lx x x NATURE M arch 21, 1942
'KODAK' SLOW SPECTROGRAPHK PLATES In response to many requests for a slower plate than the ‘ Kodak’ B.20 or B.10, the ‘ Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate has been evolved to meet the following specification :
(1) HIGH CONTRAST AND RESOLVING POWER. The ‘ Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate has higher contrast and somewhat higher resolving power than the ‘ Kodak’ B.10— hitherto the spectrographic plate with maximum resolving power. (2) ROBUST EMULSION. The ‘ Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate has a toughened emulsion layer and is less susceptible to damage in handling than the ‘ Kodak’ B.10 plate. ;3) RAPID PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS. The ‘ Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate has pro cessing characteristics approaching in rapidity those which have helped to make the ‘ Kodak’ B.10 plate so popular with spectrographers. : 4) HIGH ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVITY RELATIVE TO BLUE. The ultra-violet sensitivity is remarkably high, though, as with all normal emulsions, the sensitivity falls off at about 2300 A. The ‘ Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate is not colour-sensitised. (5) LOWER SPEED THAN EITHER 'KODAK' B.20 OR B.10 PLATES. The Kodak’ Slow Spectrographic plate is about 1 /8th the speed of B.20, the standard spectrographic plate, or one- quarter the speed of B.10, the plate with exceptionally high speed towards ultra-violet. (6) ACCURATE SPECTROPHOTOMETRY. If these plates are processed uniformly (see Kodak Data Sheet A22.) they are very suitable for accurate spectrophotometry.
Kodak Data Sheet X7 describes the character The 'Slow Spectrographic' plate is a new member of istics of the seven 'K o d ak' plates for spec- the 'K o d a k ' Scientific Plate series, and is held in stock trography which are held in stock. The in the following sizes:— leaflet 'Kodak Plates for Scientific Purposes' 4^ x 3J in. on glass 0.050 in. thick deals with over 1 00 different types of plates 10 x 6 „ „ „ 0.0 6 0 ,, „ which are made on demand for scientific 10 x 4 „ ,, „ 0.060 „ „ and 0.043 in. ('thin') purposes. 10 X 2 ,, ,, 0.060 „ i, „ a n n A SCIENTIFIC FOOD POLICY AR had brought famine to two of its first victims, W China and Spain, before Great Britain took p a rt in it. W ith the deliberate spoliation by the Nazis, the blockade and the scorched earth policy in the most fertile regions of the U.S.S.R., famine at the end of this War will be far worse than in 1918 and the following years. Some form of international famine relief commission must, perforce, be set up. It may be content to restore the unsatisfactory CONTENTS normal of the years before the War, or it may grow Page into a permanent organization that will attempt to A Scientific Food Policy ...... 309raise the nutrition of people throughout the world to International Economic Equilibrium . . .311 a satisfactory level—an organization that will differ from the wistful and ineffective League of Nations W e ath er Analysis and Forecasting. By Dr. F. J. W . in having executive powers. If the present determina W h ip p le ...... 313 tion to make a safer and saner world survives the Preservation of Ornamental Trees. By Fraser Story 314 War, this relief organization will not give up the An Individualist’s Philosophy. By Prof. W . G. de Burgh, more ambitious aim. F.B.A ...... 315 Of the four freedoms of President Roosevelt, Man’s Present and Future. By Rev. J. C. Hardwick . 316 freedom from want, in respect of food at any rate, Genetics Applied. By Dr. C. D. Darlington, F.R.S. . 317 stands in a class by itself. Such phrases as freedom of speech may have very different meanings in New Food Production and Nutrition. By N. W . Pirie . 318 York and Moscow, in London and in Berlin ; even United States Antarctic Expedition, 1939-41 . . 319 those to whom the words carry the same meaning, Crystallography and Plant Viruses. By F. C. Bawden 321 may differ in their estimates of the amount of freedom Obituaries : that should be allowed. But a calorie is a calorie all the world over ; the experts of nine States have Captain T. A. Joyce, O.B.E. By H. J. Braunholtz . 322 agreed on the minimum amounts of various food News and Views ...... 323 constituents that freedom from want implies. The Letters to the Editors : requirements are settled. How can the supplies be A New Structure of Carbon.— Dr. H. Lipson and obtained and how can a fair distribution be ensured ? A. R. Stokes ...... 328 We can take it that plans for the reorganization Purification of Penicillin.— Dr. E. P. Abraham and of British agriculture that suited the years before Dr. E. C h a i n ...... 328 the War will no longer meet our needs. The economic Further Observations on the Increased Yield of position of Great Britain will have changed funda Nucleic Acid from Irradiated Yeast.— Prof. John mentally ; we shall no longer be able to draw food R. Loofbourow, Alfred M. Webb, Dorothea G. Loofbourow and Hermann Lisco . . . 328 and 'feeding-stuffs, as tribute, from half the world. Acute Inhibition of the Corpus Luteum Excited Further, as Dr. Platt said at the recent meeting of by the Onset of Anoestrus in Elephantulus.— the Nutrition Society (see p.- 318), continued importa C. J. van der Horst and Dr. Joseph Gillman 329 tion of large amounts of feeding-stuffs by Great Anthracotheriidae in Ceylon.— P. E. P. Derani- Britain does not involve a competition for food y a g a l a ...... 330 between different kinds of domestic animals only, or Nitzschia Cultures at Hull and at Plymouth.— even between men and animals only, but also between — D. P. W ilson and C. E. Lucas . . .331 men and men ; the food for our animals is taken at Occurrence of a Halophilic Alga in Mid-Cheshire.— the expense of men in other parts of the world. Frederick Burke ...... 331 There are huge blocks of human life, in India and Research Items ...... 332 China, for example, whose standard of diet is not of Chemotherapeutical Use of Halogenized Phenols as the same order as the minimum proposed by the External Disinfectants. By Prof. Bernhard Zondek 334 Technical Commission of the League of Nations or Folk-lore of Eruptive Fevers ..... 335as the standard of diet of western Europe. Europe, excluding the U.S.S.R., with a population little more than one third that of Asia, consumes more cereals and six times as much meat. A world of Editorial and Publishing Offices MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., such gross inequalities cannot be stable. ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2 Physiologists have been impressed by the produc tion (over a limited area and for a limited period) of Telephone Number : Whitehall 8831 supplies of food in excess of effective demand, and Telegrams : Phusis Lesquare London by the deliberate destruction and limitation of pro Advertisements should be addressed to T. G. Scott & Son, Ltd., Three Gables, London Road, Merstham, Surrey ductive resources. They have been inclined to Telephone: M erstham 316 believe that there is no physical bar to the satisfaction The annual subscription rate is £4 JO 0, payable in advance, Inland o r Abroad of their demand for adequate food for all ; . £hat All rights reserved. Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office ample is available to order. There is an opposite 310 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149
view ; in its extreme form it is that human nutrition all round, milch cows are by far the most efficient is a by-product of a cycle—fodder crops, animals, converters of vegetable feeding-stuffs into valuable manure—that maintains the fertility of the soil. The food for human consumption. In times of shortage exhaustion of the soil, which has reduced fertile land they are the only animals that should be allowed to from Saskatchewan to Texas to whirling dust, has compete with human beings for food ; other animals, made us all realize that the soil cannot supply food male calves, for example, should be killed young. in unlimited amounts and kind ; that it is essential This concentration on vegetable crops, for direct to plan the type of food produced so that the quality human consumption, and on milk and milk products, of the soil will be maintained. If this is not done gives the diet recommended by Sir John Orr both in the traditional way with animal manure, some for war-time and during the reorganization of the other way must be found. world’s food supply. So far as our present knowledge Actually the world, as a whole, has never produced goes, it will supply everything that is needed. too many calories for human food ; certainly, in the At the end of the meeting of the Nutrition Society years after this War there will be no excess. It will on February 28, Sir .Joseph Barcroft stressed the be necessary to take care of the calories. Now, the importance of the flavour and interest of food. But largest number of calories for human consumption there is no reason why milk prodricts and vegetables can be obtained from a given area if crops are grown should be flavourless or dull. There is a wonderful that can be eaten by human beings. If feeding-stuffs choice of cheeses, and no two Cheddars even taste are grown and used to feed animals, the return, in quite the same. There is no need to cling to the terms of calories, is poor. For example, an acre narrow range of badly cooked vegetables that is under potatoes will produce some four million (large traditional in (Ireat Britain. What is wanted is or kilo-) calories for human consumption, and some better methods of transporting and storing vegetables, two million if under wheat ; but only one fifth of a something comparable with the improvement in million calories if used as grass-land for feeding beef methods of storing fruit. As it is, however, the diets cattle, and two thirds of a million if used to feed of many people are so dull that they must enliven milch cows. Animals, like human beings, use up the them with crude flavourings. The Indian corrodes greater part of their food to supply their daily needs his stomach with curry and the Englishman spoils of energy, and store only a small surplus as flesh ; his palate and ruins his digestion with pickles and owing to the rapid growth of animals, the return is spices. The first edition of ‘Blitz’ soup, prepared to higher than might have been expected. But, during suit the taste of Londoners, was so fiery that it periods when calories are short, no more animals might have been used externally as a counter- should be kept than are needed to maintain the irritant. Further, tastes are changing. British soldiers fertility of the soil (supposing that no substitute is patronized milk bars, so long as they supplied milk. found) and to meet the special needs of human beings Experiments on children have been extended to that are not well supplied by vegetables. The con adults eating in canteens ; one can now see sturdy version factors give a fairly correct estimate of the draymen sampling Oslo meals. relation between the amount of energy, for human Vegetables and milk are best produced on the beings, obtained if crops are used direct as human spot, whereas cereals are well suited for transport. food and the amounts obtained if the crops are used The most effective policy would be one similar to the indirectly for feeding animals which are eaten by breadstuffs policy of the War of 1914-18. Peoples, human beings ; for a calorie is much the same, such as those of India and China, who now wring whether obtained from animal or vegetable food. just enough or not enough calories from the soil, But estimates of the amounts of protein produced might be supplied with cereals from areas such as by animals from a given amount of protein in feeding- Canada and the Argentine that can expand pro stuffs cannot be used without qualification ; they do duction and produce a surplus over their require not take into account the difficult question of bio ments. In this way, land in the over-populated logical value. Meat is of special importance in countries could be set free for growing other crops nutrition because animals pick out the indispensable and for feeding animals, with benefit to the health amino-acids, which we cannot make ourselves from of the people and the fertility of the soil. thoir food, and concentrate them in their flesh. The If the amount and quality of food is to lie raised, concept of biological value is unsatisfactory. It agricultural machinery must be supplied. This will appears that wheat protein mixed with a small involve an increased demand 011 manufacturers, who amount of animal protein may have the same value will have to meet other demands to supply pressing as an equal weight of animal protein. We cannot needs—machinery for transport and building, for calculate the proportion of vegetable food to meat example. The K utrition Society is a valuable meeting- that will give the highest nutritive value per acre place, in which physiologists can discuss with agri until we have a more exact knowledge of the meta culturists how best their demands can be met. Should bolism of amino-acids and of their interplay. How there not be a means devised of enabling agriculturists ever, milk is in a class by itself; milch cows give a to meet manufacturers, state their requirements and fairly high return, even of calories ; the protein of learn the difficulties that may lie in the way of their milk has a high biological value ; cows concentrate fulfilment ? calcium and riboflavin in their milk ; they return the There are political difficulties, too. Small farms carotene of their food mainly as pre-formed vitamin A, cannot use agricultural machinery economically. w h^i is better absorbed by human beings. Taken There must be some form of amalgamation, whether No. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 311 in State farms, collective farms, co-operatives or not again find us unprepared. TJnpreparedness can large groups of family units under one management. as assuredly endanger tho winning of the peace as it In China some 40 per cent of farms are less than lias hindered the organization of victory. If acres ; in Japan two thirds are less than acres. In the last year or so, the discussions which for the These little plots cannot produce proper food for the first year of the War were so p r o m i n e n t on Federal farmers’ families. Some means must be found by Union and the exact form of the organization of a which the density of the agricultural population can collective security system have rather fallen into the be reduced. background. It has been recognized that the final The production of sufficient food is only half the form of organization to be adopted is a question to be battle. The producer must know that his crops will determined later. On the other hand, there is a wider find a market ; the consumer must be able to buy recognition that forms of co-operation established to the food produced. The whole reorganization must serve the common purpose during the War can involve fundamental changes of custom and conflict equally contribute to the final purpose of winning with vested interests. Opposition may be less than the peace. Even before the United States entered the it would have been a few years ago. All the world War, there was unmistakable evidence on both sides over, people are becoming familiar with food control ; of the Atlantic of Anglo-American determination to in Creat Britain they are beginning to realize its maintain that co-operation, and the machinery now possibilities. Also hunger is a strong argument, and established will not be recklessly scrapped unless it is hunger is one of the few things of which there is proved to be no longer serviceable. prospect of plenty at the end of the War. An Inter Besides this, attention is being concentrated, not national Famine Relief Commission will wield a first on the machinery to be established, but rather convincing weapon—food ; if it uses this weapon on the problems to be solved, with the object of justly and efficiently it can do much to reconcile elucidating first principles and from them arriving at people to profound changes. Difficulties are great : the methods and organization most likely to provide they must be studied now. For only those who a solution. In the field of international reconstruc know clearly what they want and how to get it are tion there is, for example, the problem of the relation likely to achieve anything worth having in the welter of Great Britain to Europe. There is the problem of of conflicting policies at the end of the War. the place of Germany in a new European system. There are the questions of the colonial peoples and of raw materials, and there is the problem of recon structing world trade. