime designate term to use the not such categories of

Diaspora

the notion homeland. the ofa th

, William Safran presents, William ofsix list a of characteristics century their respective German left had principalities 57

of disillusionment in regards in of disillusionment their to

Volksdeutsche Urheimat - Germans they stress that not did 152

This chapter will will chapter This argue that of diaspora. a Indeed, the in and andand Return,” ) th

until Gorbachev’s reforms

153 century.In 1930s, the of the Soviet Union were

Indeed, the majIndeed, the Diaspora

ority of Vol. Vol. ies ies

b 1, y CEU eTD Collection 164.&Chatto(London: Windus, 1966), agricultural collectivization. to repressionattempt escape the abhorrent they that to of result subject as a been had who convergeddescent resume onMoscow to movement, 1929hoped this in mostly an in patterns basedsocial ontheir villages i prospered had materiallyprairies were and construct newenvironment, able to their their in 20,000 Soviet generallyemigration des Americas as their the chose Soviet as the Union waswell quite limited. Instead, Russian those ignore.coverage to tended United wasGermany; States the it rather, fact that Canada, a t and receiveto e Soviet citizens midst large the ofa 1929, in Latin and Canada, America. their Empire, alleged homelan Tellingly, majority the however, ofRussian military 1874,contributing massive in from a to emigration the conscription Russian Empire. Alexander II Tsar guafactors, the annulled formation the As 1871and ofthein German ofnumerous Empire. result convergent a supposed homeland. 158 157 156 155 154 more than episode Such an outcome. 50years would haveIn similar a fall the later of

Ibid.,33. Long, HarveyDyc Martin, aus“DieRußland,” Bauernflucht xit visas.xit - Mennonites had immigrated had Mennonites Canada. to

of German descent, of German descent, mostly converged Mennonites, onMoscow attempt an in xiii. The Affirmative The Action Empire,

k, k, 154 The preferreddestinationThe ofmigration, however, was Weimar not Weimer Germany & Russia, WeimerGermany 1926 Soviet

This disillusi This 156 - 155 scale emigrationSoviet throughout movement the U scale

Indeed, emigration to Germany to Indeed, Russianas Empire emigration the both in d; rather, thed; vast theStates, majority to United emigrated

onment followingU persisted the Vossische Zeitung Vossische n imperial Russia. ranteed exemptionranteed ofRussian 319. - Germans did not wish to emigrate Germans wish emigrate not the to did to German 58

tination. In 1923 , Berlin1. , 1929): 14, (November 157 -

1933: A StudyDiplomatic 1933: in Instability A 158 These settlers CanadianThese the in

The Soviet ofGermanThe citizens he surgeGerman press of - Germans who opted for Germans who opted - nification ofGermany 1926, an estimated estimated 1926, an - Germans from

nion, 10,000 CEU eTD Collection 21. 2009), Returnin Homecomings: ComparativeMigration Ethnic Perspective German migrants. theGreat be preferreddestination Depression,to continued NorthAmerican forthe Soviet complicatedfurther by crash Tuesday”market “Black stock the presented more a therefore lucrative formigrants. destination Though situation this was long recoverythe First process ofeconomic World the War, NorthAmerica following and foreconomicmigrate Germany purposes, reasons. amongWeimar other wa had collectivization been theimplemented year, previous to Germans Soviet opted had the SovietFirstFive Union’s present, migrationare homeland is foremost economic response to a p “homeland” among Germans. Soviet As Volksdeutsche time first wasThis German the that governmentthe active an took the interest in diplomatically intervene to 200,000 Marks ofhiscause. own money the to raise to moneyorder the Germans, to Hindenburg provideSoviet to President aid and donated coveragemedia Germany, in and Soviet the Union untilwith 1933.The movement, however, a quicklygenerated embassies forhelpUS as these Canadian establish and not countriesdiplomatic did relations 160 159 however, episode, necessarilyThis does not oforientation signifytowards a lack a SovietThe Germans initially were visas, émigrés exit the not and denied could turn

TakeyukiReturnin "WhyDiaspora Home?" theTsuda, ed., TakeyukiDoes Tsuda, TerryMartin,“

of the Soviet intervened Union, and aggressively of

Origins of Soviet Ethnic 836. Cleansing,” ofSoviet Origins - Year Plan for economic development and foreconomic Plan Year agricultural , and the Soviet regime eventually regime Soviet the , and emigrate. 5,500to allowed

an an organization called called was founded“Brothersorganization Need” in in Takeyuki 59 159

Consequently, Ge the Tsuda suggests, even if ethnic ties suggests,Tsuda even ethnic a if to

(Stanford: Stanford UniversityStanford (Stanford: Press,

in thein triggered US that the

their behalf. behalf. their ressures. rman e rman s in the midst of midst s the in 160 mbassy began

Diasporic storm of

As the CEU eTD Collection Sovie into nationalities) the leadership emigration, the to to continued attempts Volgaintegrate the Germans all (and Sovietthe Volksdeutsche Urheimat at time, this that stronga ofthe attachment Soviet Germansas an German state towards the collectivity, began state Soviet treat to Volga the the Germans as a German statethe increasingly identified is the of diaspora existence “homeland” a polity’s the outside control. territorial of source significant most dominant a elite’s animositymo situational towards a Germans state.loyalty as possessing external an ultimate to As an Armstrong the suggests, interest in foreign the policyspecifically interests ofthe protect to Nazi party the and German state began audaciously to 1933,whenthe in their construct Reich. ofEurope, provided legislativeand tribes a for framework any the join German community to Constitution stated1919 Weimar that there was connection a unity and the German between German collectivity possessed that superior theperceived followingFirst homeland, ancestral German the War government the World increasingly ThoughGermans did time Volga this the at act not Irredentism Nazi and the 5.2: 161 162 161 German government’s the Despite aggressive onbehalf ofthe intervention

- Armstrong, 401. Armstrong, was dubious. Such sentimen the Volgathe Germans the to thusSoviet contributed regime’s suspicions ofthe Soviet Die VerfassungDie desDeutschen Reichs Germans Though was fundamentally not many had for Mennonites altered. opted Volksdeutsche

of the Soviet Union during

t state and society; statet and was which sentiment a throughoutapparent the ts would become especiallyts would become ofHitler following rise aggressive the

of SovietEastern Europe the Union as members and larger ofa

Volksdeutsche Volksdeutsche the 1929migrations, thethe Kremlin’s stance towards (1919). levels of civilization. Indeed,levels of civilization. the to preamble the 60

ively Germany perceive true as their

of the Soviet Union of

as larger members ofa German Volksdeutsche

diaspora, despite the fact despite thediaspora, fact . Nazi Germany’s

162 bilized

Thus, as CEU eTD Collection Russia in intoGermanocentric“brothers” thus fit the worldview the in German national survival supersededthe collect that ofthe individual. wellof the The became increasinglnation Volga regardsin stance” the ofthe to Germans “homeland.” German Indeed, onbehalf the being ofthe problematic most The tensto remittances Germans and Soviet ofthousandsthe offoodpackets ofthe Union. Germans.Soviet“Hitler Help” Called by Soviets, campaignthe monetary the sent of“Brothers Need” in wascontinuation encirclement Nazis“imperial” from the in the in west and east.Japanese the Soviets the challenged which to threat Soviet Nazidual the Union; biological contrary theories onrace ran ofthe those to accelerated. be to to notionSocialist led amongthe Bolsheviks the that Europe. The of Eastern consolidation the under bannerGerman ofNationalthe state audaciously their foreign the policyprotect construct to interests ofthe of position “diaspora nationalities,”for the ne because the question. n which questioningled arena the to ofbothGermans Sovietas the as well so FirstFive ationalities” in general, in ationalities” whenthe loyalty cross with of citizens 164 163 overduring of1933 GermanyConcerns Nazi famine escalated the ofHitler rise NationalThe the and Socialist Party 1933was in particularly detrimental

