The Complete

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications (IJONTE)

April 2016

Volume: 7 Issue: 2

ISSN 1309-6249

http://ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 ISSN 1309-6249

Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Teknik Okullar Ankara/Türkiye E. Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167

Abstracting & Indexing

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications (IJONTE) is currently indexed, abstracted and listed starting with the first issue in:

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 ISSN 1309-6249

Sponsors

Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey

Associate Editors

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi University- Turkey Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University- Turkey Dr. Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC Dr. Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC Dr. Ufuk Tanyeri, Ankara University- Turkey

Assistant Editor

Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC

Editorial Board

Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax- Tunisia Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur- Malaysia Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sunbul, Selcuk University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University- TRNC Prof. Dr. Ali Simsek, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University- Netherlands Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University- Greece Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University- Poland Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico- USA Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge- United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada- USA Prof. Dr. Coskun Bayrak, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University- Canada Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Erol Yildiz, Alpen-Adria University- Austria Prof. Dr. Esmahan Agaoglu, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University- South America Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information"- Kazakhstan iii Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 ISSN 1309-6249

Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen- Netherlands Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabasi, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland- Finland Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Hacettepe University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University- United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Jozef Gašparík, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava- Slovakia Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University- Japan Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology- India Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti- Romania Prof. Dr. Manuel Alberto M. Ferreira, Lisbon University Institute- Portugal Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University- Canada Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karsli, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University- Taiwan Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University- United Arab Emirates Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abolgasem Artemimi, Zawia Engineering College- Libya Prof. Dr. Mufit Komleksiz, Cyprus International University- TRNC Prof. Dr. Mustafa Cakir, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Nedim Gurses, Anadolu University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University- China Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign- USA Prof. Dr. Roberta E. (Bobby) Harreveld, Queensland University- Australia Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains- Malaysia Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University- Georgia Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University- Germany Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow- United Kingdom Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics- Lithuania Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University- China Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpinar, Bogaziçi University- Turkey Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel- Israel Prof. Dr. Yuksel Kavak, Hacettepe University- Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University- Belgium Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago- USA Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus- Greece Assoc. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University- Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University- Lithuania Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney- Australia Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ozgen Korkmaz, Mevlana University- Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente- Netherlands Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv- Bulgaria Assoc. Prof. Dr. S. Raja, ASL Pauls College of Engineering and Technology- India Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University- India Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth- United Kingdom Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center- Ukrania Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University- Romania iv Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 ISSN 1309-6249

Assist. Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Charles University- Czech Republic Dr. Carmencita L. Castolo, Polytechnic University- Philippines Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University- Jordan Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside- United Kingdom

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249

Dear IJONTE Readers,

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now as Volume 7, Number 2. In this issue it publishes 10 articles. And this time, 19 authors from 2 different countries are placed. These are Turkey and USA.

Our journal has been published for over five years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles have been sent to be published. 372 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.

We wish you success and easiness in your studies.

Cordially,

1st April, 2016

Editors Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara- TURKEY Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir- TURKEY

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Contents ISSN 1309-6249

FROM EDITORS………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………..……………....vi

CONTENTS……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….vii

ARTICLES

01. LEARNING ANALYTICS: ASSESSMENT OF MASS DATA IN DISTANCE EDUCATION……..1 Assist Prof. Dr. Mehmet FIRAT, Prof. Dr. T. Volkan YUZER - TURKEY

02. CAUSES OF SCHOOL FAILURE FROM TEACHER AND STUDENT’S PERSPECTIVE…………9 Assist. Prof. Dr. Emine ÖNDER - TURKEY

03. INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO INFOLLUTION (INFORMATION POLLUTION): TRUST AND SHARE………………………………………………………………………………………….23 Dr. Şebnem ÖZDEMİR - TURKEY

04. THE INVESTIGATION OF THE LEARNING STYLES OF PRE-SERVICE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS BY SOME VARIABLES ……….…………………..34 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir TUNA, Prof. Dr. Ahmet KAÇAR- TURKEY

05. CONTEMPORARY MATTER ON COMMUNICATION EDUCATION: TECHNOLOGICAL LACK………………………………………………………………………….…………43 Prof. Dr. Sedat CERECİ- TURKEY