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC All these problems are, of course, related and have at least some bearing on the organization of post EQUILIBRIUM war relief in occupied Europe, as well as on the establishment of a new system of collective defence. ' I ^HE meetings of the Inter-Allied Council render None the less, they can each serve as the starting- A one signal service in rospect of reconstruction— point for an attempt to arrive at first principles and they stress its international aspect. This has to some to remove some of the causes of international friction extent been overlooked in the studies and discussions which contributed to the outbreak of the present on reconstruction which have so far been initiated struggle. This is admirably illustrated in the survey in Great Britain, and for all the attention that has of international economic relations which Prof. J. B. been given to the work of the Leith-Ross Committee Condliffe has written under tho title “The Recon and the establishment of the Leith-Ross Bureau to struction of World Trade”*. deal with problems involved in the storage of surplus Prof. Condliffe’s volume falls naturally into three foodstuffs and their distribution after tho War to the parts. The first analyses the collapse of the inter peoples in enemy-occupied Europe, the economic national trading system that was restored, on the aims stated in the fourth and fifth points of tho pre-war model, after the War of 1914-18. The second, Atlantic Charter have not received much emphasis. including much the most technical chapters, examines The political, economic and social aspects of inter the challenge now presented by the totalitarian national reconstruction cannot indeed be entirely methods of bilateral trade. The third surveys the separated. They are as interlocked as the inter problems that must be faced in any attempt to national and the national or internal aspects of recon reconstruct world trade after the War comes to an struction, and our hopes of a new and stable world end. The book is based largely on material drawn order depend largely on our exploring the situation from research studies undertaken in preparation for now so as to lay bare the principles for a constructive a conference called to meet at Bergen on August 27, policy in readiness for the time of action. 1939, and much of it would normally have formed a Much of that action must of necessity bo deferred report of the International Studios Conference on until after the War, though in certain matters pre “Economic Policies in Relation to World Peace”. liminary action as well as the determination of broad It has, however, lost nothing of its pertinence in the lines of policy are already required. Demobilization, for interval, and this lucid exposition could scarcely be example, clearly must receive consideration before the bettered as a guide to the discussion of trade policy fighting ceases. Plans must be in readiness, and the experience of 1918 is with us as a warning that a * The Reconstruction of World Trade : a Survey of International Economic K:*lations. By Prof. J. IS. Condliffe. (Prometheus Library.) sudden and unexpected collapse of the enemy should Pp. 427. (London : George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1941.) 12s. 6i . net. 312 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149 after the War to which Mr. J. G. Winant and Mr. McDougall’s “Food andWelfare”, and Prof. Condliffe’s Sumner Welles have recently made such pointed book shows how closely it is related to the wider reference. aspects of security. Government policy, not economic On the making of policy Prof. Condliffe writes or scientific developments, has been responsible for forcefully in his opening chapter. He points out that the great decrease in trade in agricultural products, a Government can rarely lay down in advance, and both food and raw materials. Tho primary responsi adhere to, a line of policy which is the result of bility for the breakdown in international trade lies mature judgment and reflection. Wherever action not with economic facts but with economic policy, must be adjusted to an ever-changing set of circum arising from attempts to place the interest of parti stances largely beyond the control of any individual, cular groups before that of the community as a whole group, or government, policy must be in large degree and, in particular, to preserve and buttress the un improvised and pragmatic. Moreover, a discussion fettered sovereignty of the national State. of the forces that shape national economic policies in International economic equilibrium is not a static the international field cannot be narrowly confined but a dynamic concept, and we have yet to develop to the field of commercial policy. Prof. Condliffe the appropriate organization and technique now that refers pointedly to the effect of private enterprise, the technical progress of industry has outgrown and it follows from what he says that any serious national boundaries, as in an earlier age it outgrew the attempt to achieve a balance between freedom and boundaries of city States. Social regression, not order in the national sphere, as has been suggested by security, will follow from any attempt after the War Mr. Geoffrey Crowther, is bound to determine largely to cling to traditional forms of political organization the nature of economic policy in the international and put back the clock of scientific knowledge and field. industrial technique. The dangers inherent in modem A further important factor is the passing of power tariffs and the complications of tariff bargaining, the in recent years from the legislative to the adminis administrative obstacles they introduce to trade and trative side of government. This is widely recognized, the extent to which they represent a reversion to but its bearing on economic policy has scarcely been tyrannical methods of government are unmistakable examined, and the searching questions which Prof. in this analysis. Bilateral treaties negotiated in Condliffe raises demand careful answer if our recon recent years represent, on the whole, grave restrictions struction of world trade is to proceed on sound lines. on multilateral trade, and the warm tribute which He stresses the real danger of the progressive with Prof. Condliffe pays to Mr. Cordell Hull’s efforts to drawal of day-to-day policy from detailed public promote multilateral trade and breach the high pro scrutiny and criticism. The concentration of power tective wall erected by the Howley-Sm.irt tariff does exercised for long periods without the check of public not disguise the little that had been achieved in re criticism makes individual errors more serious, moving the obstacles to the restoration of world trade. because errors of policy tend to become cumulative. It must be recognized therefore that while attempts Moreover, administrative control of policy-making to preserve past privileges of occupation or owner puts a premium upon organized pressure from directly ship may wreck international co-operation in the interested individuals or groups of individuals, and future as they have done in the past, the absence of lessens tho consideration likely to be given to the any real will-power has been the decisivo factor. general public interest, and particularly the Policies of independent economic nationalism can unorganized interest of the consumer. never form the basis of co-operation. Their ultimate These warnings cannot be lightly disregarded in aim is world domination and their technique is that rospoct of whatever new measures of commodity of conflict. No compromise is possible, in the long control may be developed even for the relief of run, between States that are organized to serve the occupied European countries. The conflict between purposes of individual citizens and those in which the national regulation and international equilibrium individual is subordinated to the service of the State. must be recognized, and while we may seek, as Prof. Prof. Condliffe’s thoughtful chapter on new Staley has urged in “World Economy in Transition”, aspects of international organization well illustrates to lesson the economic significance of national the need for further investigation if we are to boundaries, the task of creating effective organs of formulate a sound policy for the reconstruction of international co-operation on a regulated basis must world trade. We liavo to take account, not merely not be shirked. Meanwhile Prof. C'ondliffe’s conclusion of the limitation or redefinition of national sovereignty that the best practical prospect of restoring inter but also of the tendency of business organization and national equilibrium lies in the re-establishment of trading relations to become international in scope. known and accepted routine lines of policy, based The importance of the borderland between business upon a relatively moderate degree of national and government with regard to international relations planning in the sonso of assuring to each national has increased consid(drably and still present s one of the community reasonable minima of security and liveli most significant fields for economic research. More hood, is at least in keeping with the terms of the over, experience gained with certain of the war-time Atlantic Charter. World economic activity, like world controls can scarcely fail to prove invaluable for the peace, is in fact indivisible. correct ion of the weaknesses revealed in some of the Tho relation of freedom of trade to the establish pre-war international commodity control schemes ment of social security in the field of nutrition has and to increase our exact knowledge of their extent already been emphasized in such studies as F. L. and relations with government regulation. If Prof. No. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 313
Condliffe does not visualize anything like the Raw standards, economic advancement and social security Materials Union suggested by “Balbus” in “Recon implied therein. Practical plans of economic co struction and World Peace” (Democratic Order operation already engage its attention, and the grow Pamphlet No. 10) and in the P E P broadsheet, ing ties between the two great democracies should “Commodity Control Schemes”, he at least sees the ensure that they will face together now, and not possibility of dealing with the consumer interests merely after the War, the broad changes of policy more fairly and effectively. involved in the inevitable internal and external The extension or development of international reconstruction. Moreover, in approaching and study commodity schemes is a difficult problem. There is ing these problems it must be remembered that by the no very satisfactory half-way house between a free adhesion of the Soviet Union and of the Allied Govern trading system based on hrisser-faire and one in ments now in London, the Atlantic Charter has which national production is co-ordinated in a become a multilateral pact. The co-operation of system of international planning. Moreover, Prof. twenty-six nations in fighting aggression is already Condliffe has misgivings about the international pledged thereby to continue after victory is won to planning of policy, for reasons already indicated, and ensure that the world shall gather its fruits in peace while he considers there are wide areas of economic and in seciirity. activity over which government control could with The immediate task in regard to world trade is of advantago be extended, such control should be course to create the international machinery for limited to regulation rather than operation, and for co-operation after the War to enable people to live, this new types of international political and economic to find the means of livelihood, and to exchange their institutions must be invented. Indeed, the possi products with one another, and to arrive at common bilities of international economic co-operation in the understanding as to the principles on which such immediate future will largely depend on the way in machinery shall operate in the conditions likely to which governments use such powerful new instru obtain at the end of the War. The impart ial examina ments as credit regulation. tion of practical problems in a new setting, without While the necessities and disillusions which follow a regard to theories or dogmas framed to meet other groat war may be powerful factors of constructive conditions, should be able to evolve plans for prevent co-operation, that only holds if they are used in that ing a repetition of the chaos which followed 1918. direction. Peace is a dynamic process, the other The four freedoms will only be established by planning name for which is co-operation, and only a world and co-operation and an immense amount of hard which is prepared to make the continuous effort of work, in which the reconstruction of world trade is re-creating peace, like freedom, year by year, can one of the first steps to the establishment of that establish and maintain a new international system of freedom from want, which in Mr. Winant’g view economic co-operation and social security. The most should be one of our first objectives after the War. hopeful feature of that Anglo-American co-operation There should be no lack of response in Great Britain which has developed during the last fifteen months to the efforts already being made in the United has been the frank indication on both sides of the States in the study of these problems, so as to extend intention to see it to completion. the present co-operation after the War into the Prof. Condliffe recognizes the paramount infhience organization of the exchange of goods on co-operative of the United States on any international system instead of on narrowly competitive lines. which can be established, and that it must be based on Anglo-American co-operation. He touches on those other problems of the position of Britain in Europe which also affect the ultimate solution, and stresses that the choice before us is broadly one WEATHER ANALYSIS AND between entering a European confederation or join FORECASTING ing with the United States in an effort to re-establish Weather Analysis and Forecasting a world trading system. But it is less for the outline A Textbook on Synoptic Meteorology. By Prof. of a suggested solution of the problem than for its Sverre Petterssen. Pp. xvi + 505. (New York and clear analysis of principles, its firm warnings of the London : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1940.) 35s. dangers that cumber the way, its challenge to search OR twenty years the Norwegian school of meteoro ing inquiry and constructive thought that Prof. F logy has led the world in the development of Condliffe’s book is an outstanding contribution to methods of forecasting. The appearance of a treatise the discussions which Mr. Winant, Mr. Cordell Hull, on weather analysis and forecasting by a distinguished Mr. Sumner Welles and others have already initiated. member of the school is therefore an important event. The guarded language which Lord Cranborne Prof. Sverre Petterssen was for many years on the necessarily used in November in replying to a question staff of the Geophysical Institute at Bergen and in the House of Lords regarding the methods by which recently sttcceeded Prof. C. G. Rossby as professor of the Government proposes to give effect to Article V meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech nology. His book developed from courses of lectures of the Atlantic Charter and to secure the fullest delivered during the years 1935-40 at various places collaboration between all nations in the economic in America and Norway. field should not bo taken as indicating that the Long before the influence of the Norwegian school Government is not alive to the importance of this was felt, meteorologists realized that the weather was subject and anxious to secure the improved labour influenced largely by the interplay of currents of air 314 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149 from different parts of the globe. Occasionally, when adiabatic compression to the standard pressure contrasts of temperature were great, boundaries wrere 1000 mb.) has a constant value, such as 26° C'. This drawn on a series of maps and the progress of such way of representing the conditions in the upper air boundaries, which were frequently marked by line- was first suggested by Sir Napier Shaw. It has the squalls, was traced from map to map. The new advantage that a single set of lines represents the school introduced the practice of drawing these distribution of temperature, pressure and density. boundaries or ‘fronts’ between different ‘air masses’ Further, so long as the air is not affected appreciably on every working chart. It was soon manifest that by radiation, conduction and turbulence, it must the charts gave much more vivid pictures of the move on an isentropic surface. Rossby, who deve weather over large areas than had ever been obtained loped the practice of using isentropic charts, found it before. A striking development was the recognition useful to show humidity by the proportion of water of the fact that the isobars, when carefully drawn, vapour in the air. The way in which the vapour is are kinked where they cross fronts. When once the conveyed from region to region across the continent eye is trained to look for these kinks, one wonders is portrayed most vividly. The