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Downloaded 10/10/21 01:05 PM UTC AUGUST 2009 S R O C K a N D B O S a R T 2449 2448 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 137 Heavy Precipitation Associated with Southern Appalachian Cold-Air Damming and Carolina Coastal Frontogenesis in Advance of Weak Landfalling Tropical Storm Marco (1990) ALAN F. SROCK AND LANCE F. BOSART University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, New York (Manuscript received 30 September 2008, in final form 22 January 2009) ABSTRACT An analysis is presented of Tropical Storm Marco (1990), a storm that dropped copious amounts of rain over the southeast United States. Marco was noteworthy because of its role in the formation and evolution of two distinct episodes of cold-air damming and coastal frontogenesis over Georgia and the Carolinas. These mesoscale features led to greater than 300 mm of precipitation in 2 days over the near-coastal southeast United States; much of the rain occurred while Marco was over 400 km away. This case is further complicated by two other nearby tropical cyclones, which affected Marco’s track and the overall rainfall distribution. Synoptic and mesoscale analyses of the development of the coastal front and cold-air damming episodes show that the location of Marco helped to orient low-level winds toward the Appalachians. As rain developed inland, a pocket of relatively cool air, the ‘‘cool pool,’’ formed near the mountain slopes and was partially blocked by the higher terrain. Low-level analyses show that the coastal front on the oceanward edge of the cool pool became a focusing mechanism for ascent and precipitation, as moist, tropical air advected inland by Marco was forced upward at the density gradient. The results indicate that a weak tropical cyclone can directly effectuate intense precipitation distant from the storm center, both by causing moist tropical flow toward land and by inducing mesoscale features that focus the precipitation and lead to heavy rainfall and flooding. 1. Introduction flooding from landfalling TCs are often the most dan- gerous threat because of the loss of life and the de- a. Purpose struction of property. Further study into the effect of Landfalling and near-landfalling tropical cyclones surface winds, wind shifts, and land/ocean airmass (TCs) pose a challenging forecast problem because of contrasts on the precipitation distribution of TCs was the potential devastation to people and property from suggested as a way to improve understanding and storm surges, strong winds, and heavy precipitation (e.g., forecast skill by the Fifth Prospectus Development Sheets 1990; Rappaport 2000). Although storm surges Team of the U.S. Weather Research Program (PDT-5; and high winds tend to be weaker when distant from the Marks et al. 1998). Nearshore surface features can storm, regions of heavy precipitation associated with a modify the final TC precipitation distribution through TC can occur hundreds of kilometers away from the storm mesoscale effects such as orographically forced ascent center. In the case of landfalling and near-landfalling TCs, (upslope), coastal frontogenesis, and cold-air damming topography-related mesoscale features can combine (CAD). This paper will examine the formation and with enhanced forcing for ascent and moisture from enhancement of coastal fronts (CFs) and CAD events synoptic features and the TC to cause extremely dam- induced by the presence of a TC in proper position with aging, heavy rainfall over land. Rappaport (2000) states respect to the local terrain. that inland precipitation and associated freshwater The period of 9–13 October 1990 was chosen for study because two distinct episodes of coastal frontogenesis and CAD caused exceptionally heavy precipitation near Corresponding author address: Alan F. Srock, Dept. of Atmo- spheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany/SUNY, the southeast U.S. coast; these mesoscale features were Albany, NY 12222. enhanced by Tropical Storm Marco in the eastern Gulf E-mail: [email protected] of Mexico. Marco was the primary TC affecting the DOI: 10.1175/2009MWR2819.1 Ó 2009 American Meteorological Society Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 01:05 PM UTC AUGUST 2009 S R O C K A N D B O S A R T 2449 FIG. 1. Topography (shaded; m), significant station location, cross-section line (dashed), and storm positions every 6 h (see legend for symbol reference) from 0000 UTC 9 Oct 1990 to 1200 UTC 13 Oct 1990. The TC position at 1200 UTC on a given date is shown by an open symbol next to the date. Southeast’s rainfall during the period, but the remnants of the southern Appalachians, each coincident with a of Hurricane Klaus and the rapid approach of Hurri- shallow, intense CF over near-coastal Georgia and cane Lili from the east near the end of the period greatly South Carolina. affected the final rainfall pattern (Fig. 1 shows the tracks of the