06. SERENDIPITOUS FACULTY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH INFOGRAPHIC ACTIVE LEARNING EXPLORATION…………………………………...50 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Janet T. DAVIDSON, Prof. Dr. Jace HARGIS- USA

07. USAGE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR PRISONER DISTANCE LEARNERS: ANADOLU UNIVERSITY OEF CASE………………………………………………………………………61 Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Prof. Dr. Sezen UNLU, Prof. Dr. Serap SUGUR, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Incilay CANGOZ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Esra Pınar UCA GUNES - TURKEY

08. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY STUDIES OF RECOGNIZING AND COMPREHENDING EMOTIONS TEST…………………………………………………………….76 Assist. Prof. Dr. Elif UNAL BOZCAN, Prof. Dr. Mufit KOMLEKSIZ- TRNC

09. BASED ON SOCIAL MEDIA RELATIONSHIP MARKETING APPROACH: A STUDY ON ANADOLU UNIVERSITY OPEN EDUCATION SYSTEM WEBSITE AND THE FACEBOOK NETWORK………………………………………………………………………...90 Assist. Prof. Dr. Berrin OZKANAL, Dr. Gulendam UYGUCGIL- TURKEY

10. A GROUP OF ON-CAMPUS EFL LEARNERS’ READINESS FOR INTERNET-BASED DISTANCE LANGUAGE LEARNING………………………………………109 Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ALTUNAY -TURKEY

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

LEARNING ANALYTICS: ASSESSMENT OF MASS DATA IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

Assist Prof. Dr. Mehmet FIRAT Department of Distance Education Open Education Faculty Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY

Prof. Dr. T. Volkan YUZER Department of Distance Education Open Education Faculty Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY

ABSTRACT

The e-learning environment and its instruments have diversified with computer and internet technologies and provided new opportunities for open and distance educational researchers. As a result of the widespread use of the electronic environment in education, learner interactions were also transferred into the electronic environment. One of the important advantages of this new environment is being able to record learner interactions in considerable detail. In the electronic environment, the frequently of access of a learner to content, the duration and times of such access, the user’s progress, the diversity of sources the user accesses, the subjects the user shares, the times, quantity, and party the user engages in sharing can be recorded utilizing a computer and information technologies. Analysis of all such data led to appearance of learning analytics as a new field. Learning analytics was defined as a due field aiming to access trends or structures utilizing large educational data in order to move customized higher education forward in the report of New Media Consortium (NMC) on higher education published in 2014. This study presents a theoretical starting point of learning analytics, definitions made in related literature, scope and structure of the field, research environments and tools as well as suggestions for studies to be conducted in the field.

Keywords: Learning Analytics, distance education, data mining, massive data analyze, mass data in education.

INTRODUCTION

Developments in computer and internet technologies paved the way for the common use of electronic environments and instruments such as Web 2.0 tools, online surveys, e-mails, packages such as SPSS, NVivo, LISREL for scientific research. The e-learning environment and instruments diversified by fast-growing computer and internet technologies and provided new opportunities to educational researchers. Accordingly, efforts for processing massive data gained speed in the fields of Web analytics, data mining, social network analytics, and advanced statistics. It is possible to follow and evaluate traces left by learners in the electronic environment by utilizing all these fields. Therefore, computer and internet technologies not only expand scientific research opportunities or study areas but also allow the appearance of new research fields such as Learning Analytics.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

Purpose The purpose of the study is to present a theoretical starting point of Learning Analytics as a new field in educational studies, definitions made in related literature, the scope and structure of the field, research environments and tools as well as suggestions for studies to be conducted in the field.

LEARNING ANALYTICS

As an umbrella concept, analysis is about benefiting from data, statistical analyses, and explanatory and predictive models in order to gain a point of view on complicated issues and act accordingly (Brown, 2012). Learning analytics as a type of analysis aims to reach a better success in student learning using these methods.

Learning can be defined basically as a product of interaction. Interaction of the learner with the teacher, content, and other learners can be diversified depending on the approach utilized even in traditional learning environments. Opinions of a teacher, scores achieved by students in exams, and scores achieved by students in orals exams are used for the assessment of learning while student opinions at the end of the lesson are also used for more advanced assessments. However, as a result of progress in educational technologies, educational resources were computerized quickly. Accordingly, learner interactions were also transferred to the electronic environment. One of the important advantages of this new environment is that learner interactions can be recorded in considerable detail.