valuable chapter on how the meteorologists of yesterday could have this subject is contributed to the book under notice draw n sm ooth isobars through the areas w-here the by Mr. James Namias, who was Rossby’s collaborator wind distribution cried out for sharp bends. Modern at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The forecasting depends largely on the study of the method is also illustrated in the last of the fore m ovements of fronts. casting studies in the work. In the rules for forecasting developed by Petterssen, It would be presumptuous for a reviewer with no great stress is laid on arithmetical calculation. He practical experience of forecasting to assess the value is not content to notice that a front or any other of the book to the working forecaster. It may be feature of the weather map is moving towards the said, however, without fear of contradiction, that to east. He works out the speed at which the feature the layman who has already some familiarity with has been moving and finds that, if all goes well, the meteorological charts, the book is most acceptable feature will have travelled so far in the next twenty- for the insight it gives into the principles on which four hours. The rules which are propounded are simple modern forecasting is based. enough. They could have been introduced as soon F. J. W. W hipple. as the practice of reporting the barometric tendency (the, .change of pressure in three hours) was initiated in the weather reports from telegraphic stations. The general rule is that any well-marked feature of the PRESERVATION OF ORNAMENTAL weather map will probably continue for several hours to move as it has been moving. The rule is reduced TREES in each case to an appropriate numerical formula, Maintenance of Shade and Ornamental Trees which justifies the author’s bold quotation, on the By Prof. P. P. Pirone. Pp. xvii + 422. (New York flyleaf facing his title-page, of Lord Kelvin’s dictum : and London : Oxford U niversity Press, 1941.) “When you can measure what you are speaking 25s. 6d. net. about and express it in numbers, you know some thing about it ; but when you cannot measure it, O much can be done with trees to clothe the when you cannot express it in numbers, your know S nakedness of arterial roads and to screen from ledge is of a meagre, unsatisfactory kind.” view the hasty work of the builder in new ‘develop In the main, the processes developed by Petterssen ment’ schemes that a book designed to assist in are purely kinematical, the map is regarded merely establishing and protecting trees is welcome. There as the representation of a moving, changing pattern, are districts where it is impossible to restore the but use is made of the idea of the gradient wind in ‘rustic scene’ but where, given time, avenues, say, of four of the thirty-one rules that are set out. horsechestnut, or groups by the roadside of such The individual forecasts which are quoted are trees as beech, birch or Norway maple, compensate remarkably accurate. While the forecasts of the to some extent for lost amenity. As for trees in movements of systems are purely kinematic, depend urban areas there is the example of New York City, ing solely on the first law of motion, the deductions quoted by the author, where nearly a million trees as to the resulting weather are made with an intimate are maintained along some five thousand miles of appreciation of the effects of the varying structure of streets. air masses with different histories. In the years which immediately preceded the War It might have been expected that tho upper air there was an awakening of the public conscience to observations available to the forecaster would have the aesthetic value of trees, and societies such as the been brought into these numerical forecasts. Actu Council for the Preservation of Rural England and ally, in P etterssen’s own scheme the inform ation avail the Roads Beautifying Association did much to able serves rather to give the structure of the direct attention to the subject. Numerous books atmosphere in the several air masses and in defining have appeared dealing with ornamental trees and a the positions of the fronts. However, that is not the few have confined their attention to ‘tree surgery’, end of the matter. It is an important question to still there is room for Dr. Pirone’s volume on ‘main the forecaster this, how to make the best use of the tenance’. upper air observations which are obtained by special The author addresses himself specifically to the aeroplane ascents and, in the most modern technique, eastern and mid-western States of America, but by radio soundings. The system adopted in the readers will find plenty of suggestions applicable to United States, where such observations are now well conditions in Great Britain. distributed, is to map temperature and humidity The author wastes no time in preliminary dis corresponding with an isentropic surface, that is, a cussion ; after a brief preface and an introductory surface on which the potential temperature of air note by Dr. L. H. Bailey, he plunges straightway (the temperature to which it would be brought by into a concise description of the structure of a tree N o . 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 315 and the functions performed by tlie various parts. finer leaves decompose more readily and do not Tho relation of soil to tree growth is then approached, cause a skiddy surface. particularly as regards the soil’s physical state and Passing on to the diseases and insect enemies of chomical composition, but not forgetting the bio trees, we find a somewhat undue proportion (half) of logical aspect. Emphasis is laid on the importance the book is occupied with their discussion. It is to of the degree of soil acidity or alkalinity, as the case be hoped that would-be planters will not be dis may be, in determining the choice of species. In this couraged by the number and variety of pests, because, connexion a list is given of the pH range suitable for apart from a few diseases, for example, chestnut the commoner trees and shrubs. If due weight be blight and the Dutch elm disease, single trees (as attached to the other factors, such as elevation, distinct from trees in massed formation) are fairly exposure, rainfall, etc., the relative pH value will be free from serious infestation. The list of possible found to be a useful guide. It is pointed out that dangers —parasitic, non-parasitic and climatic—has an most trees prefer soils with a slightly acid reaction, alarming appearance rather out of proportion to the but requirements vary a great deal from the lime- actual risk. Still, if not taken too seriously, there is loving to the peat-loving species. always the biological interest of diagnosing ailments, As regards the planting of trees, the author remarks studying the pathological symptoms and occasionally that the methods employed too often resemble an endeavouring to treat the complaint. These matters experiment to see how much the tree will stand. are dealt with helpfully in the text and excellent Instead of this, of course, the effort should be to photographs assist identification. reduce so far as possible the shock of removal and to The book is handsomely turned out, being well give the transplanted tree a good start. It may be printed, well bound, fully illustrated, and pro that very few planters will be able fully to follow the vided with a good index and an extensive biblio author’s somewhat elaborate prescriptions, especially graphy. It deserves a good reception from all in war-time, but it is well to be reminded of the care who have anything to do with the planting and that should be taken, particularly when trees of large preservation of park, street and roadside trees. Its size are being transplanted. perusal should correct any tendency to haphazard Pruning and the treatment of wounds naturally planting and lead to the better maintenance of the claim considerable space in this book, for the number beautiful trees which already adorn the English of wrong ways of proceeding is remarkable. In Great countryside. F r a s e r S t o r y . Britain the section will command the greater atten tion owing to the unusual amount of damage caused in recent winters by ice and snow. Most of the damage, unfortunately, has perforce been neglected, AN INDIVIDUALIST’S PHILOSOPHY and wood-attacking fungi will undoubtedly gain a footing if pruning is much longer delayed. To rid Brought Out in Evidence trees of their lower branches and produce straight, An Autobiographical Summing-Up. By William clean stems is another and quite distinct problem for Bowyer. Pp. 424. (London : Faber and Faber, the pruner which the author discusses, but he makes Ltd., 1941.) 15s. net. no mention of ‘natural’ pruning so familiar and so HIS book is at once a presentation of the author’s useful to the forester. It may have been considered beliefs about the universe and the record of his outside the province of the ‘arborist’. But is it ? In Town life. Save in the opening chapter, entitled “The parks, at least, trees can be grown in groups just as Horizon”, where he garners the ripe fruits of his easily as singly, and even if individual trees are spiritual pilgrimage, the philosophy is, with rare eventually isolated, the good effects of early massing artistry, interwoven with the autobiography. Mr. will be observable in better shape, health and vigour. Bowyer could scarcely have done otherwise ; for his Neglected bark-wounds and the removal of large speculative outlook is intensely personal. Born in a branches so often lead to decay that a description of Battersea slum, into a house clouded by dissension the methods of repair forms a fitting sequel to the and poverty, where religion meant little but the crude chapter on pruning. The notes on various matters and jealous fundamentalism of Plymouth Brethren concerning this kind of surgery include specifications and of Strict and Open Baptists ; educated (sic) in for the antiseptic dressing of tree wounds and are the elementary and grammar schools of the locality ; distinctly helpful. As for the treatment of cavities harnessed while still a lad to the drudgery of a sub in tree trunks, however, it appears doubtful if it is ordinate post in the General Post Office—such an not better, in most cases, to let well alone rather upbringing was bound to leave an enduring mark than to plaster the holes with incongruous stuff such on a nature shy, awkward and inarticulate, and at as cement, bricks, clay, mortar and asphalt. Gener the same time richly gifted and responsive to every ally speaking, these attempts at arresting decay are stimulus that crossed its path. He hungered for the futile and the unsightly patchwork strikes a jarring friendship of those who ‘cared’ for the things nearest note. his h eart. Readers who turn to the section headed “Trees Mr. Bowyer is too much of the artist in tempera suitable for Streets and Roadsides” will be disap ment to rank as a philosopher. His creed is avowedly pointed to find that only about fifteen species are intuitional, a matter of faith rather than of reasoned dealt with and some of these are dismissed in half a evidence. Like D. H. Lawrence, for whose mind he dozen lines. Many beautiful trees quite well adapted confesses “an awed admiration”, he profoundly dis for the purpose, such as birch, hornbeam, whitebeam, trusts the analytic method of the sciences, a distaste flowering cherries, hawthorns, Nothofagus, Pyrus, probably not lessened by the suspicion that he offers Gleditschia, etc., are omitted altogether, or mentioned an appetizing bait to the psycho-analyst. No wonder elsewhere in the book only in connexion with the that he early swung free of materialism and scientific ailments which occasionally afflict them. Small and determinism, as later on from Socialist and Com medium-sized trees are in many cases more desirable munist orthodoxies. But the pessimism of his child than larger trees for bordering motor roads as their hood remains unshaken. The marvel indeed is that 316 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149 so sensitive and self-centred a nature should have his book. Has any Christian theologian ever thought escaped shipwreck. The thought of suicide, as is of the Second Person of the Trinity as “existing be evident from the measured discussion in the closing fore and after as well as during His incarnation, in the pages of this book, cannot often have been out of same human shape” (p. 33) ? Calvin was not a Swiss mind. It is largely his strong sense of the reality of (p. 80), but a native of Picardy. The Church Catechism suffering and evil that makes this biography so does not suggest that everyone should be kept “in arresting and impressive. the state of life to which it had pleased God to call Liberation came to him, partly through friendships, him” (p. 114) ; it says “shall please”, which is very still more through his own tough courage—a ‘ ‘Cornish different. Nor is it true to say (p. 220) that Aquinas’s tenacity” inherited through his father—but most of philosophy was based “upon first principles about all through conversance with the arts. The effects God”, which were “merely affirmed”. St. Thomas on his mind of music, painting, sculpture, the Russian held that the knowledge of God’s existence and of ballet, poetry, are traced in full detail in the fourth certain of His attributes was demonstrable by natural chapter (“Assimilation and Growth”), the longest reason. Finally (note, p. 123) it was surely Lord and the most illuminating in the book. Mr. Bowyer’s Randolph Churchill, not Lord Palmerston, who views on art are less coloured by emotional bias than “could never understand those damned dots”. many of his other reflections—the unbalanced diatribe W . G. d e B t j b g h . against feminism, for example, in Chapter 6 or the extravagant denunciations, scattered up and down the volume, of educational and religious institutions. Yet even where he is most intolerant, there is some MAN’S PRESENT AND FUTURE thing engaging in his candour. One of the most The Outlook for Homo Sapiens interesting passages is on his ideal of political and An Unemotional Statement of the Things that are social reform, where he advocates an original type Happening to him Now, and of the Immediate of State-Socialism, to be applied in the field of econ Possibilities Confronting Him. By H. G. Wells. (An omic and material interests, with sedulous precau amalgamation and modernization of two books— tions against its intrusion into that of spiritual values. “The Fate of Homo Sapiens” and “The New World The more philosophical portions of the book are, for O rder” , published severally in 1939 and 1940. Pp. the reason already stated, less satisfactory. They 287. (London : Seeker and W arburg, Ltd., 1942.) state speculative problems rather than answer them. 8s. 6
No. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 828
He was president of Section H of the British It was with sincere sorrow that his many friends Association in 1934, his address taking the form of noted, during his latter years, the signs of failing an original piece of research into the origins of health in a constitution never very robust. But yerba mate or ‘Paraguayan tea’. He contributed while illness inevitably led to the curtailment of his articles to the “Encyclopaedia Britannica” and to a scientific work, it never succeeded in quenching the number of more popular serials such as Harmsworth’s indomitable cheerfulness of his spirit. “Universal History of the World” and Hammerton’s He is survived by Mrs. Joyce, herself a. leading “Wonders of the Past", as well as to certain foreign authority on the Latin American countries, though scientific journals. He was honorary secretary of the perhaps better known to the public under her maiden Hakluyt Society in 1923. in 1938, at the ago of name of L. E. Elliott. He had three children by sixty, lie retired from the British Museum owing to an earlier marriage. H. J. B r a u n h o l t z . ill-health. In spite of his erudition in his chosen subjects of ethnology and American archaeology, Joyce car W e regret to announce the following deaths : ried his learning lightly, and his work was infused Sir William Bragg, O.M., K.B.E., F.R.S., director with an unaffected gaiety. Possessed of a happy of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and, and sociable temperament, and a ready wit, he during 1935-40. president of the Royal Society, on never wearied of introducing students or visitors March 12, aged seventy-nine. to his favourite subjects, or of trying to inspire in them a genuine interest in the collections under his Prof. Lawrence .1. Henderson, professor of chem charge ; his influence led to a number of important istry in Harvard University, foreign secretary of the benefactions, and was felt indirectly in many ways. U.S. Nat ional Academy of Sciences, aged sixty-three. As a foremost authority on all aspects of American Dr. George Sen ter, formerly principal of Birkbeck archaeology he leaves no immediate successor in College, University of London, on March 14, aged Great Britain. sixty-eight.