- Martin, Hirsch,16. Year Plan. This would change, This Plan. Year however, variousthe to in international due factors Volksdeutsche The Affirmative The Action Empire, 163

Indeed, the rise offascism rise Indeed, west the contributed the the to in feeling ofa aspect ofNazi y that transcendedviewed unit collective as a state boundaries, and

of Eastern Europe, signifiedof which the “diasporicadoption a premise ofthe Soviet policy nationalities of threat the and

Germany launched in Germany in launched the to starving aid provide to 328. 61

was undoubtedly their interest in in interest was undoubtedlythe their well

revolution the in Soviet Union needed w Nazi began government to - border kin ties kin cameborder into - being of their being oftheir Volksdeutsche - 1934, when a 1934, whena - called “diaspora called

in in 164 -

CEU eTD Collection ofGroundsRace,Language, and Room,’”‘Living Hitler’s ofpower, since consolidation the Kremlin’s escalated even concerns further element forthecentral Nazis. Indeed, essential was asBolsheviks’ class just the ofthe component was worldview, the race classsocioeconomic structure been that had due to constructed exploitation ofcapitalism. thatterminology, such characteri maintained held nationalities characteristics,inherent consistentSoviet Marxist with academics, of ethnicity.Whereas German disseminated scholars which ideas separateimplied that degeneration. stock, racial thus that insinuated and such would ultimately“races” to destined be peoples that the Sovietpronounced ofthe Germans, of Union, were save ethnic inferior the unit. collective underminingsystematic racial bonds ofthe German held people the together that as a 1930s,throughout created propaganda and the a that portrayed machine as a Bolshevism Sovietin Republic Russia.” France, in Lorraine Transylvanian Romania, Germanin the settlements and Volga German “alr their irredentistdemonstrated by claims soil” that “German racial included claiming waswhat Germany their ideologies disseminated had cultural which and of“German soil,” racial imaginary th eady South Tyrol Reich, Italy, the German in in 169 168 167 166 165 Soviet the regime’sWhile concerns overGermany Nazigaining been had momentum Nazi stateThe continuously irredentist its claims increased

Otto D.Tolischus,Otto “NazisWorld’sControl Resources:Imperial Envision of Justifiedon Urge Castee Weitz,104. Hirsch,280. Ibid.,459. at had been gainingFirst the been had since momentum at World War. 168 167 l,453.

The biological racismThe ofthe Nazis directly con

To achieveTo anthropologists this, scho other and

166 169

The NewThe YorkTimes stics were rather were stics result a ofsociety’s 62

- speaking Alsace Switzerland, and (April 2, 1939), 67. 1939), 2, (April tradicted the Soviets’ notion tradicted lars in the the in lars

in Eastern in Europe 165

By 1939,Nazi Reich Reich

- Leninist CEU eTD Collection from shift signified the exchange coercion. to deteriorat agreementsinternational the coupled with ofNaziirredentism Germany the to led Polish heightened following German the - German alliance hadGerman significantly alliance their weakened position.international Such 170 ion of ion Sovietthe centers relationship peripheries, “diaspora” the with which

Martin,

the fears the ofan encirclement,”“imperialist and Kremlin has heldthe that the The AffirmativThe

- Polish nonaggression pact of pact JanuaryPolish 1934. nonaggression e Action Action Empire, e

329.

170

This agreementThis CEU eTD Collection Turkmenistan,” Hobsbawm suggests, imagery, heroes, national Romanov dynasty the from myths Kievan and Rus era. and of mistrust minorityhistorical the towards Great Russian chauvinism. nationalities stressed therefore, Stalin, policy that the of that farmerscollective Tajikistan in and Turkmenistan of1935,Stalin December in exclaimed unifying ofthe inhabitants among the force favor of nationalities.diasporic nations titular ofthethe p national ofseparate notion identities, rather aimed but implement to unitymultiethnic among Soviet ofthe Union, which Peoples” enacted regime strategya of “Frie propagandizenotion soughtwhich the the to 1930s resurgence ofstate a witnessed gre ofGreat notion Russian With the chauvinism being nationalism and ofthe one deemed 6 Chapter atest dangers to the socialist dangers the atest to previous throughoutexperiment the the the decade, mid

172 171 Paradoxically, of aspect programthis integral an was t have o You nodoubt flourishes. need nor atenemies neither home abroad,enemies as long lives friendship as this and peoples the ofourcountryexists, free invincible. be and Nothingwill us, daunt can Bolshevik the thing po that national comrades,U.S.S.R.gaininggrowing precious That, most is strength. is the and in by and replaced that trust, mutual friendship complete between the the peoples ofthe U.S.S.R. peoples ofthe the has present conference The vividfactis a the proofof minority nations in the “affirmativeminority the empire,” in nations was the nowbe action to meant

JosephConferencea“SpeechStalin, Collective Foremostof theat FarmersofTajikistan and Martin, : Works:1934 Volume14, TheFriendshipthe Peoplesof The Affirmative The Action Empire,

Marxist states and societies generally and states Marxist tendency a only not to have Russian which culture, previously had olity,

171

though policy this wou -

1940 , willas this demonstrate, chapter - sponsored Russian nationalist rhetoric. In rhetoric. Russian nationalist 1935,sponsored the

long ago been laid to rest, rest, laidlong to hasthat agomistrust been been

(London:124 Red1978),Star Press, licyFor given us... has friendship as this as long korenizatsiia, 433. Soviet Union. Indeed, in a speech Soviet speech Union. Indeed, a addressing in f that, comrades. 64

ld prove to be detrimental for prove detrimental ld be to the

after 18years, that the former 172 he popularization ofRussian popularization he been partially eschewed in in partiallybeen eschewed

did notdid refute the - 125

had eradicated the the eradicated had mistrust between mistrust .