In the electronic environment, the frequently of access of a learner to content, the duration and times of such access, the user’s progress, the diversity of sources the user accesses, the subjects the user shares, the times, quantity, and party the user engages in sharing can be recorded utilizing a computer and information technologies. Transfer of learning interactions to the electronic environment led to the appearance of learning analytics as a new field in educational studies.

Definitions Learning analytics was defined as a field aiming to access trends or structures via big data or datasets in education related to students in order to move the supportive and customized higher education system forward in the report of New Media Consortium (NMC) on higher education published in 2014 (Johnson et al. 2014). According to the definition of Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR), learning analytics is the collection, measurement, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts (SoLAR, 2014). According to another definition, learning analytics is an emerging field in which sophisticated data analysis tools are used to improve learning and education (Elias, 2011).

Scope and Structure Learning analytics can be seen as an extremely complicated and onerous field of research. There are different application areas of the method. Examination of massive data is the leading one. It is possibly an effective approach, particularly in studies to be made in open sources and institutions having a high number of attendants. In order to apply this new approach effectively, there are some fields that researcher should possess, be familiar with, and even be specialized in. Nine of these fields are given in Figure 1 below.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

Figure 1: Required fields for learning analytics

As can be seen in Figure 1 many skills are required for learning analytics ranging from data analysis to methodology and advanced web software languages. Good assessment should contribute to understanding and improvement of learning processes (Alexander et al. 1992). Thus, a sufficient number of researchers for traditional researches will not be adequate for LA. Instead of that, forming a more extensive team of experts in their own fields can be required. In other words, LA can be considered as an interdisciplinary scientific field focused on education because of its nature.

According to Elias (2011), learning analytics is closely tied to fields such as Web analytics, academic analytics, educational data mining, action analytics and business intelligence (entire processes of taking strategic decision for the institution utilizing data analyses or algorithms). Relationship between these areas are summarized in Figure 2 below.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

Figure 2: Learning analytics related fields

As can be seen in Figure 2 business intelligence refers to entire processes of taking a strategic decision for the institution utilizing the data analyses or algorithms, data collection, analysis and reporting of Web site usage by visitors, customers or learners. Academic analytics is related to the transfer of application principles and tools of business intelligence to academia (Goldstein and Katz, 2005). Data mining refers to collection, analysis, interpretation and record of large data in a broad sense. Unlike educational data mining, decision making processes are attempted to be improved by statistical predictive models in academic analyses.

Research Environments and Tools Use of the electronic environment and its instruments in scientific studies is limited to online surveys, e-mails, packages like SPSS, NVivo, LISREL. This is because; collection, interpretation, assessment, and visualization of electronic data records were a work needing expertise a few years ago. However, such data are processed so as to allow students, teachers, analysts and managers to utilize them easily through different graphs, tables, and other visuals now (Shum, 2012). Some prominent research environments about learning analytics are given below.

Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as the Blackboard, Moodle, Edmodo and ConnectEDU, and Content Management Systems’ (CMS) analysis board are leading environments in which effective studies can be made in the field of learning analytics. Comprehensive analysis boards for the interaction of the learner with the content, teacher and other learners are seen in these environments which are commonly used by many educational institutions, including especially universities. As a result of studies to be made using these data, not only defective aspects of the lesson or course can be determined but also student learning can be assessed.

Social network applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Forums, Blogs, Wikis, etc. are leading social network applications. Social network applications are a leading electronic environment in which learners are active the most. Therefore, the learner interacts with other learners and is affected by these interactions, mostly in these environments. Network analysis tools appeared using interactions of learners in Social network environments. SNAPP that provides interactive visualization for determining learning networks is a good example of such tools. A learning network is given in Graph 1 was generated in SNAPP.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

Graph 1: SNAPP network example

The field of learning analytics has a wide range of application and environment providing scientific research opportunities. In addition to Social Network Applications, some other important environments that can be used for scientific researches in Learning Analytics can be listed as follows:  Computer and software logs: records of personal computers and all kinds of software,  Games and simulations: all kinds of games, including 3D and video games, and simulations,  Video Sharing Platforms: Video sharing platforms such as Youtube, Dailymotion, Google Video, Yahoo Video, Vimeo, and  Search engines: Search engine services like Google Analytics providing detailed search analyses.