NEWS and VIEWS India Wheatmeal Flour and Bread T h e announcement made by Mr. Churchill in the S p e a k i n g in the House of Lords on March 11, House of Commons on March ] 1 that definite pro Lord Woolton, Minister of Food, announced that in posals have been formulated, and are being sub order to reduce the very considerable tonnage of mitted to the leaders of Indian thought, for terminat shipping used for the import of wheat into Great ing the state of political unrest in that great country, Britain, the Government has decided to increase to will be welcomed on all sides. The Government 85 per cent the ratio of flour from wheat milled in made a pronouncement in August 1940 of the general the country. From March 23 millers will be pro principles upon whieli British rule in India wras pro hibited, except under specific licence, from manu ceeding, indicating that full Dominion status would facturing any flour other than wheatmeal flour, or be granted as soon as possible after the War, under some authorized speciality brown flour. This in a constitution to be framed by Indians and acceptable creased milling ratio entails the diversion of some of to the chief elements of Indian national life, subject the products of wheat from the feeding of livestock to to the protection of minorities and to the fulfilment use as human food. But the change has been timed of Imperial obligations to the native States. This to take place when, with the approach of summer, it promise did not satisfy certain classes of opinion, will not be necessary for the Ministry of Agriculture and there has been bitter controversy, notably to change, from now until the end of August, the between the Congress party and the Moslem League. scale of rations of purchased feeding-stuffs allowed Reference has been made in N a t u r e on several to stock and poultry feeders. occasions to the difficulties of the situation, and a In order to absorb the stocks of white flour, no noteworthy and constructive article on the subject miller, factor, or importer will be permitted to by Sir Denys Bray, formerly Foreign Secretary, deliver any white flour to any person other than a Government of India, appeared in N a t u r e of licensed baker, and then only providing that three September 13. 1941, p. 301. times the quantity of national wheatmeal is con Mr. Churchill has now stated that the War Cabinet currently delivered. Further, bakers will be has agreed upon certain “conclusions for present and authorized when producing national wheatmeal future action”, based upon the general declaration bread to include up to 25 per cent of white flour already referred to, and Sir Stafford Cripps has with the national wheatmeal. From April 6 it will volunteered to take these proposals to India. There not be permissible, except under licence, to sell any he will strive to obtain the necessary assent to them white bread, and a similar order referring to the use from the chief parties of the country. In view of the of flour in any other item of food will come into effect grave turn taken by the War in the Far East, Sir on April 20. Lord Woolton said that, while complete Stafford will also consult with the Viceroy and uniformity in the production of wheatmeal flour and Commander-in-Chief regarding the relation of these bread is not possible, ho is satisfied that we shall get proposals to the defence of the country. The inter a good bread, good in substance, good in texture, and vention of the War Cabinet at this critical juncture agreeable to the palate. The composition and is a measure of the importance attached to the nutritive value of wheatmeal and similar bread have promotion of unity of purpose and action in India, frequently been discussed in N a t u r e ; atten tion m ay and the outcome of Sir Stafford Cripps\s mission will be directed especially to articles in the issues of be awaited with keen interest. May 31, 1941 (p. 665) and August 23. 1941 (p. 219). 324 NATURE March 21, 1942, voL. 149
Mechanical Engineers in the Army ment of the disorder. Increased understanding of the nature of the condition would accordingly help O n e of the recommendations of the Beveridge Committee on Skilled Men in the Services was for to reduce its incidence. the formation of a Corps of Mechanical Engineers in Physical Society Optical Group the Army (see N a t u r e , March 7, p. 255). Replying to a question in the House of Commons on March 11, T h e inaugural meetings of the newly formed Mr. Duncan Sandys, Financial Secretary to the War Optical Group of the Physical Society were held on Office, referred to this proposal to pool the mechanical March 6 at the Science Museum and the Imperial engineering resources of the various Corps. He said College, South Kensington. It is ten years ago that it has now been decided to bring together the since the Optical Society was merged with the greater part of the Army’s engineering maintenance Physical Society, and although in this period a good services and to form them into a new and separate number of meetings have been devoted to optical Corps. The new Corps will be made up of three subjects, there has been a widely expressed desire principal components : first, the entire engineering for the formation of a Group for discussions and side of the R.A.O.C. ; second, all the maintenance lectures of a less exacting and critical character than personnel of the R.A.S.C., with the exception of those associated with papers intended as original formation workshop platoons and independent com contributions to science. A preliminary meeting was panies : and third, a large part of the mechanical held in December 1941 at which a draft constitution maintenance personnel of the Royal Engineers. was approved, the objects of the Group being the These far-reaching measures of reorganization would provision of opportunities for the meeting of those entail not only extensive administrative changes with optical interests, the promotion of research and but also large-scale transfers of personnel. education in optics (including the improvement of optical literature), and fostering public interest in Nervous Shock in Peace and W ar this branch of science. The first business of the inaugural meeting was to adopt the Constitution, and A t a, Chadwick Public Lecture delivered on March 17, Dr. William A. Brend considered nervous to elect Dr. A. O. Rankine as chairman with Prof. shock in peace and war. ‘Nervous shock’ is the same L. C. Martin as honorary secretary. A representative whether it is called 'nervous shock’, ‘shell shock’ or committee consists of Instructor Capt. T. Y. Baker, ‘traumatic neurasthenia’ or any other of its names. Mr. R. J. Bracey, Mr. W. H. A. Fine ham, Dr. V. G. W. Evidence of nervous shock can be found in early Harrison, Mr. W. C. Hynd, Dr. H. Lowory, Capt. T. records, for example, in the Book of Job. Shakespeare Martin. Mr. J. Perry and Mr. K. W. H. Selwyn. gives an astonishingly accurate picture of ‘battle- shock’ in Henry IV. The modern history of the The first lecture was delivered by Dr. W. M. disorder begins about the middle of the nineteenth Hampton (Messrs. Chance Bros, and Co., Ltd.) who century when numerous cases were attributed to took as his subject “Some Problems relating to railway accidents. Many cases were seen in the Optical Glass”, dealing especially with recent work Army during the War of 1914-18, and after the War on the effects of heat treatment on the optical pro a committee of investigation reported that the term perties of the medium. The meeting in the afternoon ‘shell-shock’ had been “a gross and costly misnomer” was devoted to a paper by Mr. R. J. Bracey describing which had done much harm. The essential cause of “A Multi-purpose Collimator” and a discussion, nervous shock is fear, but the effect of fear is often opened by Mr. J. Perry, on “Thermal Effects on the increased by injudicious ‘suggestion’. Physical Performance of Lens Systems”. Both subjects injuries play no part in the production of the disorder. provoked a good discussion in which valuable Civilians suffering from shock after air-raids are not technical points were brought out. Upwards of fifty entitled to compensation under the Personal Injuries members attended a luncheon at which Profs. A. V. Act. Reasons were given for thinking that this was Hill and A. C. G. Egerton, secretaries of the Royal a very wise decision of Parliament. The influence of Society, were guests of the Physical Society. In pro temperament was briefly discussed. posing the toast “The Optical Group”, Dr. Rankine The biological significance of fear as an instinct said the membership already includes 127 names. was then examined. Capacity to feel fear is part of He hopes that the formation of the Group will our normal mental make-up, and of the defence be of value in the scientific life of the country, and mechanism of the species. Fear only becomes a that whore papers of optical interest are forth matter of self-reproach (that is, cowardice) if it is coming they will in future be made available for uncontrolled. Man then sinks to the level of the discussion by its members. Exacting demands are brutes and sacrifices the benefit of his intelligence. being made upon the optical industry in Great The public health aspect of nervous shock arises Britain, and the new Group can do considerable from the fact that the affection differs from organic service if it leads to increased co-operation among disease or injury in that medical men are not con those whose duty and honour it is to be called upon sidered to have a monopoly of the knowledge con to fulfil them. cerning either the cause or the pathology or the proper treatment of the disorder. There is a definite Royal Microscopical Society (1839-1939) public opinion on all these questions which expresses T h k recent publication of the presidential address itself through the Press and influences Acts of delivered by J. E. Barnard before the Royal Micro Parliament, provision of treatment and claims for scopical Society (J . Roy. Mic. Soc., 61, 1 ; 1941) in damages, etc., in courts of law acting through judges celebration of its centenary, and the rcpublication in and juries. It is very important, therefore, that this the same journal of the address given in 1895 by public opinion should be based on accurate know A. D. Michael (the president in that year) calls ledge. There are reasons for thinking that this is forcibly to mind the comparatively recent advent of not the case at present, and indeed that in certain the microscope particularly as applied to the variety directions encouragement is given to the develop of fields in which it is now so familiar. At the time no. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 325 of the foundation of this Society, microscopes were Commonwealth in which there is an anthropological primitive and were generally regarded as playthings society affiliated with the Association. During the compared to the telescope, although Lister had first two years of its existence the headquarters of already published his epoch-making paper on the the Association were in Adelaide. Now they are at achromatic objective. The paucity of microscopical Sydney and will remain there until October 1, 1943, research in Great Britain had, in fact, already been when they will be transferred to Melbourne. The official noted by Schleiden, a slur which the Society was organ of the Association is M ankind which is the to do much to remove. Under Prof. Owen as first official journal of the Anthropological Society of president the Society flourished from the start, South Australia. Officers of the Association are as and the first number of the Journal was published follows : President, Prof. A. P. Elkin ; Vice-president, in 1841. One of the main features of the early Mr. F. L. S. B e ll; Hon. Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. meetings, attended in the nature of things almost G. W. Watkins (“Hansard” Staff, Parliamentary exclusively by amateurs, was apparently the rapid House, Sydney). introduction of new typos of microscopes and much enthusiasm over technical improvements upon old. Early Civil Engineering iri France Among the members of the time we may note such names as John Queckett, Michael Faraday, I n a paper read to the Newcomen Society on Thomas Boll, with Ehrenberg as the first honorary March 11 entitled ‘'The French Civil Engineers of fellow. Throughout its life the Society has stimula the Eighteenth Century”, Mr. S. B. Hamilton gave ted interest not only in improvement of instruments an account of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussees, but also in perfection of microscopical technique. founded in 1716, and of the school established in The use of Canada balsam had been described 1747 in connexion with it. The Corps was responsible shortly before the foundation of the Society, but it for the main roads, canals, bridges, etc., of the was not until 1848 that the use of glycerine was country, and it has had many distinguished men on noted by Warrington. its staff. These men, such as Gautier, Frezier, In its first fifty years the Society achieved much— Perronet, Gauthey, Chezy and Prony, possessed high the homogeneous immersion lens suggested by scientific attainments, and in their memoirs and text Stephenson and worked out by Abbe, the binocular books they established many of the principles under microscope, the Society’s standard screw for objec lying constructional work. When Telford looked for tives, the mechanical substage and hundreds of other the literature of civil engineering, it was to France improvements large and small—and in its Journal he turned, and his collection of books was bequeathed were presented many epoch-making papers the to the Institution of Civil Engineers. The out authors of which are now almost forgotten but whose standing man of the eighteenth century was Perronet work has formed a sure foundation for modem (1708-94), who entered the Corps in 1745 and became studies. In more recent times the Society has become director of the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees in 1747. progressively professional. Among the outstanding His bridges, said Mr. Hamilton, were remarkable for features of these later years we may recall the con boldness of design. Moreover, in an age of corruption, troversy over Abbe’s diffraction theory of micro he set his face against the patronage which ruined scopic vision, with E. M. Nelson and J. W. Gordon some civil administrations ; he selected his subor as the more notable figures and calling to mind such dinates strictly on the grounds of ability and great names as Sylvanus Thompson and Lord character. Rayleigh, a topic which has arisen from time to time during ensuing years, culminating in 1928, when it Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding was generally agreed that under the conditions of illumination commonly employed the theory is no T h e formation of the Indian Society of Genetics longer tenable. In 1902 Siedentopf introduced the and Plant Breeding at New Delhi in January 1942 ultra-microscope and in the following year the first has been quickly followed by the publication of the paper appeared on ultra-violet light microscopy, Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding. marking perhaps the most important advance during This journal is edited by Dr. B. P. Pal, Imperial the present century. The basis for the modern Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, on standard of procedure in microscopy was laid by behalf of the executive council of the Society. This Nelson in 1910 in a description of his method of welcome addition to genetical publications provides “critical microscopy”. Since that time, perhaps one a valuable outlet and source of reference for the ever- of the more notable advances with which the Society increasing work of the research institutes of India. has been connected is the improvement in design The volume for 1941 consists of one p a rt, b u t in the and the use of the polarizing microscope figuring so succeeding years it is intended to publish twice a largely in current microscopy. It is confidently to year. be expected that in the future the Society will con In the first volume there are articles on hybrid tinue to serve microscopy with the same success as vigour in rice by K. Ramiah and K. Ramasamy, in the past. (See also N a t u r e , 144, 850 ; 1939.) chlorophyll deficiencies in rice by B. S. Kadam, colchicine induction of polyploids in Capsicum annuum by B. P. Pal, S. R am anujam and A. S. The Australian Anthropological Association Joslii, cytology of sterile Sesamum orientals by I n 1939 the Australian Anthropological Association L. S. S. Kumar and A. Abraham and vernalization was formed after discussion between the Anthropo of Indian crop plants by B. P. Pal and G. Suryana- logical Associations of New South Wales, Victoria rayana Murty. The Agricultural Commissioner with and South Australia at the meeting of the Australian the Government of India, Dr. W. Burns, in the first and New Zealand Association for the Advancement paper of the publication, points out the great oppor of Science held in Canberra that year. The head tunities for plant genetics and plant breeding in quarters of the new Association are to be situated in India and welcomes the advent of tho Society and rotation for a period of two years in each State of the Journal. 326 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149