TCs). Marco and the remnants of Klaus were b. Previous work responsible for over 500 mm of precipitation near the Georgia–South Carolina border, $57 million in damage Topographic effects can significantly enhance pre- (in 1990 dollars), and seven deaths (all due to inland cipitation in any rainfall-producing system. Orographic flooding) from the heavy rainfall (Mayfield and Lawrence precipitation enhancement without a CF or CAD is 1991). The rainfall distribution with this case is uncom- generally related to upslope effects (e.g., Passarelli and mon compared to other landfalling TC events, since much Boehme 1983; Barros and Kuligowski 1998). Intention- of the heaviest rainfall in coastal Georgia and the Caro- ally selecting cases without CFs, Passarelli and Boehme linas occurred while Marco was . 400 km away. Figure 2 (1983) found that regions of upslope precipitation re- shows the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/ ceived 20%–60% more rainfall than nearby flat or Hydrological Prediction Center (NCEP/HPC) archived downslope terrain. Focusing solely on precipitation di- 24-h accumulated precipitation ending at 1200 UTC 11 rectly attributable to a landfalling TC, Haggard et al. October and 1200 UTC 12 October, along with Marco’s (1973) looked at 70 yr of TCs that made landfall in position at the end of each period (Figs. 2a,b, respec- the United States and subsequently traversed the Ap- tively). The heaviest rainfall in both periods is located palachian Mountains (defined as the TC center passing between the Appalachian Mountains and the coast; over elevation greater than 300 m). The authors found however, the highest rainfall totals in the 24-h period TCs that crossed high topography usually had pre- ending at 1200 UTC 11 October appear over near- cipitation maxima in the areas of sharpest elevation coastal South Carolina, 12 h before Marco makes increase. landfall in the Florida Panhandle. In this paper, we will Cold-air damming (e.g., Richwein 1980; Forbes et al. show that the presence and location of Marco were 1987; Bell and Bosart 1988) refers to the process where crucial for the development of two CAD episodes east cold air is slowed by a topographic barrier and moves Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 01:05 PM UTC 2450 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 137 FIG. 2. The 24-h accumulated precipitation (contoured every 25 mm starting at 50 mm; contours end at 150 mm) ending at (a) 1200 UTC 11 Oct 1990 and (b) 1200 UTC 12 Oct 1990. The location of Marco at the end of the time period is denoted by the M. Adapted from archived image at NCEP/HPC (courtesy of W. Junker). preferentially in the direction of the pressure gradient Bell and Bosart (1988) found that CAD east of the force. This occurs most often on the eastern side of Appalachians most frequently occurs in late fall and approximately north–south-oriented mountains with a early winter, when the temperature difference is great- high pressure system to the north, as cold air moving est between the warm ocean and cold land. Their study toward the eastern slopes has insufficient kinetic energy also found a low-level wind maximum oriented parallel to go over the barrier and is then forced to decelerate. to the mountains in the cold air, which helped to push The deceleration weakens the effect of the Coriolis the cold dome equatorward. Fritsch et al. (1992) sug- force, so the cold air will preferentially move away from gested that the cold pool could be maintained by the the higher pressure to the north, creating an equator- blocking of incoming solar radiation due to cloud cover ward bulge of high pressure and low temperature (e.g., over the cold dome and evaporative cooling due to Bailey et al. 2003, their Fig. 1). Forbes et al. (1987) precipitation falling through the cold dome; however, showed that the presence of the cold pool was important Brennan et al. (2003) found evaporative cooling in the for the location and type of precipitation. As warmer, cold air only helped to maintain the temperature deficit moister air from the Atlantic Ocean was advected to- while the cold pool was unsaturated. To further cate- ward the mountains, it was lifted up and over the density gorize CAD events, Bailey et al. (2003) objectively gradient at the edge of the cold pool, instead of at the classified members of a CAD climatology. Their pri- mountainside topography gradient as would be ex- mary division between CAD types depended on for- pected with terrain-driven ascent alone. mation and maintenance method—whether the polar Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 01:05 PM UTC AUGUST 2009 S R O C K A N D B O S A R T 2451 cold air was advected into the region by equatorward ence of a CF along with the poleward moisture transport synoptic forcing, cooled in situ due to heavy rain and was shown to focus precipitation at and inland of the CF.
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