In Practice Learning Analytics has specific techniques and strategies for analyzing massive data of learners. Obtained massive data are converted into graphs, visuals, network structures and figures supported by descriptive statistics. After massive data are visualized for better understanding, detailed analysis is performed. After analysis, decision-making process is entered by statistical techniques and predictive models.

There are a number of Web analytic systems keeping records of Web site usage by users primarily. Alexa, Google Analytics and Google Trends are the most prominent ones. In order to create comprehensive analytics in research, other tools such as Wolfram, Tableau and MaxMind that are still being developed for web analytics will be utilized with the aforementioned tools. The leading environments in which effective research can be done in the field of Learning Analytics are analysis boards of environments such as Blackboard, Moodle, Edmodo and ConnectEDU related to the LMS and CMS analytics. Besides, learning analytics can be performed examining analytic information related to analytic information going beyond traditional LMSs by both Google analytics services and institutional Web records (log).

Comprehensive analysis boards for the interaction of the learner with the content, teachers and other learners are seen in the LMC environments which are commonly used by many education institutions including especially open educational institutions and other universities. As a result of studies to be conducted using these data, not only defective aspects of the lesson or course can be determined but also student learning can

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

be assessed. Social network applications are leading electronic environments in which learners are active the most. Therefore, the learner interacts with other learners and is affected by these interactions, mostly in these environments. Network analysis tools appeared using interactions of learners in Social network environments. NodeXL, SNAPP, SVAT, InMap and Facebook Insights are the leading of them.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

One of the important requirements for shaping the future of higher education is not being able to analyze massive data in electronic environments scientifically (Siemens and Long, 2011). At this point, Learning Analytics which has remained on the agenda of educational studies for 3 years are considered as an important solution suggestion. Although Learning Analytics which allows to research massive and multi-dimensional data scientifically are an approach being developed, the LA is explained in the NMC Horizon 2014 Higher Education Report as a due approach that requires adaptation within a year or shorter period (Johnson, Adams Becker, Estrada & Freeman, 2014). Required areas of expertise for learning analytics given below in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Required areas of expertise for learning analytics

Necessary proficiencies such as data mining, social network analytics, data visualization, research methods, Web design, measurement and assessment, Pedagogy/Andragogy, Web 2.0/Web 3.0, and advanced statistics should be met in studies to be conducted in the field of learning analytics. Considering these proficiencies carefully, it can be said that a team for studies to be conducted in the field of Learning Analytics should be formed by experts in at least 3 fields.

Expertise fields required for the LA are constantly in mutual communication and interaction. Therefore, the team should learn to cooperate in LA studies. Booth, (2012) suggested the following three strategies for enabling the LA team to cooperate and sustain the work:  Providing cooperation training to the LA team,  Raising awareness for important items that should be measured in learning processes and technologies to be used for measuring, and  Eliminating factors that prevent the LA team from working together.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

Considering strategies of Booth (2012), it is seen that everyone in the LA team learns working together and focuses on sustaining the cooperation. Preventive factors mentioned in the third strategy can be all kinds of institutional, environmental, and individual obstacles. For example, individual working habits of one or some of experts in the LA research team may be a preventive factor. Therefore, it may be necessary to give cooperation training to the team and conduct awareness raising activities. Researches to be made in the field of Learning Analytics (Brown, 2012; Booth, 2012):  can be a warning to the teacher or instructor, student, and director when an intervention is necessary for educational institutions,  can provide output for designing, constant improving, and publishing lessons,  can contribute to individualization of learning environments,  can include the student in the learning processes,  can provide informative and supportive feedbacks to all shareholders of learning and teaching processes,  can assign duty and give responsibility to students in the assessment of learning processes, and  can contribute to the development and improvement of the curriculum or lessons significantly.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Mehmet FIRAT, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor in Department of Distance Education, Faculty of Open Education, Anadolu University. The researcher gained his Ph.D. in educational technology. His academic interest areas are learning analytics, social network analysis, e- learning, cyber behaviors, hyper system navigations, and use of internet in education.