Smithsonian Institution Activities Rainbow Bridge over the Niagara Falls
T h e report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian T h e approaching completion of the Rainbow Institution and the financial report of the .Executive Bridge at Niagara Falls, is a happy axigury of Committee of the Board of Regents for the year that closer co-operation between the United States ended June 30, 1941, includes a summary of the and Canada which has been intensified by the present year’s activities and reports on the United States state of world relations. The bridge was built under National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the auspices of an international body, the Niagara the International Exchange Service, the National Falls Bridge Commission, consisting of eight members, Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the four having been appointed by the Governor of New Division of Radiation and Organisms and other York anti four by the Lieutenant-Governor of activities (W ashington : Gov. Printing Office. 25 Ontario. The project has been financed by a bond cents). The Smithsonian Institution has already issue of four million dollars. been assigned a number of defence problems. The The previous bridge at the same place, the correct revision of all solar-constant values collected by name of which was the Falls View Bridge, was built the Astrophysical Laboratory from all Smithsonian in 1895. This was an arch structure which stood observing stations from 1923 to the present is near until January 27, 1938. On that day an ice jam ing completion and publication is expected to com which had formed in the gorge rose to an unprece mence in 1942. A promising method has been de dented height, and crushed the end portions of the veloped of following the sun’s variation by observa arch ribs, causing a complete collapse of the bridge. tions limited to the blue-violet region of the spectrum. The Falls View Bridge was the property of the International Railway Company, which after its de The Division of Radiation and Organisms has con struction immediately prepared plans for a new tinued its studies on the relation of radiation to structure. Public opinion, however, opposed the various phases of plant growth, and much informa construction of another privately owned toll-bridge tion has been acquired on the respiration of etiolated at this site and as a result the Company did not barley seedlings. In addition to improvements in the proceed with the plans for rebuilding. The Niagara performance of the spectrograph used in measuring River at the Bridge site flows through a gorge carbon dioxide for very short periods, the spectral approximately 1,250 ft. wide and 180 ft. deep from effectiveness of radiation for the growth inhibition the surface of the water to the top of the cliffs. The of the oat mesoeotyl has been further studied, as river is about 830 ft. wide and 175 ft . deep, and the well as those of other species of grasses, and the flow is 25-30 m .p.h. ultra-violet irradiation of alg;e. M. W. Stirling has made further archaeological discoveries in southern Demonstration of the Circulation by Experiment Mexico in co-operation with the National Geographic Society, and Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, jun., has com In a recent paper (Isis, 33, 443 ; 1941) entitled pleted his sixth and final expedition to the Linden- “The Significance of the Demonstration of the muir site in northern Colorado, work which has Harveyan Circulation by Experimental Tests” Dr. added greatly to our knowledge of Folsom man and H. P. Bayon raises the question already put forward the early occupation of America. The work of the by Sarton in 1937 as to why the discovery of the circu International Exchange Service was seriously ham lation of the blood was completed by an English pered by world conditions, but scientific and other physician and why its acceptance was delayed until publications which cannot now be sent are being the middle of the seventeenth century. Galen’s stored until the end of hostilities. erroneous doctrine of the to-and-fro movement of the blood which was accepted for so long a period Meteorology in Art was based on the belief that the anatomical features of the heart, uterus and liver in the dog or pig must M r . L. C. W. B o n a c i n a ’s paper on the “Scenic also be present in man. According to Dr. Bayon, Approach to Meteorology” (Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. the delay in the acceptance of Harvey’s discovery of Soc., Oct., 1941), his fifth essay on the landscape- the circulation until the middle of the seventeenth impression of weather, is a valuable contribution to century was due to the fact that it was not until that co-operation between science and art. which is then that accurate comparative anatomical observa so important for the development of human per tions became available through woodcuts, printed sonality. Truth and beauty, long kept in separate works and dissection. It was by the intelligent use compartments of the mind, are now being welded of the experimental method that Harvey was able together, a task in which Mr. Bonacina is a diligent to test and control his interpretation of clinical and gifted worker. The papers of 1937-38 contain observation and comparative anatomy. His investi analyses of the paintings of Constable and Turner ; gations were completed by the discovery of the that of 1939 carries on the subject to the treatment capillaries, which formed the missing link between of landscape-meteorology by men of letters, and the arteries and veins. those of 1940-41 deal with the pictorial relation of atmosphere and the landscape background as seen by the author. In these descriptions there is a power Golf Courses during War-time of expression which enables the reader to share that V o l . 6 o f the Journal of the Board of Greenkeeping faculty of observation with which the writer is Research, which has just been published, shows that endowed. Development of the festhetic appreciation the Research Station at Bingley is adapting itself of Nature is especially valuable at the present time. most successfully to the new problems which are con At long last it is beginning to be realized that beauty fronting golf clubs owing to the War. Land is being should take an equal place with truth and goodness ploughed up on many courses, hay and silage crops in that trinity of enduring values which is needed are being taken from others and sheep-grazing is to fortify the mind during the stress and strain of widespread. In consequence, the erection of adequate war. fencing has become a major problem. Trials are no. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 327 described which show that electrified fencing is expected to be about 34,000 tons a year, but pro likely to prove a simple and effective method of duction cannot begin before the end of 1943. Colonel control, while at the same time it gives a cash saving Arthur L. Bishop, a prominent Toronto industrialist, of 80-90 per cent over the ordinary post and wire has been appointed president of the Corporation, and type. Methods for making silage from grass mowings there are four other directors. have been investigated with very satisfactory results. Information is supplied as to how the gras4 can be Announcements collected, the type of silos to use and precisely how they should be filled. Young grass mowings are so M r . R. A. B u t l e r , president of the Board of nutritious that a really valuable contribution to the Education, is to be chairman of the Scientific country’s feeding-stuffs could be made in this way. Advisory and Engineering Advisory Committees in If silage-making is not practicable, the grass mowings succession to Lord Hankey. need not be wasted, but can be either composted for manure or dried for cattle feeding. An appeal is S i r J o h n G r e e n l y was elected president for made to former subscribers for their continued 1942-43 of the Institute of Metals at the annual support, as this is essential if the Research Station general meeting held on March 11. is to be in a position to fulfil its normal functions directly the W ar is over. T h e Committee of the Athenaeum has elected the following gentlemen, under the provisions of Rule II of the Club, which empowers the annual election by Certificate in Natural History the Committee of a certain number of persons of A n e w edition of the emergency regulations for distinguished eminence in science, literature, or the the certificate of proficiency in natural history lias arts, or for their public services : Prof. P. M. S. just been issued by the University of London. The Blackett, Langworthy professor of physics, University work, which has been specially designed to take of Manchester ; Mr. T . D. Kendrick, keeper of advantage of the fact that large numbers of teachers British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum ; are, owing to war conditions, presented with a Mr. J . M. Keynes, economist, and fellow and bursar unique opportunity of natural history study in the of King’s College, Cambridge. field, involves a directed course of private reading at home, attendance at a practical laboratory course T h e following appointments in the Colonial of two weeks duration in the summer vacation, an Service have recently been made : S. R. Payne, approved plan of field-work suited to the student’s assistant conservator of forests, Gold Coast ; C. B. locality to be written up in the form of an essay, and Garnett (senior agricultural officer, Zanzibar), senior examination. Definite arrangements have not yet agricultural officer, Nyasaland. been made, but it is hoped that the practical course this year will be held at the Royal Holloway College, T h e conference on “European Agriculture : Englefield Green, Surrey, during July 26-August 8. Scientific Problems in Post-war Reconstruction”, Copies of the regulations and further information arranged by the Division for the Social and Inter may be obtained from the University Extension national Relations of Science of the British Associa Registrar, University of London, at Richmond College, tion, and postponed from March 13-14 owing to the Richmond, Surrey. death of Sir William Bragg, will be held on March 20-21 at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Diagrams and Formulae for Lantern Slides Medicine, Keppel Street, W.C.l, with sessions at P ro f. A. C. C h i b n a l l , of the Imperial College of 10.15 a.m. and 2.15 p.m. on each day as previously Science and Technology, London, has utilized arranged, and the programme, so far as possible, ‘Cellophane’ and ‘carbon’ paper for the preparation, unaltered. Fresh tickets will not be issued. without photography, of lantern slides of line dia grams and chemical formulae. Mr. J. W. Minnis, T h e Science Faculty of the Marx Memorial Library of the Chemistry Department, Heriot-Watt College, and Workers’ School has arranged symposia on Edinburgh, states that lie has obtained good results “Science and Technology in the Soviet Union” and with two lantern-slide cover-glasses. A piece of the “Scientific Attitude to Fascism, W'ith particular typewriter ‘carbon’ paper is placed on one and the reference to Racial Theories”, to be held at the required diagrams or formula? are drawn on the back London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine on of the ‘carbon’ paper, using a glass rod pulled to a April 5 and 6. Papers at the first symposium will point. The paper is removed, the second cover-glass include those by Prof. J. D. Bernal, Mr. Erie Godfrey, placed over the carbon image, and the two glasses Dr. Norman Henry, Mrs. B. King, Dr. J. Needham, bound together in the usual manner. The resulting Mr. H. Rose, Dr. M. Ruhemann and Mr. H. P. slide gave good reproduction in the lantern. Vowles. Those for the second symposium include the following authors : Prof. J. B. S. Haldane, Dr. C. F. D. Hawkes', Dr. P. Gorer, Prof. H. Levy, Dr. Synthetic Rubber Production in Canada G. M. Morant and Mrs. Dona Torr. Further informa M r. H o w e , the Dominions Minister of Munitions, tion can be obtained from the secretary, Faculty of has announced the establishment of a Government- Science; Marx House, Clerkenwell Green, London, owned company called the Polymer Corporation, Lid., E .C .l. with headquarters in Toronto, which will undertake the production in Canada of synthetic rubber of the E r r a t a . The May Lecture of the Institute of Metals Buna type. According to the Ottawa correspondent is to be delivered on May 13, not May 31 as stated of The Times, Mr. Howe said that four plants would in N a t u r e of March 14, p. 299. probably be required for the three stages of the In N a t u r e of February 28, p. 243, under “Night manufacturing process to be employed. The output, Sky in March” the word “occultations” of the planets when the plants are working at full capacity, is was inadvertently used for “conjunctions”. 328 NATURE M a r c h 21, 1942, vOL 149 LETTERS TO THE EDITORS We wish to thank Dr. Taylor for the loan of one of his photographs, and Mr. H. P. Rooksby of the The Editors do not hold themselves responsible for General Electric Company for specimens of Ceylon opinions expressed by their correspondents. No and Bavarian graphites. notice is taken of anonymous communications. Cavendish Laboratory, L i p s o n . A New Structure of Carbon Cambridge. A - R . S t o k e s . Feb. 20. A t t e n t i o n has been directed by Taylor and 1 Taylor and Laidler, N a t u r k , 146, 130 (1940). Laidler1 to the appearance of ‘extra’ lines on X-ray 1 Finch and Wilman, Proc. Iioy. Sue., A, 155, 345 (19S6). photographs of graphite. These lines are given by 3 Lonsdale, K., lvnaggs, I. E., and Smith, H., N a t u r e , 146. 