ndship of the ndship ofthe

As Eric As Eric - CEU eTD Collection (September Sovietthroughout the Union; this n that did Germans, i.e. nationalities, Poles, Japanese, Koreans, etc. “Fri Having supp been 6 semantics as well.” mid the from ofSoviet Thepropaganda machine. notion loyalty exclusively was longer sociallybased; scholars, now and wholeheartedlyas peasants could the in support socialism had categoriesclass formerly that as disloyal perceived Soviet been towards the system,such father connectionSoviet a and to patriotism interchangeable conceptsthe ofmotherland and mid the previouslyThe pred in nationalism attempt createan unifying to a and foreconomic military force mobilization. of latethe threat 1920s, the to allegiance USSR. legitimacythe by Soviet ofthe state society a promoting Davidwhat Brandenberger refers nationalist butbecome form, in in also content. .2:

endship of the Peoples” ofthe endship The Reemergence ofThe Reemergence theRussians land. signified shift This newsensea ofallegiance throughout Soviet society;those 176 175 174 173 - 1930s by increasingly an was imperious grounded understanding that of the in notion -

EricH Hirsch,292. Brandenberger,28 Brandenberger,4. October 1977): 13. In1977): Anderson October - ot entailot Russification orassimilation for non the 1930s, Soviet allegiance began1930s, allegiance encompass to Soviet “geographic cultural and obsbawm, “Someobsbawm,of Britain,’” Reflections‘the Breakup on ressed in the 1920s, Russian became the culture ressed in the of centerpiece the 175

ominant notion ofproletariat ominant internationalist loyalty in was undermined

174 Stalin partyStalin the and utilized certain ofRussianaspects leadership

29. Frustrated by the

of the 1930s

korenizatsiia

to as “National B as “National to , Imagined Communities Imagined

, newcampaign the and “foreign” excluded continued 1930s,throughoutcontinued though the less

inability during mobilize ofsociety to 65 173

Through ideology implementing an of olshevism,” the regime hoped hoped regime olshevism,” the to augment - wide sentiment of loyalty sentiment wide and 176 , 3. ,

It stressed, however, be must - Russian nationalities New Left Review, NewLeft

Soviet Vol. the war

105 CEU eTD Collection waswhich eventually allowed chances ofupwardmobilitythe by children assimilate to fortheir allowing them in Russian Empire, Much like the many non right pursuedthe regime for ofassimilation also individuals, which radical a lead doesto change. not acculturation whereas entails the dominant aspectsadoption ofcertain ofthe culture, and beingdifference assimilation brings that individual’s an change to a self multiple processes,mean notably most acculturation, fundamentaland the assimilation assimilati Itassimilation. m VolgaGermans ofthe Republic. outside specifically1936 Constitution, d the to regards in Russian regionsincreasingly RSFSR,would become ofthe following however, audacious the Komsever Similarly, institutions w central Zeitung, ASSR, the outside German such as Moscow’s Volgaas the German Autonomous German national Republic. institutio internalthe alter cultural oflarger policies within Russian units Federation, national the such Russify to efforts previousfervently the Nevertheless, decade. the than Peoples”“Friendship did ofthe witness 179 178 177 contributed the trend to This emergence the previouslyissue of unmentionable were eitherwere closed entirely territory national the to ormoved Russia. Southern in on; like themuch po

Martin, Miller, Martin, were abolished in 1934 and 1935 1934and abolished in were respectively. The Romanov Empire and NationalismRomanovand The Empire The Affirmative The Action Empire, Affirmative The Action Empire, the Russian regions the ust be stressed,ust however, be R that

licies ofthe Romanov dynasty, R . 179 hich handledhich mino national 178

As part of the “FriendshipAs the ofthe Peoples,” Soviet part ofthe of the RSFSR.However,of the fundamentally not did this

409. 408. - Russian parents in the in increase 1930s to parents hoped Russian 66 - language newspaper,

, iasporic nationalities, Russian such as the

ussification tantamountis not to 49.

177 rity

The efforts R The to

issues such as ussification 1930s the in could ussification

included included acculturation. Die Deutsche Zentral Zentral Deutsche Die - ns that werens that located identificat ussify the Komants , processa ion,

and and - CEU eTD Collection 163 Red1978),Star (London: Press, EighthofCongressSoviets of “asocial” Naziin Germany. lishentsy arbitraryand that manyincluded 1936,would have to been prior label considered who, of “social marginal.” other Similarto Soviet ascriptions, “soc regimeold who normally were officers,nobles bourgeoisie, NEPmen, and tsarist priests, kulaks, ofthe class therefore successStalin attributed the ofthe Soviet policy nationalities of extirpation the to that proclaimed people to class suggest, will chapter as this 1936Constitution symbolically the transition the from marked spirit thatKremlin the of thus held capitalism extinguished Soviet been the had Union in throughEmpire eradication ofthe the regimeWith the document, this claimed that socialism had the in triumphed former Russian “StalinConstitution of1936”The signifiedyet transformation ofSoviet another society. 7 Chapter - enemies from from USSR.the enemies 182 181 180 stabilit have fully a multi formed established within systembeen the single state. As ofa federated wenow result, a devel fee changehave radical broughtofthe a the peoples in about aspect ofthe cultur nations absence ofexploitingThe principal are which classes, the organizers between ofstrife .

Weitz,76. Weitz,65. JosephConstitution“OnStalin, Draft USSR theof the ling has distrust dis ofmutual As Weitz explains, classification this was Eric disturbingly the to category similar - -

: oped was formally abolished. Instead, the regimewas the formallyintroduced Instead, legal abolished. the classification e whiche is national form in Socialist in and content T y envied by be well might any … and… … and… . he Indeed,

among them, among thus them, real fraternaland cooperation peoples among the has

Shift

of the USSR, 25 November25 USSR, ofthe

the flourishing national oftheculture U.S.S.R., peoples ofthe on

fromClassto

the the eve ofsigning newC the

182 - 164. Consequently, category legal the of

- national Socialist has which national state, stoodwhose all and tests,

nobilit appeared, friendship feeling a has ofmutual Narod

y, national state in any state in world ofthe national part 67 , 1936,” ,

the bourgeoisie, and the kulak. the bourgeoisie, and the

inJoseph Stalin, -

onstitution legislation,onstitution into Stalin Report DeliveredReport Extraordinarythe at ial ial marginal” was highly a fluid - all these similarfactors and all

Works: Volume 14, 1934 Works:Volume14, lishentsy - - 180

U.S.S.R. class en

The The . 181

emies -

- , and , and their their

1940

CEU eTD Collection in USSR,” the Joseph Stalin, byAdoptedAdditionsS First, the propaganda newclassification, began “enemies focus ona to oft an individual’sthat by filled be to new“en been had from eradicated Sovietelements the vacuum which a Union by needed 1936created portrayedagainst class confrontation as a pronouncement Stalin’s thatenemies, capitalist mo to efforts thoroughly “Soviet.” began regime traditions, the whether question suchnationalities to could ever become Sovietthe Union’s borders narod were and thus excluded Kremlin’sstance, involving the discourse in of notion the portrayto former many Russian through ofthe Empire nationalities the primordial a lens. of consciousness facet inherent is an modernization. studies,of nationalism agree as most that the notio ofthe primordialismpremise ofnations by has debunked been vast the majority ofscholars homeland external an presence ofcertainthe national categories who potentially held be was to deemed conceivablythat for successthe multinational ofthe state was detrimental ma forthedetrimental nationalities, Volga diasporic Germans other year and as the symbolically propaganda the policies, societal and changes proved be to document surrounding the rked therked (Soviet people). Due perception the people). someto (Soviet a nations that held “homeland” outside of 184 183 diasporic nationalities,The such as the Though t