Assist Prof. Dr. Mehmet FIRAT Department of Distance Education, Open Education Faculty Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

T. Volkan YUZER, Ph.D. is professor in Distance Education at College of Open Education, Anadolu University. He undertook graduate studies at Anadolu University, Turkey. His research interests are new communication technologies, synchronous, asynchronous and interactive communications and transformative learning milieus in distance and online education.

He has over seventeen year experience in exploring additional distance learning media and providing communication and technological support for distance learning programs as well as develop online learning courses. He has participated in projects related to distance learning, online synchronous learning, virtual classroom. He has been teaching courses in distance learning, communication and information technologies.

Prof. Dr. T. Volkan YUZER Department of Distance Education Open Education Faculty Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249

REFERENCES

Alexander W. Astin; Trudy W. Banta; K. Patricia Cross; Elaine El-Khawas; Peter T. Ewell; Pat Hutchings; Theodore J. Marchese; Kay M. McClenney; Marcia Mentkowski; Margaret A. Miller; E. Thomas Moran; Barbara D. Wright, (1996). Nine principles of good practice for assessing student learning. American Association for Higher Education.

Birnbaum, M.H. (2004). Human Research and Data Collection via the Internet. Annual Review of Psychology. 55, 803-832.

Booth, M. (2012). Learning analytics: the new black. EDUCAUSE Review,47(4), 52-53.

Brown, M. (2012). Learning Analytics: Moving from Concept to Practice. EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative.

Diaz, V. and Brown, M. (2012). Learning Analytics: A Report on the ELI Focus Session (Louisville), CO: EDUCAUSE, May 2012), 3.

Elias, T. (2011). Learning analytics: Definitions, processes and potential. Accessed via http://learninganalytics.net/LearningAnalyticsDefinitionsProcessesPotential.pdf on 15 February 2014.

Goldstein, P. J. and Katz, R. N. (2005). Academic Analytics: The Uses of Management Information and Technology in Higher Education, ECAR Research Study, 8.

Johnson, L., Adams, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H. (2013). The NMC Horizon Report: 2013 Higher Education Edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.

Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V., Freeman, A. (2014). NMC Horizon Report: 2014 Higher Education Edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.

Knoke, D., & Yang, S. (2008). Social network analysis (Vol. 154). Sage.

Shum, S.B. (2012). Learning Analytics. IITE Policy Brief. Published by the UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education.

SoLAR, (2014). Öğrenme Analitikleri Araştırmaları Topluluğu. Accessed via http://www.solaresearch.org on 07.02.2014.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

CAUSES OF SCHOOL FAILURE FROM TEACHER AND STUDENT’S PERSPECTIVE

Assist. Prof. Dr. Emine ÖNDER Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Education Educational Sciences Department 15100 Burdur -TURKEY

ABSTRACT

In this research, the aim is to determine causes of the failure in a school that was placed second to last as per TEOG average scores despite being located in Burdur city center. This research is in descriptive research model, and a mixed study designed according to both quantitative and qualitative research approach. Study group of the research consists of 11 school teachers and 171 students of the school in question. In the research, quantitative data was collected from students through the causes of failure determination survey, and qualitative data was obtained from teachers through open-ended questions. Quantitative data was examined with descriptive analyses and chi-square test, qualitative data was examined though content analysis. As a result of analyses, it is clearly understood that causes of students’ failure show so much diversity. It has been observed that causes such as inability to ask questions to teachers on issues students do not understand, quickly forgetting what they learn and inability to take good notes show significant difference as per upper and lower success group, and hat students pull such situations to forefront as reasons for failure. As a result of the content analysis, it is understood that teachers explain causes of failure under themes of family, student and school.

Keywords: Causes of failure, mixed study designed, school, teacher and student’s perspective.

INTRODUCTION

Together with social development and change, it is widely accepted that development in every field can be achieved through education. In this respect, we can say that the success achieved in educational practices plays an important role in the level of development and ensuring the continuation of development, and future and place in the world of both individuals and countries can be determined through education (Eğitim Reformu Girişimi [ERG], 2010; Program for International Student Assessment [PISA], 2009a; Özsoy, 2009). Thus, in a country, it is necessary to prevent failure of schools under the roof of its system to provide qualified education to the whole society rather a certain section of it.