332 (1940). several quite unrelated specimens and they do not 4 Nath, N., Pror. Ind. Acad. Sci., 2, 143 (1935). seem to be connected with impurities. Finch and Wilman2 and Taylor and Laidler1 tried to interpret them as secondary diffraction phenomena of the Purification of Penicillin graphite structure, but without producing any con P e n i c i l l i n has been obtained in the form of a vincing evidence for their theories3. We find, how highly purified barium salt by repeated fractional ever, that the lines may be explained by the presence extraction from amyl acetate into water, chromato of about 10 per cent of another structure that is graphic separation on an alumina column, treatment closely related to graphite, and this therefore implies of the active fraction with aluminium amalgam and that carbon can exist in three different crystalline further repeated chromatographic separation until forms. the alumina column appeared homogeneous. The pre The new structure may be described in the follow paration thus obtained, though not crystalline, has an ing way. Ordinary graphite is composed of layers activity of 450-500 Oxford penicillin units per mgm., of carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal rings , these corresponding to a complete inhibition of the growth layers are so disposed that alternate atoms lie of Staphylococcus aureus in broth in a dilution of directly over other atoms and centres of hexagons 1 : 25,000,000. Penicillin must therefore be regarded respectively in the layer below. There are three differ as one of the most powerful antibacterial substances ent layers that can be built together to satisfy this with predominantly bacteriostatic action known. condition ; graphite uses two of them alternately ; Details of the method of purification and an the new structure uses the three in sequence. Thus account of some chemical, physical and biological its unit cell has a c-axis £ times as long as that of properties of penicillin will be published shortly. ordinary graphite, in agreement with Finch and Wil- man’s observation that many of the lines may be E. P. A b r a h a m . indexed on the basis of the ordinary unit cell if the E . C h a i n . fractional I indexes £ and § are allowed. Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Although the structure may be referred to hexa University of Oxford. gonal axes, it is really rhombohedral, the basal Jan . 31. symmetry plane of the graphite structure being re placed by centres of inversion, so that the alternating six-fold symmetry is lost. The simplest description Further Observations on the Increased of the structure is that it belongs to the space-group Yield of Nucleic Aci.d ffom Irradiated R3m, (a = 3-635 A., a = 39-49°) and has atoms at ±(&> i)- Yeast* D u r i n g the course of investigations intended to extend previously reported observations1 of increased yields of nucleic-acid-like substances from yeast irradiated with full ultra-violet radiation under con ditions resulting in prolonged injury to the yeast cells, certain irregularities in the yields were noted. It now appears that these may be attributed to lack of quantitative yields in the final step of the chemical procedure wherein nucleic acid is precipitated. As in the previous experiments1, starch-free yeast (S. cerevisice, Fleishmann bakers’ strain) was em ployed at a concentration of 300 gm. wet weight to each litre of suspension medium. Each suspension The structure, although closely resembling graphite, was divided into two equal portions. One was irrad is similar to diamond in the arrangement of its planes ; iated with full ultra-violet light from a quartz but in diamond the planes are puckered and closer mercury arc. The other, which served as a control, together. Nath4, in a theoretical study of the transi was not irradiated but was subjected to tho same tion from diamond to graphite, has suggested that conditions of stirring. Because of rise in temperature there is an intermediate structure formed, and it is of the irradiated suspension a!>ovo that of the con interesting th a t this structure is exactly th a t described trol in certain of the experiments in which an air- here. The accompanying figure is reproduced from cooled arc was used, a Kromayer water-cooled arc his paper. It shows the diamond structure (a), an was substituted in other experiments. With it, the intermediate structure which lias not been observed energy was insufficient to obtain an appreciable (6), and the new structure (e). There is, however, no degree of killing (methylene blue test) during the explanation of the apparent existence in equilibrium period of irradiation (10-22 hr.). Subsequent to of the two structures. irradiation, nucleic acid was prepared from the con- The experimental evidence on which we base these * Contribution No. 198 from the Department of Biology, Massachu results will be described elsewhere. setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. n o . 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 329 trol and irradiated suspensions by the method of T a b l e 3. T o t a l y ie l d s o f n u c l e ic a c id in precipitates a n d Johnson and Harkins2. SUPERNATANTS, GM. PER 100 GM. WET WEIGHT OF YEAST. In all, six preparations were carried through chemic Precipitate only Total, precipitate and ally, but spectrographic data, forming the basis of supernatant this report, are available for only four of these. P rep ara Table 1 shows the yields in terms of dry weights of tion Non Per cent Per cent Irrad ia increase Non- Irrad ia increase T a b l e 1. W e ig h t s o r precipitates o b t a in e d i n t h e preparation irradia irradia ted ted ted or ted or o r NUCLEIC a c id f r o m ir r a d ia t e d a n d n o n -ir r a d ia t e d y e a s t . decrease decrease
5.2,41 1-90 Time E x Yield of nucleic 1 -60 + 18-8 3-28 3-70 + 13-5 of te n t of P repara U.V. Suspen acid per 100 gm. 7.17.41 1 *73 1-83 + 5-8 2-70 2-76 + 2-2 tion Source sions irradi killing, wet w tv of yeast m edium ation, per hr. cent 7.23.41 1 1 9 0-89 - 25 -2 2 54 2-78 + 9-4 Non-irrad. irrad. 8.4.41 0-96 0-73 -2 4 -0 2*07 3-97 +91 -8 5.2.41 Air- H eader's3 10 ca. 30 1 -CO gm. 1 -90gm. cooled only slightly lethal effects on the cells, the increased 7.17.41 W atcr- R eader’s 22 negli 1-73 1 -£3 eoolc d gible total yields were small. In the case of the 7.17 7.23.41 W ater- Isotonic 19 ca. 5 1-19 0-89 preparation, the total increase observed was within cooled saline the limits of experimental error. In the case of the 8.4.41 W ater- H eader’s ca. 24 ca. 98 0 -96 0-73 8.4 preparation, however, in which the conditions cooled follow were such as eventually to kill almost all of the cells, ed by air- the total yield from irradiated yeast was almost cooled twice that from non-irradiated yeast. i These data demonstrated the lack of reliability of the precipitates obtained by the Johnson and Har chemical precipitations alone in estimating the quan kins procedure. It will be noted that there was no tities of nucleic-acid-like substances present in various correlation between the extent of injury and the preparations. They show also the value of the spectro yield of nucleic acid, and that in two of the four graphic technique as a quantitative evaluation of the instances yields were actually much less from irra reliability of the chemical procedures. diated than from non-irradiated yeast. However, J o h n R. L o o f b o u r o w . various irregularities in the final precipitations were A l f r e d M. W e b b . noted ; for example, the formation of suspensions D o r o t h e a G. L o o f b o u r o w . of very fine particles in some instances (which were Department of Biology, precipitated with difficulty) as contrasted with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, formation of large, flocculent, easily precipitable Cambridge, Massachusetts. particles in other instances. This suggested that an H e r m a n n L i s c o . appreciable proportion of the nucleic acid might Department of Pathology, remain in solution in the supematants after precipita Harvard Medical School, tion. Boston, Massachusetts. In order to determine whether this could account Jan . 15. for the irregularities, ultra-violet absorption spectra 1 Loofbourow, Englert and Dwyer, N a t u r e , 148, 113 (1941). were taken of the final supernatants from both irra * Johnson and Harkins, J. Amur. Chem. Soc., 51, 1784 (1929). diated and non-irradiated yeast. These showed, in 3 Reader, Biochem. J 21, 901 (1927). every instance, the typical absorption spectra of 4 Heyroth and Loofbourow, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 53, 3441 (1931). nucleic acids (marked maximum near 2600 A., etc.)4. * Heyroth and Loofbourow, Bull. Bas. Set. Res., 3, 237 (1931). Quantitative determinations were then made of the amounts of nucleic acid (or nucleic-acid-like materials) remaining in the supernatants, employing the value Acute Inhibition of the Corpus Luteum 25-0 for the extinction coefficient of yeast nucleic Excited by the Onset of Ancestrus in acid in terms of gm. per litre concentration and cm. cell thickness5. The results of these determinations Elephantulus are shown in Table 2. These results indicate that in O v e r several years we have accumulated extensive five instances out of eight, the amount of nucleic- material of serially sectioned ovaries and uteri of acid-like material remaining in the supernatants was Elephantulus myurus jamesoni. From an examina actually greater than that precipitated. tion of the ovaries it is now possible to identify When the yields of the precipitates were added to accurately the physiological state of the animal in the amounts remaining in the supematants (Table 3), respect of its menstrual or reproductive cycle. the total yields were in each instance greater for Elephantulus is a primitive mammal usually in irradiated than for non-irradiated yeast. In the two cluded among the Insectivora, but this mammal may instances (second and third preparations) in which turn out to be an important link between the In- the irradiation conditions were such as to result in sectivores and the Primates. T a b l e 2 . N u c l e ic a c id r e m a in in g i n supernatants a f t e r Attention has already been directed to the extra REMOVAL OF PRECIPITATES. GM. PER 100 GM. MOIST YEAST. ordinary reactions shown in the ovary during ovula tion1 and in the uterus throughout the menstrual Preparation Non-irradiated Irradiated cycle2. In our most recent investigation we have correlated the post-ovulatory changes in the uterus 5.2.41 1 -66 1 -80 with the structure of the corpus luteum3. 7.17.41 0-97 0-93 Although not previously mentioned in our publica 7.23.41 1*35 1-89 tions a third factor facilitates the identification of 8.4.41 1 *11 3 -24 the stage in the cycle that an animal happens to be in after ovulation. This is the extent of decomposition 330 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vOL. 149 of the numerous eggs4 present in the uterus after Ancodonta. Dr. E. H. Colbert, of the American ovulation. Museum of Natural History, to whom sketches and Ancestrus in Elephantulus extends from March or photographs of the tooth were afterwards sent, agrees April until the end of July or the beginning of August. with my identification and this confirms a discovery Recently in examining our series No. 428 of an of consider ible importance to Ceylon geology. In animal killed in April 1939, we found that both the the first article1 describing mammalian fossils from ovaries and uterus presented an appearance typical Ceylon it was suggested that they were of late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age. The subsequent discovery that remains of a race of the most recent member of the Proboscidea, nam ely, Elephas maximus Linne, occur with those of the hippopotamus, suggested that the Ceylon fossil beds are much younger, but the more advanced mineralization of the present discovery suggests that the age of these deposits dates back to the Pinjor or even farther. A feature of unusual interest is that in Ceylon fossils of anthracothere, hippopotamus, Elephas maximus and bovines occur in the gem- bearing bed which ranges in thickness between six inches and three feet, whereas in the Siwaliks the last of the Anthracotheriidae occurs in association with the hippopotamus over a thickness of about seven thousand feet of fossiliferous beds, after which TWO CORPORA LUTEA OP ELEFIIANTULUS ASSOCIATED WITH EGGS the hippopotamus survives alone in later beds which IN THE UTERUS IN APPROXIMATELY THE SAME STAGE OP are about another three thousand feet thick. The DEGENERATION. (a) From an animal in early anoestrus ; (b) from an animal in the Siwaliks are separated from Ceylon by nearly 25° of menstrual cycle. ( x 125.) latitude and should the Ceylon tooth prove to belong to a local subspecies of Merycopotamus dissimilis of anoestrus. To our surprise, however, we discovered (F. et C.) it will be of importance in correlating the degenerating eggs in the uterus. In an oestrous fossil deposits of the Pinjor horizon of India, the animal such eggs are normally associated with well- Upper Irrawaddy beds of Burma, the Tji Djoelang developed corpora lutea in the ovary and the stage horizon of Java, and the Ratnapura deposits of of dense stroma in the uterus. On carefully re Ceylon. examining the ovaries we discovered curious cellular bodies which were neither corpora lutea of the normal menstrual cycle nor corpora lutea of a remote or recent pregnancy (see accompanying illustrations). Obviously this animal ovulated just a little while before the precipitous onset of ancestrus inhibited the whole post-ovulatory process and the normal development of the corpora lutea. From these facts we venture to conclude the following : (а) Ancestrus inhibits the pituitary in respect of its gonadotropic hormones. (б) The continued development of the menstrual corpus luteum after ovulation is dependent upon the presence of a gonadotropic hormone from the pituitary. (c) This hormone maintaining lutein growth is acutely inhibited by the factor or factors responsible for ancestrus. (d) The onset of ancestrus in any individual animal is a relatively acute process. C. J. van deb H orst. Joseph Gillm an. University of the Witwatersrand, J ohannesburg. Dec. 31. 1 S. Afr. J. Med. Sci., 5, 73 (1940). ! S. Afr. J. Med. Sci., 6 , 27 (1941). 3 Anat. Eee.. 80 443 (1941). 4 S. Afr. J. Med. Sci., 7 (in the press) (1942). The dimensions of the tooth are as follows : length of base 32 mm., width of base 18 mm., height Anthracotheriidae in Ceylon above root 30 mm. The specimen was obtained from the debris at the mouth of a gem pit where the gem- I n 1 9 4 1 a collection of fossils made by Mr. M. C. bearing bed, which is usually also fossiliferous, lay Wickremasekera from the Ratnapura beds near at sixteen feet below the surface. Kuruvita in Ceylon was sent to the Colombo Museum P. E. P. D braniyaoala . fey Mr. D. N. Wadia, Government mineralogist. Colombo Museum, Examination revealed the premolar tooth of a mem Ceylon. Jan. 1. ber of the family Anthracotheriidae of the order 1 Deraniyagala, P. E. P., Geol. Mag., 73, 316 (1936). n o . 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 331 Nitzschia Cultures at Hull and at Plymouth
.M o k e than thirty years ago a persistent culture of a minute diatom was obtained by Allen and Nelson1; they refer to it as Nitzschia closteriuni, W. Sm., forma minutissima. This persistent culture has been maintained at Plymouth ever since, and lias been distributed to many workers at home and abroad. arid frequency of sub-culturing, lighting, temperature, The species has proved to be a useful food for many etc., is so striking that we are anxious to hear from kinds of marine larvae and a convenient diatom for anyone who, in the past ten years, has kept cultures experimental work. A sample was sent to Hull about of this diatom, especially if their cultures be derived 1930 and has been grown there until the present originally from Plymouth stock. It is hoped to time. When first sent the great majority of the include in a paper to be published later any relevant frustulos. as at Plymouth, were of the straight or observations other workers may be able to contribute.