“ConstitutionUnionof(FundamentaltheSocialist Soviet Law) Republics, andwithof Amendments Hirsch,295.

transition from class to bilize society, xenophobia becameSoviet ethnicized. Having previously been he C he natsional’nost

183 onstitution didonstitution fundamentallyitself not the Soviet nationalities alter , and did not did , and possess in “rootedness” their national territory emies.” Despite Article the fact emies.” that 123ofthe C

Indeed, given the legal abolition of Indeed, legal given the abolition Works: Volume 14, 1934 Works:Volume14, , and since since regime fully, and not the could histories and their reinvent econd,Third,Seventh,Sixth, and SupremeEighthofSessionsthe Soviet of

’

narod did not any orlegal hold significance, judicial . For significant most ofthe one regime, the factors - 68

1940 VolgaGermans, primordial not a could adopt

n ofnational identification and

(London: Red Star Press, 1978), 230 Red1978),Star(London: Press,

Nevertheless, Soviet the regime began lishentsy ulti he which people,” was mate mate

and theand ubiquitous onstitution stipulated allegiance towardsallegiance . 184 - sovietski 231. The The

Soviet Soviet

CEU eTD Collection WolgadeutschenRepublik Wolgadeutschen Republik, onthe resided territory century. a than formore foreign a who and to” “belonged little state, it differencemade that their ancestors had Nevertheless,citizens. n Poles, Germans, similar and Soviet ofthe nation, being members they portrayto continued themselves as loyal Soviet Volgaincluding the Germans. nationalities excluded Thus, though were diasporic the from protection thatreiterated the ofthe motherland duty was the ofall amonglife nationalitiesGermans Volga ameliorated. all had and of Volgamodernization the German by Republic socialism, the under quality stating that of newsocialist life.” for a theclaiming C that throughout th language publicat it was dutythat still the Germans Volga the protect ofthe to “socialist homeland.” German propaganda surrounding C the due Peoples” “Friendship their to lack of the of“rootedness”their in national territories, Soviet ofthe Union thenationalities ri Bulgarians, Greeks, etc. regime the imposeddiaspora, diasporic stance a upon USSR’sGermans,the Poles, Koreans, such nationalRegardless ornot categori of whether diaspori all to latertantamount the categorization of“enemy nations.” 188 187 186 185 fact the diasporicDespite nationalities that the been had excluded the from

David Borger, “DerinDavid DienstRotenBorger, Armee der Weitz,77. Hi “AlleSchamschir Wege mirIbatowa, Bildung zur Offen,” Stehen c nationalitiesc rsch, 294. rsch, e period. Similarly, period. e called such publications furtherto the cla ions portraying A in Red the service

onstitution was enacted fight “inspire bourgeoisie to forthethe fall ofthe

, (Engels: Deutscher Staatsverlag, 1936), 50.(Engels: Staatsverlag,, Deutscher 1936), (Engels:68. Staatsverlag, Deutscher 1936), 186

Nonetheless, Article 135of C Nonetheless,the Article with with the “homeland” outside a territory Soviet ofthe Union.

Similar publications importance ofStal stressed the

o nstitution autonomousnstitution levelof 1936onthe republic implied ght to participate in ght in party’s participate to the democracy. nominal 69 188

—

E es felt es felt as though they members ofa were eine Ehrenpflicht” thnic some Germans diasporic (unlike ationalities wereationalities designatedas those rmy as an “honorable duty” rmy “honorable as an continued 185 onstitution guaranteed all

Such categorizations applied to to Such categorizations applied 187

Soviet nationalities, Zum XSowjetkingress Zum Der

Zum Such publications Such publications

X Sowjetkingress X Der ss struggle, inism in inism the the the

- CEU eTD Collection Revolution, loyalty socialist cause the to though policy this 1941. would change in continued suffcategories) deemed be to 189

(Princetonand 48.PrincetonOxford: University 2001), Press, AmirWeiner,

Making Sense of War:SenseThe of Making SecondtheFate of the BolshevikWorld and War

prior to to Naziprior the invasion

iciently be to drafted intoRed the Army, reliable 189

The efforts ofthe efforts Volga The Germans their prove to 70

, however, fell short. , however, fell

CEU eTD Collection apparent been Europeanhad amongpowers mid the the since nat and social previously mentio workwas beenmanagement onpopulation that prior had the conducted 1936.As to nationalities.diasporic nationally times. violence some1930s, to the applied with nationalities diasporic nationalities selected place took differentin waves various in late throughout and scales the Like opponents. political onkulaks attacks the does demonstrate doubts, it Greatthat the was chiefly not againstTerror operation S an Snyder’sand ofthe analysisextent effortsdekulakization ofthe in 1930slate raises nation and out 1938. Snyder carried 681,692executions two year this in ofthe class suggests that span, ofthe political significance in nationalterror comparison the and to class 1937 in repression national and social categories. S phenomenonmultidimensional that, in politicaladdition to opposition, encompassed entire simplycitizens basis ofethnicity. onthe integral an nationalities, part n ofthe Terror the were is certainly it Well the political aspect ofthe that purges true between differentiate not did recently,Until of1937 Great Terror the 8 Chapter 191 191 190 An intrinsic

As this chapter will suggest,As 1930s chapter late according this repression witnessed the to - Naimark,81. 107. Snyder, al orders for625,483.al accounted determined criteria Sovietthroughoutdetermined the Union, specifically the regards in to :

ional was which a oftsaristcriterion, continuation policy that was trend and a The ned, the Bolsheviks the ned,

NKVD NationalNKVD Ope aspect o aspect

f Stalinistcarrying ofthe policies purges the 1930s late out the in

om e authors,e such as Timothy downplayed the Snyder, have

sought to categorize the population population the categorize sought to according bo to - 1938 had been understood simply understood been 1938 had terms. political in Indeed, the purges best the are as aIndeed, understood 190

rations 71 Though these numbers are often questionedThough are numbers these

and other other and class assault the enemies, on

ational operations, which targeted Soviet

- 19

more than othersmore than at different th

century. While national century. national While talin’s talin’s th th - CEU eTD Collection spread to operation encompass 750 was quickly 820 between with and German met, citi transportationSoviet chemical,and industries. Union who defense, workedin sought “German Operation,” known as the remove German to citizens living the within potential with cross NKVD the1937, the so began enact to ofpopulation utilization the management categorization. national and management as “enemy nations.” notably most forothers, and classification diasporic facilitatedcategories, the their national categorizatioescape advantagecrucial ordisadvantage. their nationalitymark citizen’s a documents, nationality and personal in a either be to proved crucially characteristic ofall individu important in indoctrinated population its beliefthe that ethnicity fundamental, was inherent, an and practice of passport systeminitiateda constant labeling ethnic “inadvertently that each individualand codified, of became ascrithe an carrier campaignspassportization individual’s self beginning 1932, an in continuously response. implement Moreover, to nationalities order in the policy required 1930s. Nationalself the would change in 1920s categorization allowed the fora degreein certain ofself 195 194 193 192 ethnicization of“malignantThe social body elements” the in was thus fac an an provide to individual mother the tongue parentsto ofboth order in con