Since education is a complex process based on mutual interaction of many factors, school failure is known to be based on different and versatile reasons. According to researches carried out in this context, the reasons for failure are explained with not only characteristics related to family and school but also individual characteristics of students, school resources and institutional environment are known to affect educational outcomes (Ammermüller, Heijkeb and Wöβmann 2005; Bean, Bush, McKenry, and Wilson, 2003; Crossley 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain’ine, 2005). However, regardless of its reason, an individual’s failure in developing his/her behaviors is a great loss for family, country and further for humanity. In this respect, better success line for each school is not an option but an obligation. This obligation makes it inevitable to question these institutions and the education offered in these institutions. In addition questioning the education system as a whole, standard tests towards determination of student success at

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

national and international level are employed (Hanushek and Wößmann, 2007; Munoz, 2000). One of tests applied in this respect is the Exam of Transition from Primary to Secondary Education (TEOG)1. In Turkey, transition from primary education to secondary education is conduct based on this exam. TEOG exam is considered important both from the point of revealing academic success of students of primary education in special level and revealing success of schools and cities in Turkey at general level, even this exam is considered as a criterion.

In TEOG exams, Burdur province is one of cities with the highest success rate. TEOG exam average in Burdur is 328,632 in 2014. 2014 TEOG average of schools in province in question varies between 439.26 and 242.93. The school subject to the research is located in Burdur city center and has an average TEOG score of 264.69. With this score, the school in question is placed 75th among 76 schools in province, and 24th among 25 schools in city center. In consideration of these data, we can say that school’s TEOG success is quite low and even lagged behind most village schools. However, according to some researches, school location in rural areas has a significant effect on assessment test scores. School located in settlements with a population of 15,000 and less remain significantly behind in test results. Rural area factor especially causing significant differences in math test scores has an effect in reading and science test scores similar to the significance threshold in math test. All these reasons make it necessary to find answers to questions like “What makes a school more successful than the other?”, “Why do schools located in similar residential areas fail in achieving similar success line?”. Scanning the field literature on the subject, although it is in evidence that number of researches conducted on school success, it is observed that number of researches directly addressing school failure is limited in Turkey (Akbaba Altun, 2009; Büyükkaragöz, 1990; Can, 1992; Olcay and Döş, 2009; Özabacı and Acat, 2005 and Bırtıl 2011). In some of these researches, causes of failure were found based on opinions of high school students and analyzed with descriptive analyses (Olcay and Döş, 2009) through data mining technique (Bırtıl, 2011). In another study, the aim was to determine causes of school failure based on socioeconomic differentiation. In this study that has quantitative research design, opinions of primary education students, parents and teachers were used (Özabacı and Acat, 2005). In the qualitative research conducted by Akbaba-Altun (2009), causes of failure were tried to be described from the point of teachers, parents and students. However, effects on inputs used in education on student success may vary according to the time of survey, country or region (Fuller & Clarke, 1994). In addition, schools are different from each other and they may show failure in different cases. In this regard, it is important to conduct school-based studies to clarify the reasons behind failure of each school in reaching the intended success. Researches in this direction are important in terms of determining variables that led to school failure and using necessary intervention tools towards these failures by considering suitable subjective conditions of the school. In this respect, this research is considered important since it will serve as a data source for educational policy and practitioners as researchers of similar subjects, students and parents. With reference to all these facts, in this study, the aim is to determine causes of the failure in a school that was placed second to last as per TEOG average scores despite being located in Burdur city center. In line with the general objective, the following questions are tried to be solved. 1) How do socio-economic characteristics of the students range? 2) What are the reasons for failure according to students’ opinions? 3) Do causes for students’ failure differ significantly based on success status? 4) What are the causes of failure according to teachers’ opinions?