slightly curved fusiform shape characteristic of the D . P . W i l s o n . species, but in 1932 a very few three-rayed or tri- radiate cells were present ; their abundance was Marine Biological Laboratory, certainly much less than 1 per cent. In cultures Citadel Hill, derived from Plymouth stock such cells have been Plym outh. seen by other workers, notably by Barker2. By 1934 C . E. L u c a s . there had, at Hull, been a slight increase in the Dept, of Zoology and Oceanography, abundance of these tri-radiates and they may have UniversitV College. formed as much as 1 per cent of the cultures. In Hull. 1936 the proportion had risen to more than 50 per March 2. cent. Thereafter the abundance of tri-radiates steadily increased so th a t by the spring of 1939 they com 1 Allen. E. J., and Xolson, E. W.. J . Mar. Bird. Assoc., 8, 421 (1910). prised 97 per cent, and by the summer of 1941 more * Barkor, II. A., Archiv MikrobioL. 6, 141 (1935). than 99 per cent, of the cultures. The Plymouth stock cultures first passed into the care of one of us late in 1937, from which time two strains have been kept. In 1939, when attention was Occurrence of a Halophilic Alga specially directed to them, well over 90 per cent of the frustules were tri-radiate, indeed in one strain in Mid-Cheshire the culture was almost entirely tri-radiate. By June 1941 both strains were about 99 per cent tri-radiate. On October 26, while conducting some preliminary In 1939 two clone cultures of normal colls and investigations in the course of an ecological survey one clone culture of tri-radiates were established, a of a salt-spring situated at Aldersey1, seven miles sample of the latter—as well as of one of the former - south-south-east of Chester, the filamentous alga being sent to Hull in February 1940 and maintained Percursaria percursa (formerly known as Entero- there by sub-culturing. All clone cultures for long morpha percursa (Ag.) ) was encountered. The remained almost true to type : after the first few presence of this alga is interesting because Percursaria months a very few cells of the alternate kind were is usually found in rock pools on the shore between to be seen ; lately, there have been some significant tide marks. The only previous record of Percursaria changes. At Plymouth one clone normal (the clone from a brackish non-coastal region, which has come normal not sent to Hull) has become about 5 per cent to my notice, is that mentioned by Grove2 from tri-radiate, but the other clone normal at Plymouth brackish waters in the Midlands. The alga was and at Hull is still almost pure. It is, however, to evidently found in a ditch near the canal at Salwarp, the tri-radiate cultures that attention is here directed. Worcestershire. A note of this find is recorded by The two strains of Plymouth stock and the clone, West and Fritseh3. The species is described and all three about 99 per cent tri-radiate in the preceding figured by Newton4. June, had by November 1941 produced large numbers Percursaria p e r c u r s a occurs in large masses at the of normal cells. There is little doubt from the appear Aldersey spring and is spreading into a neighbouring ance of the cultures that this was done by the gradual brackish gutter. The spring water, at the time the reduction and eventual elimination of one ray of the specimen was collected, had a salinity of 1,075 parts tri-radiate, for of the remaining tri-radiates a large per 100,000 and a pH value of 7-0 (Lovibond com proportion had one ray reduced. Another process parator). by which normals may derive from tri-radiates is I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Helen known but does not appear to have played any part Blackler, of the Liverpool Museum, and Mr. E. G. in this particular change-over. The very remarkable Williams, of Chester, for their independent identifica feature is that while these changes were taking place tions of the alga. at Plymouth almost identical changes were occurring F r e d e r i c k B u r k e . in the cultures at Hull : until a short time ago 12 Queen’s Road, neither author was aware of this fact. Even the Chester. percentages are now closely similar, as the following March 3. table shows. It is based on sub-cultures made at 1 Sherlock, Mem. Geol. Survey, Mineral Resources of Gt. Brit, ltock- the end of November 1941 and counted recently salt and Brine, 18, 111 (1921). when dense. * J . Bot., 58, 33(1920). The almost parallel recent history of these cultures, 3 “ B ritish Freshw ater Algae” , p. 162 (1927). grown so far apart and differently treated as to time 4 Brit. Museum: Handbook of British Seaweeds (1931). 332 NATURE M a rc h 21, 1942, vol. 149 RESEARCH ITEMS Rate of Growth and Timber Quality L. P. V. J o h n s o n , forest geneticist, National The Sargasso Sea Research Laboratories, has reported the results of T h e problem of the origin and extent of the weed an examination of the effect of rate of growth upon in the Sargasso Sea, which has long been a debatable timber quality carried out upon forty-three trees of matter, is discussed by G. E. R. Deacon in a paper hybrids and parents involving Populus alba, P. on the Sargasso Sea in the Geographical Journal of grandidentata and P. tremuloides (Canadian J. Bes., January. A century ago, Meyen argued that the 20, 28 ; 1942). As these hybrids can usually be weed grew as it drifted in the sea, that normal propagated readily by vegetative means and may reproduction was vegetative and that the origin was have a rate of growth far in excess of their parents, in the Gulf of Mexico. Miirray and Hjort did not the point is of great interest and the tentative subscribe to this theory ; they believed that the conclusion—that rapid growth is not seriously detri weed would disappear if fresh supplies did not con mental to quality for paper pulp production— tinually arrive from the coast. The weed certainly is suggests great practical possibilities for these new not disappearing and there is not the least foundation hybrids. A short, thick habit of growth in these trees for the statement of Tilden to that effect. It occurs was found to be significantly correlated with high in strips or patches, large and small, and is rarely wood density, but correlation between growth-rate out of sight in the whole area of the sea. Most of (in terms of annual increment of volume) and wood the weed belongs to two species, Sargassum natans density was insignificant. In the same tree the and 8. fluitans, but other forms are recognized. Mr. fibres in wide annual rings were longer on the average Deacon believes that there is little doubt that the than those in narrow rings—in the same annual ring weed is self-supporting, the total having been built the fibres of the early wood were shorter and thicker up during centuries from plants drifted from the than those of the late wood. The last point recalls West Indies and by vegetative growth in situ. The the observation of Priestley and Scott (Proc. Leeds annual contribution from the coasts is small. Evidence Phil. Soc., 3, 235 ; 1936) th a t the fibres among the of vigorous vegetative growth, in leaves and branches vessels of the early W'ood of Fraxinus were shorter free from Bryozoa, is abundant. Neither of the main than those in the later wood. forms, however, has been identified from the shores of the West Indies, but this does not preclude its original coastal origin. The absence of any field of Mechanism of Germination of Conidia of Erysiphe weed on the coasts large enough to keep the Sargasso T h e mildews are characterized by a dispersal Sea as full as it is of weed shows that the weed must mechanism which seems to operate in relatively dry grow and multiply as it drifts, while the distribution conditions and the conidia then seem to germinate of the currents is responsible for its accumulation and the infection to spread under low humidity and maintenance. conditions that would seem likely to militate against a mildew epidemic. Some very interesting observa Excretion of Ammonia by Blowfly Larvae tions and suggestions upon the subject appear in a In contrast with the vast majority of insects, paper by Harold J. Brodie and C. C. Neufeld of the which excrete the greater part of their nitrogenous Department of Botany, University of Manitoba waste in the form of uric acid and its salts, the larvte (Canadian J. Bes., 20, 41 ; 1942). In Erysiphe of blowflies eliminate most of their waste nitrogen in Polygoni the conidium is cut off by a ring of wall the form of ammonia. This latter method of nitro material wThich forms from the periphery of the genous excretion results in a most economic pro hypha inwards until a perforate disk is formed. cedure since it involves no loss of unburned carbon. Later, the pore in this disk is closed by a minute Pamphlet No. 109 of the Council for Scientific and papilla by which alone the mature conidium remains Industrial Research, Commonwealth of Australia, attached until passively discharged. The wall of the comprises two papers on the above subject by F. G. conidium is relatively impermeable to water and Lennox, the insect studied being Lucilia cuprina. stains enter only at the papillate end. This papilla In the first article, the rate and distribution of thus seems to provide a permeable spot on the wall ammonia production form the main subject. It which is only exposed after detachment. The authors appears that practically all the ammonia produced suggest that abstriction is thus followed by release in the mid-gut passes to the hind-gut via the Mal of carbon dioxide and entry of oxygen through the pighian tubes. It does not reach its maximum until papilla and that germination then starts even at low one or two days after the peak of larval growth. The humidities. In support of this view they show that second article is concerned with the enzymes res germination is checked in an atmosphere of nitrogen ponsible for ammonia production in the species or in one containing 10 per cent carbon dioxide. named. Judging by the large quantity of ammonia liberated in the presence of adenosine, it is concluded Volatile Reducing Substances in Vinegars that adenosine deaminase is probably an enzyme of A s t u d y of the volatile reducing substances in major importance in blowfly larva1. Deamination vinegar was reported by J. M. Whitmarsh to the occurs chiefly in the midgut region where proteolysis Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical can also be demonstrated. The few other insects Chemists on February 4. The Edwards and Nanji known to excrete ammonia nitrogen include the larvae tests for oxidation and iodine values have been of L. sericata (Hobson, 1931), and of Calliphora applied to a number of vinegars and the results com vomitoria (Wienland 1906). In order to establish the pared with the results obtained by those authors. claim that the ammonia liberated by such larvae is Estimations have been made of the amounts of a product of their own metabolism and not of various volatile reducing substances in vinegars and associated micro-organisms, the insects were reared the presence of acetyl methyl carbinol in spirit from sterilized eggs in a sterile synthetic media. The vinegar has been demonstrated, contrary to several details of the technique employed and the apparatus statements in the literature. The oxidation and are fully described in the present pamphlet. iodine values of solutions of these volatile reducing n o . 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 333 substances have been measured, and it is concluded Radial Velocity Curve of 5 Cephei that the distinctive values for spirit vinegar are due I nvestigations of radial velocity curves of to its content of alcohol, and those for malt vinegar Cepheids have been published by Rufus and other are due, largely if not entirely, to the presence of Michigan observers, and these indicate the existence alcohol and acetyl methyl carbinol. of marked relative displacements between spectral lines originating at different levels in the stellar Equilibrium between Cuprous and Cupric Compounds atmosphere. These levels have been taken as equi M a n y cuprous compounds tend to decompose into valent to the heights of the same lines in the solar cupric compounds and copper, and the chief con chromosphere. I t is significant that Jacobsen and trolling factor governing this instability has been Mendenhall found no convincing evidence for the shown by J. E. B. Randles (J . Chem. Soc., 802 ; existence of relative displacements, and the same 1941) to be the degree of covalency or electrovalency conclusion was reached by Petrie, who obtained of the bonding between the copper ions and neigh about a hundred single-prism spectrograms of S bouring ions or molecules, which depends mainly Cephei, using the same instrument as the earlier on the polarizability of the latter. The transition Michigan observers. H. A. Briick and H. E. Green from ionic to covalent type depends on a large de have now discussed this subject (Mon. Not. Roy. crease of ionic charge and so of electrostatic inter Astro. Soc., 101, 8). They have made use of a number action. As the polarizability of the anions or mole of four-prism spectrograms of 8 Cephei which had cules interacting with the copper ions increases, the been secured with the Newall 25-in. refractor of the interaction energy increases and the cuprous com Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge, and which had pound becomes more stable. The equilibrium be been originally used for a spectrophotometric study tween cuprous and cupric ions in presence of metallic of line intensities and their variations during the copper was investigated with different compounds, cycle. These spectrograms have a dispersion of 13 and the results confirm the theoretical deductions. A. /mm. near H y and are in good focus over a wave Absorption Spectra of Unsaturated Ketones length region extending from ~k 4250 to X 4650. The negative results of Petrie and Jacobsen were con T h e absorption spectra of a number of (3-unsatur- firmed, no definite relative displacements between ated ketones have been examined by L. K. Evans and A. E. Oillam (J. Chem. Soc., 815 ; 1941). W ood lines of different atmospheric levels being detected. It is possible that small differences between the ward (J. Ame.r. Chem. Soc., 63, 1123 ; 1941) has velocity curves of groups of neutral iron and ionized tabulated the wave-lengths of the absorption maxima of many ketones, and his data show that they fall titanium lines exist, and there is some evidence for into three classes according to the substitution of the relative shifts in the case of the neutral calcium line C = C—0 = 0 group, the locations of the intense X 4425-6. absorption bands being as follows : monosubstitu Solar Parallax and Mass of the Moon tion (a or (3), 2250 ± 50 A. ; disubstitution (a(3 or (3(3), 2390 ± 50 A .; trisubstitution (a(3(3) ± 2540 ± 50A. T h e Astronomer Royal has published a paper on The nature of the substitution of the chromophoric “The Solar Parallax and the Mass of the Moon from group in these compounds can thus be predicted Observations of Eros at the Opposition of 1931” from the location of the main absorption band. Evans (Mon. Not. Roy. Astro. Soc., 101, 8) ; this is a and Gillam find that, with very few exceptions, this summary of his complete results (Mem. Roy. generalization is well obeyed, which increases the Astro. Soc., 66, Part 2). Independent determina usefulness of absorption spectra in the elucidation of tions from observations of R.A. and Declination organic structure. The study of the effect of sub are in good agreement and the value adopted for stituting simple a(3-unsaturated ketones with methyl the solar parallax is 8-7904" ± 0-0010". The pro groups showed that a larger bathochromic effect is bable error which has been assigned to the final produced by substitution on the (3-carbon atom than value of the solar parallax is based on the high by substitution on the a-carbon atom. Other types internal accordance of the results, and the question of compounds are also discussed in the paper. arises regarding a possible systematic source of error due to differential atmospheric dispersion. A dis Measurement of the Flow of Liquids and Gases cussion of this problem show's that the effects of A u s e f u l summary of methods used for measuring colour differences between Eros and the reference the flow of liquids and gases is given in a paper by stars tend to assume a random nature and the E. Ower and the subsequent discussion (Trans. Inst. general effect is small. A description of the procedure Chem. Eng., 18, 87 ; 1940). The various types of adopted for the determination of the constant of the instruments used are described and the methods of lunar equation is given, and the value derived from calculation discussed, and there is a short bibliography the Eros observations is 6 •4390" ± 0-0015", and of recent literature. from this and the solar parallax the reciprocal of the mass of the moon is 81-271" ± 0-021". From Time Bases this value and that of the constant of precession, O. S. P u c k l e , in a paper road before the Institution 5493-156", the computed value of the constant of of Electrical Engineers on February 4, refers to the nutation is 9-2266" ± 0-0008"; this is much larger development of various types of time bases employing than the adopted value, 9-210". An unexplained hard and soft valves, both for general- and special- discordance has existed between the observed value purpose applications, the aim of the paper being to of the constant of nutation and the value inferred elucidate the principles involved rather than to de from the observed values of the constant of precession scribe the actual instruments in detail. Several little- and the mass of the moon, and it is remarkable that known devices are described, and the highly important the new value of the mass of the moon has increased technique of producing and controlling pulses is con this discrepancy. It is highly desirable that an sidered. The results of recent investigations into some accurate value of the constant of nutation should peculiarities of the gas-discharge triode are included, be determined from observations specially planned and presented in the form of an appendix. for the purpose. 