Australia and North Africa – a Complex Modern Reality

Australia and North Africa – A Complex Modern Reality Hannah Climas Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of International Studies Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences Flinders University October 2017 Declaration I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. Hannah Climas October 2017 ii Acknowledgements To my loving husband Aaron and daughter Elizabeth for their unconditional encouragement and words of wisdom. Special mention goes to the countless flower crowns that I was given by my very insistent two-year-old as inspiration; you consistently demonstrated that every action’s an act of creation. To my supervisor Dr. Tanya Lyons for her professional and personal support during the past three years, your advice has been beyond valuable and I can only offer my sincere apologies for my constant failure to check my emails. Thank you for making this experience such a rich and fulfilling one. To my friends for making sure that I stayed hydrated (Madeline); for helping me with the most basic of mathematics (Jacqui); for shouting me coffee (Angus); for listening to me vent at the most inopportune times (Carissa); and for reminding me that there’s a world beyond my thesis (Dan and Adelle). Thank you for reminding me that sometimes, what feels like failure isn’t failure at all. It’s what inspires you to dream even bigger. To my wonderful family. All we have to decide is what to do with the time that is given to us. This thesis was completed with the assistance of a Flinders University Research Scholarship granted on the basis of academic excellence. iii Abstract This thesis analyses and critiques the foreign policy formation of successive Australian governments towards the five Arab states of North Africa – Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia – and argues that (with few exceptions) these bilateral relationships are trade-based and unlikely to change, even in the face of international crises such as the Arab Spring. The question underpinning the analysis conducted in this thesis is “what does North Africa have to offer Australia?” The research here concludes that economic concerns, trade, mining, Foreign Direct Investment, and developmental aid, provided strong incentives for Australia’s ongoing engagement in the region. This engagement occurred during a time of huge social and political upheaval in the region and, as it is argued in this thesis, coincided Australia’s with successful campaign for a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council 2013-2015. It is argued here that this was a blatant example of Australia’s activist ambitions, and thus this thesis questions Australia’s foreign policy formation, including its dedication to a stable world order; its investment in peaceful political reform in developing regions; and its obligations above and beyond the United Nations. This thesis argues that there are foreign policy frameworks that transcend domestic political party lines, and that this framework is founded on the three tenets of Australian foreign policy formation – ongoing support for our ‘great and powerful friend’ the United States; ongoing ties with the Asia- Pacific region (including China); and ongoing support for and active engagement with the United Nations. What has been termed a ‘re-engagement’ under the activist Rudd Labor Australian government was not a paradigmatic shift in foreign policy formation – it was a reorientation precipitated by a specific series of events that nevertheless saw a continuation of Australia’s economic policies and continued to be driven by Australia’s domestic political concerns. This approach was a consequence of former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s belief that Africa is a ‘complex modern reality’ that presents more opportunities than threats, and that these opportunities require an increasingly activist foreign policy. iv v List of Tables / Figures Figure 2.1 Level of domestic support for UN interventions in Iraq and Libya – 2011 Figure 2.2 Domestic support for Australian leaders pre- and post-disaster Figure 4.1 Australia’s Overall Merchandise Trade: Exports and Imports Figure 4.2 Australian Official Visits to Africa 2009-2010 Figure 4.3 Australia’s exports of education-related travel services by market share 2009-10 Figure 5.1 Food scores for the Arab states of North Africa (out of 100) Figure 5.2 Projected annual growth in food security variables in North Africa between 2012 and 2022 Figure 6.1 Australian Official Development Assistance, Region of Benefit by Strategic Goals, 2009–10 to 2011–12 Figure 6.2 Australian Official Development Assistance to the five Arab states of North Africa Figure 6.3 Aid allocated in the Australian budget by region and associations Figure 6.4 AusAID Official Development Assistance, Strategic Goals by Type of Partner, 2011-12, $*000 vi Acronyms ABARE – Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics ABC – Australian Broadcasting Corporation ABS – Australian Bureau of Statistics ACIAR – Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ADF – Australian Defence Force ALP – Australian Labor Party (also referred to in some quotes as ‘Labor’) ANZUS – Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty APPR – Aid Program Performance Review AQIS – Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service ASIO – Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ASIS – Australian Secret Intelligence Service AMISOM – African Union’s Mission in Somalia AusAID – Australian Agency for International Development Austrade – Australian Trade Commission CAAR – Council for Arab-Australian Relations CHOGM – Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting CNN – Cable News Network CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility DAC – Development Assistance Committee DAFF – Department of Agriculture, Farming and Fisheries DEEWR – Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations DFAT – Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade DIAC – Department of Immigration and Citizenship EIS – Environmental Impact Statement ESCAS – Exporter Supply Chain Assurance System EU – European Union FOI – Freedom of Information vii GDP – Gross Domestic Product HOM – Heads of Mission JSCFADT – Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council GFC – Global Financial Crisis GHI – Global Hunger Index GNI – Gross National Income ICC – International Criminal Court IFPRI – International Food Policy Research Institute IMF – International Monetary Fund ICRC – International Committee of the Red Cross ISIS – Islamic State of Iraq and Syria LES – Live Export Shame MDG – Millennium Development Goal MEAA – Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance MENA – Middle East and North Africa MLA – Meat and Livestock Australia MOU – Memorandum of Understanding MP – Member of Parliament MPI – Multidimensional Poverty Index NGO – Non-Governmental Organisations ODA – Official Development Assistance ODE – Office of Development Effectiveness OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OIC – Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OSCE – Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe RSPCA – Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals viii RtoP – Responsibility to Protect (also known as R2P) SADC – Southern African Development Community SBS – Special Broadcasting Service SOT – Sector of the State reports SPCG – Strategic Policy Coordination Group UAE – United Arab Emirate UN – United Nations UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund UNMISS – United Nations Mission to South Sudan UNSC – United Nations Security Council US – United States of America USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics UK – United Kingdom VCE – Victorian Certificate of Education WEOG – Western European and Other Group WHO – World Health Organization ix Table of Contents Declaration ............................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. iv List of Tables / Figures ........................................................................................................................... vi Acronyms .............................................................................................................................................. vii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... x Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 i.i Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 2 i.ii Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 4 i.iii The Arab Spring and the global winds of change .........................................................................

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