Mukhina,39. Naimark,85. Weitz, Martin, required individuals to provide their nationality. provide individuals to their required internal With the

83 The Affirmative The Action Empire, - 84. -

border ties. border

ns, for opportunity which offered some advancement, forsocial

political political

The first first The of suchoperation 193

By the middle of decade,Bythe middle virtually the could noone

- called national operations national against called émigrés - identification in in lateidentification the 1930s, forexample,

449. 72

als.” ,

including professions and such as teachers 192

Henceforth, all individuals had to zens repatriated. arrested and bed nationality.bed s, NKVD Order no.00439,also - identification, thisidentification, p - identification becameidentification

efficiently, the regime regime efficiently, the

Beginning early in national national categories The SovietThe 194

ilitated byilitated This goalThis firm their firm their olicy 195

This This CEU eTD Collection Dealers.” 3 C.P.S.U., 2000), Press, Narrative Documents,A in sought societal elements the body. removefrom such to harmful thus regime began perceive to The the governments. imperial Stalin e charge Indeed,for Germany the of“Trotskyism” Japan. and being agentto equated of an against show Bolsheviks prominent the trials charge that was such individuals were the spies as forthelevels as well NKVDoperati national of foreign governmentsfordecimating was used as justification party the on all leadership work clear thatmade Soviet socialism was by directly threatened “ encirclement”by“imperialist the in Germany and Japan east, himself west. Stalin the in dislo salient as a of ties form border no.00439wasof order nationality; increasingly regime Soviet cross the potential perceived the to Thiror noconnection during Germanexecuted Operation, the majority citizens Soviet little ofwhom with were to term tantamount the Consequently,“diaspora.” an Shortly t thereafter, fact the physicians, that despite many Germany from emigrated had fascism. escape to yalty. of the Trotskyiteof the age 200 199 198 197 196 work service agents, spies, assassins, principles without Present contributingIndeed, ofthe ofthe one 1930s ofthe late was Terror factors the threat of Works: Volume 14, 1934 Works:Volume14, - andatJoseph SpeechinDebate “Report Stalin, Plenum the Centralthe Reply to of Committee of the 5March 1937 Martin,“Origins Ethnic Soviet 855. Cleansing,” of 107. Snyder, from “Letter 16PresidiumYevaFriedlender Mayto ” Soviet, of 1938, Ibid.,252. 198 228 ing in the pay of the intelligence servicesing pay intelligence offoreign the ofthe in

- -

229. day Trotskyism is not a political political daytrend a is not Trotskyism

he designationhe of

Defectsin Work LiquidatingandforParty Measures Tr Lewis ed. AndreiandSiegelbaumHaven& (New London:YaleUniversity Sokolov and withoutand ideals nts of the Japanonts ofthe d Reich. -

1940 identification, as Moscowproofof which interpreted their xplained thatxplained

(London: Red1978)Star(London:249. Press, 197 “nationalities offoreign governments”became

diasp a gang of sworn ganga ene of The determining factor for majority determining factor the The victims ofthe - o German secret German secret

, ganga diversion ofwreckers, r 73 ic nationalities as nationalities disloyalic categories, and ons.

The dominanttheme the in majority of

estimated 42,000 Germansethnic estimated in the working the in class police mies of the working ofthe mies c the the

es state

.” pionage and diversionistpionage and 199 in otskyites and other Doubleotskyites other and .

200 The presence ofThe agents Stalinism as a Way of Life:Wayof asa Stalinism

, but a gang a , but ists, intelligence ists, intelligence lass, 196 were were

- - CEU eTD Collection Yagoda”(26in September Security G.G. Polian,97. 1936) ofthe result “f 1937. nationality USSR, the in the to int Korean population categories,diasporic significantly most 1937decision “resettle” to the Sovietthe Union’s Kazakhstan. (59,518persons) beenfamilies had succe Genrikhyear, Yagoda where the area ofmilitaryconstruction was beginning. fortifications all German Polish resettle and householdsto within Germans Western Ukraine. inhabiting operations NKVD’s national becamecategories as classified “enemy nations.” following 1936C the criminals, kulaks, former Purges,during Stalinist notably the most NKVDremove sought Order no.00447,which to had operations,” each one owntoits decree the distinguishfrom other mass them operations Latvians, Though e more. these and similar and Polish smaller descent, which to Polish Operation), led the execution ofapproximately citizensSoviet of 110,000 203 204 203 202 201 stance Suchtowards a the “enemy howeve nations,” German Operation wasThe foll

It is estimated Itthat deportedapproximately were is estimated 1933 in people 260,000

Martin,“Origins Ethnic Soviet 854. Cleansing,” of Polian,102. Martin,“Origins Ethnic Soviet 851. Cleansing,” of “To People’stheCommissary CommissaryUSSR, of the InternalAffairs of 202 rontier cleansing operations.”

Similar operations in conducted Similar South and were the the towardin East

onstitution, Soviet become xenophobia had ethnicized whennational , director ofthe NKVD,that German 12,975Polish and , director confirmed 171,781

and otherand anti erior. As of erior. example of first wholesale deportation a the a , as

1936 witnessed the “resettlement” of the 1936 witnessed Polesethnic and Soviet Soviet - scale operations towards Finns,scale Kurds, Romanians, ngagements collectively were “national known as the owed Plans NKVD drawnby were Ukrainian the leadership - Soviet elements. Koreans were “ethnicallyKoreans were by of October cleansed” ssfully Western from Ukraine resettled to Northern 204 NKVD known Orderno.00485(also as the 74

800 meters of the frontier zone800 meters ofthe

201

r, predated enactmentof the r, predated the Such initiatives demon In September of that InSeptember -