334 NATURE M a r c h 21, 1942, vol. 149 CHEMOTHERAPEUTICAL USE A colorimetric method for the quantitative deter mination of CX in the urine and blood of animals and OF HALOGENIZED PH EN O LS men was elaborated in co-operation with Dr. Benya- min Shapiro. This method will be described else AS EXTERNAL DISINFECTANTS where. An oily solution of 10 per cent CX was found most By PROF. BERNHARD ZONDEK suitable for parenteral application in man. Good results were also obtained with a mixture of CX and Rothschild Hadassah University Hospital and Hormone CX-benzoate, 10 c.c. of which contained 2 gm. of the Research Laboratory, Hebrew University, Jerusalem active substance. These preparations had to be injected deep intragluteally. The disadvantage of OLLOWING the detection of large quantities of the parenteral route of administration is the occa F cestrogenic hormone in pregnant mare urine1, we sional occurrence of painful infiltrations. have observed that mare urine remains for months Following observation made in 1929®, that cestro without decomposing. Germs inoculated in long genic hormone, which is also a phenol body, is standing urine did not multiply. The disinfecting absorbed by the skin, we have also studied the action of horse urine is due to phenol bodies present behaviour of halogenized phenol in this respect. The in it (1 gm. per litre). Human urine contains 100- quantities of CX excreted during five days after 150 mgm. free phenol per litre urine and 150-250 injection of 1 gm. CX intramuscularly in a rabbit mgm. combined phenol. and after rubbing in 1 gm. CX in the form of an oint The fact that large quantities of phenol are elimi ment on the shaved back of a rabbit were found to be nated in the urine encouraged us to study the the same, approximately 15 per cent. It thus chemotherapeutic use of the phenol bodies in human follows that GX is absorbed through the skin, beings, in spite of the fact that Robert Koch and circulates in the blood and is excreted with the Paul Ehrlich had pointed out in their classical urine. studies on this subject that no internal disinfection Percutaneous application in man in the form of a is possible by means of external disinfectants. 30 per cent GX ointment never causes any secondary Bechhold and Paul Ehrlich2 ascribed the failure of effects and may be given in large doses (10-20 gm. this method to the fact that the halogenized phenols of the active substance a day). The following obser studied by them (tetra-bromo-o-cresol, hexa-bromo- vations indicate that both the parenteral as well as di-oxy-diphenyl-carbinol, etc.), although not causing the percutaneous application of CX in man has a precipitation, developed only a limited activity in chemotherapeutic effect : serum. (a) After administration of small doses the urine In the following a brief account is given of our excreted remains sterile for many weeks. In this investigations, as a result of which it became apparent respect GX is more than seven times as active as that the external disinfectants—the halogenized sulphanilamide and six times as active as sulpha phenols were studied—were able to effect internal pyridine. The total elimination of free CX am ounts disinfection. For therapeutic use a phenol body had to 2-8 per cent, its excretion being greater in alkaline to be chosen which, although harmless to the organ urine as compared with acid urine. It is thus advis ism, would have a high disinfective potency. Most able to give sodium bicarbonate and sodium lactate, promising in this respect seemed a mono-halogen- before treatment with GX, so as to obtain an alkaline phenol containing various methyl groups. Halo urine (pH 7 -5-8-5). In human urine 31 per cent of genized xylenol, a substance which has been employed the GX administered is eliminated in a combined for many decades as an external disinfectant3, was form ; 14 per cent is combined with glycuronic acid found most suitable. It is also a halogenized and 17 per cent with sulphuric acid. xylenol that constitutes the basic principle of (b) Twenty-four hours after inoculation of 5-50 ‘Dettol’, which is much used in England as an staphylococci in 2 c.c. of defibrinated blood, 100-800 effective disinfectant for the surgeon’s hands as well million staphylococci may be counted. When tho as for the genital region in obstetrics*. blood of (LS-treated patients is used for the same In our experiments we used mostly p-chloro- experiment, the multiplication of these organisms is xylenol (1, 3-methy], 5-oxy, 2-cliloro-benzene), briefly hindered, making any count impossible ; neverthe referred to here as GX. We also studied the chemo less, the organisms are not all destroyed, since on therapeutic action of several esters and ethers of CX further passage of this blood to blood agar, staphylo (sodium sulphate ester, acetate ester, benzoate ester, cocci do grow. This powerful bacteriostatic effect is ethyl ether, methyl ether). Furthermore, we exam possible after the intramuscular or percutaneous ined ortho-iso-Tpropy\-CX and sec.-iso-amyl-GX. application of only 2-5 gm. CX. So far as the bac The disinfective action of CX in vitro was found to teriostatic activity in the blood is concerned, the be 25-30 times as strong as phenol5. In several treatment with CX is far more effective than with experiments we found that GX is able to destroy sulphanilamide and more active than with sulpha typhoid germs as well as proteus or B . coli in dilu pyridine and sulphathiazole. The antibacterial action tions of 1 in 10,000 and staphylococci in dilutions of of OX in blood has so far been tested against staphylo 1 in 20,000 within 60 minutes. cocci only. In contrast to the results of Paul Ehrlich’s experi (c) While organisms inoculated in the contents of ments, we found that CX exercises a protective cantharide blisters of normal men multiply rapidly, effect in vivo. Although it was not possible to save strong antibacterial effects are possessed by tho same mice infected with streptococci, the experiments gave in CX-treated patients. This is an indication that positive results when rats were infected with pneumo GX penetrates the body tissues. cocci. It was only in some of these experiments that So far as the mechanism of action of GX is con we succeeded in saving the rats from this deadly cerned, we found the following. Bouillon ^containing pneumococcal infection. Parallel experiments with 100 mgm. GX per litre will destroy inoculated sulphapyridine gave similar results. staphylococci. In order to obtain a similar effect No. 3777, M a rc h 21, 1942 NATURE 335 with serum, 5-10 times higher doses of CX m ust be added. This is in conformity with Paul Ehrlich’s FOLK-LORE OF ERUPTIVE FEVERS experiments, in which serum was found to hinder the T a meeting of the Section of the History of activity of halogenized phenols. From our experi Medicine of the Royal Society of Medicine on ments it is apparent that this inhibitory effect is due FebruaryA 4, Dr. J. D. Rolleston read a paper on the to proteins, since after addition of serum-protein to folk-lore of eruptive fevers, in which he said that bouillon, higher amounts of CX were needed to during the last two Congresses of the International inhibit the growth of bacteria, as compared with Society of the History of Medicine held at Madrid in clear bouillon. After treatment with GX, it is the 1935 and at Zagreb and Belgrade in 1938, medical whole blood and not the serum that possesses anti folk-lore formed a considerable part of the proceed bacterial properties. We may thus conclude that ings. In contrast with some diseases, particularly CX, or a substance derived from it, attaches itself whooping-cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, skin dis to the red blood corpuscles. The blood bactericidity eases, especially warts, and eye diseases, the folk-lore of CX, which was examined in 500 cases, begins after of the eruptive fevers is somewhat scanty. 24 hours, a t a tim e when no CX, or only a small am ount The abundance of folk-lore connected with each of it, is present in the blood. We may thus assume exanthem appears to be directly related to the that the active antibacterial substance is formed in antiquity and importance of the disease, so that the the blood and is possibly not identical with CX. The amount of folk-lore of smallpox, measles, scarlet bactericidal substance is bound to the red blood fever and chicken-pox is represented in the order corpuscles since bactericidity disappeared once the named. There does not seem to be any folk-lore erythrocytes hsemolized. connected with German measles, which did not The clinical results obtained with CX will be re receive general recognition as an independent disease ported in detail elsewhere. Here we may briefly until after the International Congress of Medicine note the following. The percutaneous application held in London in 1881. of 15 per cent CX ointment is an excellent means for As regards the causation of the acute eruptive the disinfection of the operative field, the skin fevers there do not appear to be any popular causes remaining sterile for 12 hours. By the percutaneous for their occurrence, such as catching colds, sexual application of 3 gm. CX, an antibacterial activity of excess, or punishment for an evil life, as in the case the blood is simultaneously provoked, thus providing of pulmonary tuberculosis, skin diseases and venereal some protection against possible post-operative diseases. With the exception of smallpox, none of infection. Since this anti-bacterial effect lasts for them has been assigned a divine origin. In accord 24-48 hours, a further application of OX is advisable. ance with medical folk-lore generally, prophylaxis The same is true of its use in obstetrics. In these was rarely employed in the acute exanthemata cases at least 3 gm. of the active substance must be except smallpox. There were many examples of the rubbed in the vulva, in order to combine the disin same treatment being applied to the eruptive fevers fection of the external genital organs with an anti generally, such as overheating the patient or flagella bacterial effect in the blood. tion with nettles with the object of bringing out the We have obtained most encouraging results in the rash, the use of red blankets and bed-hangings and treatment of urogenic infections (cystitis, pyelitis). coprotherapy. Infections due to staphylococci and proteus react As regards the causation of smallpox, numerous particularly well, and a disinfection of the urine is examples were given by Sir James Frazer and others obtained. Infections due to B . coli react clinically of outbreaks of smallpox in different parts of the well, that is, the symptoms disappear after a short world being attributed to a goddess or, much more time, but in most cases the B. coli are not destroyed, rarely, to a god, and of the various means employed a bacteriostatic effect thus being obtained. The to win their favour or prevent their visitation. treatment lasts five days, the daily dose of CX Examples were also given of the avoidance of calling amounts to 10-20 gm., which is given percutaneously the deity or the disease by its proper name and with 1-2 gm. parenterally. using instead some more or less euphemistic words Up to now we have treated seven cases of puerperal or phrases. The supposed transfer of smallpox to septic infections. In two cases of streptococcal animals, plants and inanimate objects in accordance pysemia, the treatment failed to give good results. In with folk-lore practice in other diseases was also the other five cases the patients recovered. These described. Prophylaxis of smallpox by inoculation included two eases of staphylococcal pyaemia. In was a folk-lore method carried out by old women septic general infections the treatment—mostly in Turkey long before it was adopted by the medical percutaneous—should last at least fourteen days. profession in Great Britain and France. Besides Our experience in the treatment of other infectious overheating the patient, the folk-lore treatment of diseases is still limited. smallpox consisted mainly of animal and plant It should be especially emphasized that treatment remedies and the invocation of patron saints. with halogenized phenols in man is harmless and There are more popular errors concerned with causes no secondary effects. measles than w ith any of the other acute exanthem ata, such as the belief that it is a trivial disease, that it I Zondek, li., Klin. Wschr., 9, 2285 (1930). cleans out the system and makes the child less liable ‘ ISechliold, H., and Hhrlicli, 1’., Z. phi/s. Chem., 47, 173 (190IS). to contract other diseases, and that patients should 3 Schottelins, M., MUtlch. Med. \V*rhr., 59. No. 49 (1912); ]|a*chig, I '., not be washed, owing to the delusion that such an Z. aiujeu'. Chem. Ztbl. tech. Chem., 38, 1939 (1912). act tended to drive the rash inwards. In none of 4 Colebrouk, L., J . Obst. and Gyn. British Em p., 40, No. 0 (1933); the acute exanthemata is cojDrotherapy more fre Brit. Med. J ., 723 (1933). quently employed than in measles, especially in the 6 Klarmann, E., Sliternov, V. A., and Gates, L. W., ./. Amer. Chem. Soc., 55, 2576 (1933) ; Loekeinann, (!., and Kunzmann, Til., early stage of the disease. There were several Ani/cw. Chem., 46, 290 (1933) : Ztbl. Bakteriol., T, 145, 61 (1933). examples of the belief that measles could be best II Zondek, Jl., Klin. Wschr., 8, 2229 (1929) ; Schweiz, wed. Wschr., treated by transfer of the disease to animals and No. 49 (1935). plants, and apart from any idea of transfer numerous 336 NATURE M a rc h 21. 1942. vOL. 149
folk-lore remedies were supplied by animals, plants Thursday, March 26 and minerals. I n s tit u t io n o f N aval A rc h itec ts (at the Royal Society of A rts, Doubtless owing to scarlet fever having been John Adam Street, Adelphi, London, W.C.2), at 2.30 p.m.—Eighty- third Annual Meeting. 3 p.m.—Sir Stanley V. Goodall, K.C.B.: isolated as an independent disease much later than “Sir Charles Parsons and the Royal Navy” (Parsons Memorial smallpox or measles, its folk-lore is much less than Lecture). R oy al I n s tit u t io n (at 21 Albemarle Street, London, W.l), at that of the other two diseases. Popular errors con 2.30 p.m.—Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R .S.: “Physicists after the War”.* nected with it included the view that the term S o c iety o f Chem ica l I n d u str y (F ood Gr o u p) ( J o in t M e e t in g ‘scarlatina’ meant a mild form of the disease, that w ith t h e B risto l S e c t io n ) (in the Chemical Department, the Uni versity, B risto l), at 6.30 p.m.—-Prof. F. L. Engledow : “Science and second attacks did not occur, and that a mild attack the Land” (Jubilee Memorial Lecture). could transmit only a mild attack to another person. Instances are occasionally met with in which scarlet Friday, March 27 I n s tit u t io n o f Chem ica l E n g in e er s (at the Connaught Rooms. fever was supposed to be transferred to animals, such Great Queen Street, London, W.C.2), at 11 a.m .: Twentieth Annual as a dog, bear or sheep. Amulets were sometimes Corporate Meeting. worn for prevention of the disease. There does not appear to be any patron saint connected with scarlet fever as in smallpox or measles. APPOINTMENTS VACANT Although chicken-pox is probably as old as small A pplications are invited for the following appointments on or pox, owing to its usually mild character and uncom before the dates mentioned : plicated recovery very little folk-lore is connected Principal of the Technical College, Coatbridge—The Director with this exanthem, but it has had a large number of of Education, Lanarkshire House, 191 Ingram Street, Glasgow, C .l popular synonyms which are out of proportion to its (March 25). D e p u t y S uperintendent . Telegraph Works, Calcutta, for duties real significance. The term ‘chicken-pox’ was first as P ro d u c tio n E n g in e e r fo r T oo l a n d L ig h t M a c h in e S ho ps— used in medical literature in 1694 by Richard Morton, T h e Secretary, Central Register (Section D .261), Ministry of Labour and N a tio n a l Service, Queen Anne’s Chambers, Westminster, London, who spoke of a form of smallpox “called in the S.W.l (March 28). vernacular the Chicken-Pox”. Fuller also in 1730, in Assistant in the Nutrition Department— The Secretary, Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury Square, a paragraph in his “Exanthematologia”, wrote : “I London, W.C.l (April 7). have adventur’d to think that this is that which A ssista n t ( ma le) to t h e P ublic A n a ly st— The Secretary, Health among our women goeth by the name of Chicken- Department, Grey Friars, Leicester. P ro fesso r o f Civ il E n g in e e r in g a n d d ir e c t o r o f t h e School pox.” o f E n g in e e r in g at Canterbury College, Christchurch, New Zealand Another example of folk-lore anticipating scientific —The Secretary, Universities Bureau of the British E m p ire, c/o medicine is furnished by the fact recently mentioned University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.l. by W. 'N. Pickles that the connexion between herpes zoster and chicken-pox was known at Aysgarth in Yorkshire long before this connexion was demon REPORTS and other PUBLICATIONS strated by Bokay in 1892. (not included in the monthly Books Supplement) Great Britain and Ireland Economic Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society. Vol. 3, No. 9: Notes on some Lepidopterous Pests on Fruit Trees, and their Parasites, in Ireland during 1941. By Dr. Bryan P. Beirne. Pp. 107-118. 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