Generalt of - 1937 as a 1937 as a — strate that he State heState in the the in s CEU eTD Collection Bolsheviks.”“Old ASSR the in as they contin de Indeed, much like nationalRepublic. most the territories, was leadership nearly entirely German Polish) populations. (and the regionsIndeed, west, some arrests, in the in and virtuallyexecutions deportations, eliminated primarilyGermans western regions the in border residing towards those urban and in centers. identification. Soviet ofnationality regime’s constituent perception basic of as ofsocial a life and self re oftheVolga autonomous were River, inhabitants and similarly republic for targeted large R institutional Russian space forculturalformal Soviet expression the Union within regions ofth previous forthe momentum years two simultaneouslysolidifying Russ the mobilizationpotential o agentsgovernments. offoreign that thesedeclared institutions were creationsartificial headed by and nationalists bourgeois nationalitiesbelonging diasporic through the to stating(Orgburo) decree the a majority that districts village issued and Soviets ofnational pression based solelypression based nationality, ontheir of excellent example an provides the which cimated bycimated political purges, the wasthis though especially upper among the apparent r national territories r national within federationthe such as ASSRs oblasts. autonomous and 207 206 205 ofnationalities suspicion This asand static entities coherent on1937, Moreover,the December in

Ibid.,411. Martin, Weiner,145. e RSFSRe abolished. were ussification RSFSR completed, ofthe been though apply not had did this to It stressed, be must NKVD that the however, German Operation The Affirmative The Action Empire,

Much like in the Western the many in borderlands, ASSR Much like the in arrested, were

f extra ued to be comprised primarily be to ued POWs, therefore offormer and

- 205 territorial diasporic categoriesterritorial by whilestates, foreign

This decree served purposeofattempting decree This the desist to any ian core. Continuing the trend Continuing been that the had gaining core. ian

minority 4,598national , the Russian the schools in 206 That to is not

This, for the first time, This, time, first forthe notioncreated of the a 410.

Organizational Bureau of Committee Central the 75

out the USSR liquidated. the be out to were

say gravely didn’t the it Volga that affect quickly spread . By 1940,this

was directed was directed

to the the to It was - 207 - strata strata

CEU eTD Collection NewYorkTimes and publication was of the church anti the 1930s,Indeed,late the until detrimentalmost Soviets actions ofthe towards the Lutheran was congruentSoviet with activity its continue Policy, to was allowed Volga the in region. yearSaratov same the showincluding the ofclergyclosing trial the and theological seminary ofthe 1922 in in ThoughChurch. anti an Lutheran to Germans 70% ofVolgathe adhered faith, perhaps th 20%belonged to degreesubstantial offreedom throughout the the 1920s into 1930s. approximately and While the and RussianEvangelical OrthodoxChurch, extirpation ofidolatryRevolution, the been had directed point this primarily upto agai iconoclasm the of While Bolsheviks point a become ofpolicy October had following the wasVolga t Republic detrimental more One ofthe oftheaspects operations ofthe national for Great Terror the 8 government. German early 1930s. Germany’sthey from aid Need” received in food assistance had “Brothers program the in farmscollective the in orexecuted simplydeported, nationality, their of“undermining to being due accused .2: The Eradication of the Evangelical .2: The Eradicationof Evangelical Lutheran Church the Der ander Drehbank. Gottlose 210 209 208 y, considered disloyal agents therefore foreign and were ofa citizens and

FleischhauerPinkus,and49. Mukhina,38. in“12Die to More Collective Russia:Farmers 209

(October 24, 1937), 33. 24,1937), (October

In such regime, individuals held eyes veritable Soviet a the ofthe tolink Nazi

he resurgencehe ofanti , the Lutheran , the by Church, news a creating

Volga Republic.” - Catholic campaignCatholic the fiercelyin out early been had carried 1920s,

reli

Protestant clergy to gradually were as inimical seen gious newspapers, such as propaganda and 208 -

religious campaign against the Protestantreligious against the campaign clergy. Similarly,Germans arrested if were Volga many 76 - Lutheran was fairly Church granted a

inVolga Convicted UralsofandSabatoge,”

tructure of the ofthe tructure church that Neuland e e Catholic nst The the the 210

CEU eTD Collection inWrecking,”DriveTerrorismon and 185 & London:YaleUniversity 200), Press, Life:Way of asa Stalinism A ofVolga Germaneliminated.cornerstone identification, been had Germapowers (i.e. varyingcrimes against plots party terrorist from the leadership 1936.The Volgaafter German officially clergy ofcarrying were accused of series a out national the Lutheran notwithstanding, the leadership in wasthe decimated 1930s aslate facets of both of‘Volgacomposed Germans.’” Lutheran German the clergy, who January of1938,the Lutheran 346 1932,nearly in of the churches down been after had 1936. closed all anti was the aspect of integral an nation the of religious worship freedom antireligious and propaganda six kilograms workleast per ofbread kolkhoz board the sevenfrom a clerreveals, members ofthe Marxist 214 213 212 211 fact the Despite that 124ofthe Article 1936 st Constitution - Leninist ideology. onreligiousAs activity report in a Volga 1936 the in Republic

“Except from“Except ReligiousonActivity SummaryReport in in Germans1936” among Region, Volga HaroldDe FleischhauerPinkus,and52. Stalin,“Constitution(Fundamental Law)UnionoftheSocialistRepublics,” of231. Soviet - - based repressionbased as well religious campaigns directed agains nny, “Soviet Denouncesnny,“Soviet Orthodoxas BothBishopsSpies:Leaders AccusedThoseamong ny).By Evangelical 1939,the

New York New Times NarrativeDocumentsin gy kolkhoz teach to farmers demand forthemselves to “tried

- based repression 1930sbased late against the ofthe Volga Germans - hour workday and ten to fifteen rubles fifteen to pay ten hour workdayand at and day, per The NewThe YorkTimes 214

ministered to a considerable a to Protestant population ministered

The bias The newspapers at ofAmerican time this

- - as the revival anti ofthe 186. reported that has “there wholesale ‘cleansing’ a been reported of day.”

211 ed. Lewis ed. AndreiSiegelbaumHaven (New and Sokolov 77

t the Evangelical the t - (January 11, 1938), 1. 1938),(January 11, Lutheran the Church, traditional

is recognized for all citizens,”is recognized for all - religious general campaignsin to to espionage forforeign -

Lutheran Church. ated ated that

“f reedom of 213

Indeed,

In 212

CEU eTD Collection in Nevertheless, unlike many territories, th national Union Republics fundingprovide all the to ASSRs measure. and this implement to non w paradoxically, apply not did German this Volga ASSR. VolgaInstead, the to the Germans ofthese communities subjectmembers were facto de to beassimilation, must it stressed that rulers.” very that Sovietthe 1938 and ofthe state nature multinational remained ambiguous its to and contradictions c suggests, Blitstein Indeed, as Peter the were coherently unable to leaders) while balance implementingsignifya policy. such a directiveNevertheless, the proved training ofnon fora and need common language development; economic cultural further promote to the to nationalities.peripheral was acculturational issuedit as an attempt an measure to in affirm the loyalty ofthe obtain to implemented not ultimategoalan of assimilation non towards the Russian schools Soviet throughout of1 March the Union in Sovietthe Union,were as Russian language made obligatory literature and non in subjects 1930s.Germans late Volga the in Additionally, regime Soviet the 8 .3: The “Russification”of Volga Germans the ere subject subject acculturational R to ere - Russian nationalities, it soon became it nationalities, KremlinRussian that wasclear the unable (orunwilling) to 216 217 216 215 diasporic nationalities’ the While native language institutions

Ibid. Ibid.,256. Blitstein,258.

, 259. , - Russian cadres; and to success to and the to ensure Russian ofmilitary cadres; measures.

onflict besetonflict the regime’s language policy non in

Indeed, the decreeIndeed, the

enacted enacted an acculturational R ussification, though and policy this

This policy, throughout larger trend ofa was however, part to be difficult execute, Stalinto and (as well difficult be as otherto party an examination of examination the an

explained that theexplained policy the to due was issued 78

e Volgae received Republic sufficient 938. ussification pol decree The however, decree, was

officially applied to all officially all to applied that“reveals - were were abolished, an Russian schools after schools after Russian - Russians; rather, Russians; rather, icy the towards 215 217

d the - CEU eTD Collection derderWolgadeutschen1937, ASSRVolkswitschaftsplan fur VerhovnogoIzdanie ASSRNPassrnp,Soveta center. towards the newnotion multinational ofa region the into unitary to and sense of instill a state loyalty Constitution, though usage at the time this ofRussian was order introduced in t promotedlanguage in be Volga to continued culture and the following Republic the 1936 is be of1941 September 1936 Indeed, s period. down, closed Republic. r borderlands Germans western were the the to in interior, being deported of1941.In midst the of September while NKVD’s and SovietGerman Operation promotion ofGermanthe cultur korenizatsiia territories, national ASSR other than acc GermansVolga was Soviet high agenda at forthe regime time. onthe this ofeducatidevelopment language literature. and backingfinancial process begin to mandatory the the ofimplementing study ofRussian ubles were allocated allocated were ubles the to ulturational R sued bilingually 1941. into , and the main newspaper ASSR, the , and ofthe 220 219 218 German

219 YubileynayaNem Sessiya ASSR VerhovnogoSoveta Volkskommissariat“Geburtsschein,”U.d.S.S.R.,des Innern der 1941). (January 10, Beschluss

While allWhile German continued continued throughout period, this significantly though a at pace. reduced the majoritythe publications throughout continued Volga this ofthe Republic’s , therefore, ussification through policy education fervently more was applied the to ome such as ome -

. der 8 sessionder8 derWolgadeutschen des zentralvollzugskomitees der ASSR

Official government including certificates, documents, birth to continued on in on in Volgathe ASSR

Indeed, 1939, in the 48 Kremlin earmarked rubles million forthe

continued to be be official to continued the language national ofthe territory, and

construction ofconstruction six newGerman

Stalins Brigade - 220 e continued thee autonomous until republic’s liquidation in language newspapers outside the territory the outside languageA newspapers ofthe

Thus, contrary to the claims of historians,Thus, contrary claims certain German the to

the basic internal elements the policy behind of (1939), 14. (1939), Nachricthen, Nachricthen,

, 79 and and 218

which suggestswhich acculturation the that ofthe Roter Stürmer

(Engels,19 cev Povolzhya, Stenograficheskij Otchet, cevPovolzhya, Otchet, Stenograficheskij continued publicationcontinued until - 37), 13. 37), language cinemas in the in Volga cinemas language

began as publishing as late

1.3537

Though o integrate the

million -

Uberden SSR were were SSR

CEU eTD Collection without Germans Volga exception. order the in Republic, The stated that ethnic “all Germans Laventiy NKVD,1941, ofthe orderingBeria, decree head issued of a deportation the all Leninist depor ideology) were diasporic nationalitiesthe others (and be to whodeemed Marxist with incongruent were nation to based demonstrate used to be can larger processa Soviet throughout the Unio determined AutonomousGerman Socialistin Republic 1930s. late Soviet the polity throughout the population. years, those between absolute numbers in percentage both as a and ASSR’s ofthe fact 1926,despite 52.1% in the numberthat repu ofGermansthe the in wh 53.1%oftotal comprised Nevertheless, extremelytherefore imposs not if difficult opportunities. and resources whose individual passport statedan that theyGerman denied access would be to were 1930s, late in Indeed, the being in to addition ofan member as a “enem perceived Germans ofthe towards undoubtedlyresult turn primordialism.as had a Stalinist deteriorated Germans repressionThough nationally been the had against determined that out Sovietcarried 8 .4: The End of.4: The End 222 221 Such sentiments wouldfollowing culminate of1941, when Nazi invasion the June in was generally the in was Westernstanding borderlands, the implemented Volga ofthe

Martin, Weitz,83 222 repression acculturational and R

korenizatsiia korenizatsiia Though - based repression. repression. based The Affirmative The Action Empire, Korenizatsiia - 84.

, it cannot be said be that cannot , it

anti - of the labor force continued, byand GermansVolga 1939, German sentiments again become once had widespread 221 ite

ted wholesale from their wholesale places from ted ofresidence.

- Upward 1930s late mobility forV the in collar positions in the in positions collar Volga Republic

ible 381. korenizatsiia korenizatsiia ussification of Volgaussification the Germans this in period

80 outside the territory oft

was abandoned in the However, nationally the he ASSR. he , improvement an from blic had declinedblic had n; a shift from shift a n; class olga Germansolga was

On August 27, Volga

y nation,” ynation,”

- - -

CEU eTD Collection Sarato post in relevant controversies sayto the surrounding that events their implications these and continue be to scholarshipSoviet in is widespread nationalities of is outside scope and the Meskhetian of ThoughTatars, others. wartimeTurks, and the deportation of examination Finns, againstout Ingushetians, and Karachais, Kalmyks, Balkars, Chechens Crimeans Saratovbetween Stalingrad Oblasts. and Oblasts.” t others. all with the Germans regions mentioned residing resettled are the be in to to the Communistresettlement. Party Komsomol members resettled are be to simultaneously and residing th in erritory KazakhKrasnoyark ofthe Altai SSR, and Krais, Omsk Novosibirsk and the and vand StalingradOblasts 224 223 223

Polian,131. from “Excerpt Resettingfor GermansNKVDinthe ASSR Instruction GermanVolgain and the the

The VolgaThe was Republic formally the and territory abolished, was distributed e Volga Saratove Stalingrad the and German subject ASSR Oblasts are in and to - socialist Russia. socialist

27 August,In27 1941,”Polian, 129

224

Wholesale deportationsWholesale ca be would later 81

- 130.

this thesis,this suffice rried CEU eTD Collection status Germansocioeconomic settlers, ofthe Bolshevik the and with regime’s obsession ofthe result waragainstas a class enemi campaigns.during dekulakization the of early fact that much the subjectthe 1930s, region despite been had abhorrent repressionto increasingly 1920s, throughoutsuccessful the in pinnacled and Though became process project this was by initially the factors, numerous inhibited GermansVolga territorialunit national a was emulate which to meant a nationmodern Russian the Empire, former regime policyenacted the of the control what to Bolsheviksorder inevitable processas the saw ofdecolonization the in Sovietthe actively regime language in German culture Volga and the promoted Republic. Russian war,after takingof the Bolsheviks power,the trend viewed which the halt sought to the the in Russian While Empire. peoples ant FirstVolga World region, by the War, and they wealthiest among were the categories of settlers the Nonetheless, to continued vastaccrue landholdings ofwealth and amounts the in ofAlexander IIreforms of deterioration a to led favored ofGerman position settlersthe in 19 statusGermans, their as privileged was to this due tsarist ofthe empire. subjects processes possessedthese ostensibly an dimension times, in national at t body societal the be to deemed Marxist inimical were to which unt Thus, the Conclusion il theil mid Indeed, throughout the interwar period andIndeed, interwar throughout especially the 1920s early and the in 1930s - Germans as “enemy aliens.”

repression oftherepression Volga Germans - 1930s. Prior to this point, 1930s. point, this Prior to the Soviet sought regime remove “elements” to from

Indeed, the Volga the GermansIndeed, disproportionately suffered es.However, prerevolutionary the was to this due i -

was not based onethnicallywas based not determined criteria German widespread sentiments became result as a th 82

century lasted until thecentury 1860s, until whenthe lasted

the standingthe ofRussian korenizatsiia korenizatsiia

- the Volga in Republic the Leninist though ideology, and w - he casehe ofthe Volga hich granted the granted the hich Germans. Indeed, the Indeed, the - state. state.

, In CEU eTD Collection the outside solely nationality. allAt German national ontheir time, this borderlands, western the Volgain became the also Germans subject repression to based century. NKV the Though despitenationalities, the fact that in their territory ancestors resided had the a than formore remove to effort which “citizens offoreigneventually governments,” the to diasporic equated categories such national held ultimate allegiance an states.towards external the in mid question Volga the sta Germansadopt primordial not a could sovereignty and “rootedness” republics. As nationalities national diasporic the ofthe such as regime the and instead began ofthe focus onthe to Soviet peoples Union by stressing the Soviet Union. Soviet state. cu the be officialto continued languageregion, in ofadministration each Russian language and policmany ofthe nationalities the Russian languagpromoted the population in potentialevent foreign ofa Peoples” “Friendship thus ofthe The invasion. Soviet Kremlin adjustedthe Union, the the policy nationalities to attempt mobilize an in the Germany ont claim increasinglydiasporic a imposed thepolicy in mid was altered eradicating “capitalist el categorizing according population class the to nationality) (and the process facilitated of lture was celebratedlture order promoted in and serve of to centerpiece multinational as a the Consequently, a Though ASSR their and subject were liquidated, facto were inhabitants de to assimilation.

The Con The Stalin Stalin korenizatssia - 1930s, and it became1930s, it and widelya Partyamong belief the that held leadership had had stitution of1936is ofthis emblematic n integral component ofthe component n integral ements” fromements” the countryside. proclaimed that politythe been had D national operations were carried operations were primarily out D national Germans against - would continue throughout Volgaexistence, would continue the the Republic’s 1930s to ethnicization due ofSoviet the xenophobia. As Nazi e and culture in order to provide culture to and order e in unifying a the bondbetween ies. Though the titular Thoughies. titular the language 83

Great Terror oftheGreat 1930s late Terror was the nce, nce, their loyalty into increasingly came he

Volksdeutsche

turn from from turn the people in to class institutions eradicate

in each national unit territorial each in d of class of

and and territories Eastern

- enemies, enemies,

Europe and CEU eTD Collection GermanVolga Autonomous Socialist Soviet approximately 400,00 sentiments followinginvasion culminated the ofNazi Germany 1941,whenthe in dimension, specificallyovert national diasporic nationalities. the to Such regards in pace. Neverthe reduced not did this narratives, forcedentail assimilation. Rather, policy R ofacculturational as disloyalperceived In citizens. the response to mid granted Sovietand nation Instead, has thesis demonstrated, as this Volgaagainst the throughout Germans the determined wasinterwar period. nationally ofthe ASSRliquidation ofNazi invasion Germany the following 1941. in potentially their to deportation disloyalled subjects Kazakhstan Siberia and to the and TheASSR, significantly perception a pace. that at though reduced acculturational R thewas in Volga strongly Republic. implemented Russians though schools, and policy this wasconsistently applied not th throughout Simultaneously, were language made obligatory literature Russian and all non in subjects - 1930s, when due to a number of number a convergent1930s, to the whendue Volga factors, be Germans began to - state in in Volgastate the Republic, This thesis has thesis soughtThis clarify to victimhood claim the which narratives th ussification, though must it stressed that be - Germans preferential treatment. Germans preferential 0 Volga Germans 0 Volga less, by the middle of the decade,less, by ofthe middle Soviet taken the had repression onan ussification towards Volga the Germans, many thoughto contrary

the Bolsheviks actively prom

were forciblywere homes, the and from the deported by to wasmodern emulate constructing what a meant Republic wasRepublic formally abolished 84

se circumstances, regime the implement

The territoryThe was t

This policy into ardently the continued korenizatsiia korenizatsiia korenizatsiia korenizatsiia oted German identification,oted

Soviet hus subject to to hus subject continued, albeitcontinued, at a -

continued the in Germans were

at repression e polity,e it ed ed a - CEU eTD Collection Brubaker, Diaspora.” Rogers. ‘Diaspora’ “The NationalBrubaker, the Rogers. and in Question Soviet “Nationhood the Union and Post Loveman,, Stamatov,Brubaker, & Rogers,Mara, “Ethnicity Peter. as Cognition.” SouthernBrandes, “German Colonistsin up Ukraine Detlef. theto ofthe Repeal Colonial Brandenberger, David. Roten der Borger, in Dienst “Der David. Armee P Blitstein, Beschluss SSR. den Union der der “Ueber des Prasidiums des Zentralvollskomitees Sowjet: BeschlussZentralvollzugskomit 8Session der des SoyuzaSozialisticheskii Sovetski Atlas Cik Izanie USSRRepublik Armstrong, Proletarian and Diasporas.” “Mobilized John. Anderson, Benedict. Russia: in Die More to “12 Farmers Volga in Collective Bibliography ( 78. Soviet Account.”An Eurasia:Institutionalist and Society. Press,Studies 1994. & Torke John Statute,” 2002. Identity,Modern Russian 1931 National Der Oxford N & of the in Age andStalin, Lenin Making Soviet Non Staatsverlag: 1936 Engels, undKulturellenWirtschaftlichen Aufbau ASSR der Wolgadeutschen der Staatsverlag: der Volkswitschaftsplan ASSRden fur Wolgadeutschen der Review. Nationalism. York The New T January 2005

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Building Obligatory orRussification? Instructionthe in Russian (October 24,1937):33. (October

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Weimer Russia, Germany 1926 & Soviet “Soviet Denounces Bis Denounces “Soviet Nations a Nations C. Hurst Company, & 1986. C.

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