1 TEOG exam aim at determining student’s success not based on instant performance but by extending over a large period of time. To this end, one of exams for Turkish, Math, Science and Technology, Religion and Morals, Foreign Languages and Turkish History and Kemalism applied in the 8th grade cyclically is carried out among all students. Students’ 6th, 7th and 8th grade year-end success scores and their 8th grade weighted common test scores are collected. The resulting sum is divided into two to obtain the score basis for placement. Grading is made over full score of 500 points. For detailed information, see Directive Regarding Transition to Secondary Education by Ministry of National Education. 10 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

METHOD

Research Model In this research, the descriptive research model was used to determine causes of students’ academic failure. This research is a mixed study designed according to both quantitative and qualitative research approach.

Study Group Study group of the research consists of students and teachers of the school in question. In the research, data was collected from 11 teachers and 171 students participated on a voluntary basis. Of teachers in the study group, 3 are female and 8 are male; their ages range from 32 to 43. One teacher from Physical Education, Social Studies, Math and Turkish Language branches presented opinions. One of the teachers has worked in this school for 3 months, another one for 8 years, and others have worked here for 1-4 years. Except two teachers, other teachers have been a teacher for at least 10 years. Only one of teachers graduated from master degree and others from bachelor’s degree. 18.1% of students participated in the study attend the fifth grade; 24.6% of them to the sixth grade, 35.7% to the seventh grade and 21.6% of them to the eighth grade. 51.5% of the students are female, 48.5% of them were male with their ages ranging from ages 11 to 15.

Data Collection Tool and Data Collection Process In the study, two different measurement tools were employed. The first tool is “Determining Causes of Failure Survey” used to detect causes of students’ failure conducted by Burdur Counseling and Research Center. This survey contains 44 items. Opinions of three field experts and one measurement and evaluation expert were consulted about whether expressions in items contain expressions of failure causes, whether they resemble with other items and whether they are consistent or not. In accordance with these reviews, some items were eliminated, and in some items, necessary arrangements in terms of statements and expression were applied. To put the measurement tool into its final form, preliminary application was applied on a total of twenty students including five students from each grade from another secondary school with similar student profile. As a result of this application, incomprehensible items were eliminated, and number of items was reduced to 30. In the survey, items towards determining demographic characteristics along with causes of failure were used. Another data used in the study was gathered from teachers through open-ended questions. In the questionnaire form, participants were asked the following question: “What do you think about causes of low TEOG achievement in your school? Please write in detail.” To collect qualitative data for the research, the researcher contacted with teachers and informed them about the subject and presented the questionnaire in an envelope. Teachers were asked to put the questionnaire into envelope back after finishing answering questions and submit it to the teacher assisting the researcher. In the research, to ensure participants express themselves more comfortably and to reach more participants in a little while, this kind of data collection method was preferred.

Data Analysis In the study, descriptive analyzes were used to determine causes of failure based on students’ answers and to describe characteristics of participants. Using chi-square test, it was analyzed whether causes of failure showed significant differences from the point of success based on students in upper and lower groups. Data obtained from teachers through open-ended questions were analyzed using content analysis. Within the framework of content analysis, firstly, the researcher read answers given to open-ended questions and determined codes and themes. Then a field and measurement-assessment expert was hired to determine codes and themes independently. By determining codes and themes with disagreement, another field expert was consulted regarding the situation. Based on the expert opinion, a secondary reading was carried out by the researchers, and codes and themes were put into their final form. Frequency values for the distribution of codes were calculated. In cases where it was necessary in the interpretation of the findings, opinions of participants were quoted. When participants’ opinions were quoted as exact, participants were coded in the form of T1, T2, ....

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

FINDINGS

In this part of the research, each research questions is discussed as a subheading by paying attention to research questions.

1) Socio-economic characteristics of students Socio-economic characteristics of students are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of students according to their year-end scores Year-End Score2 169 and lower 70 up to 84 85 and higher n % n % n % Father 2 2.9 1 1.6 0 0.0 Illiterate Mother 2 2.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 Primary Father 32 45.7 24 38.7 9 23.1 School Mother 45 64.3 38 61.3 23 59.0 Parents’ Secondary Father 25 35.7 14 22.6 11 28.2 Education School Mother 14 20.0 13 21.0 10 25.6 Father 10 14.3 20 32.3 16 41.0 High School Mother 8 11.4 9 14.5 6 15.4 Father 1 1.4 3 4.8 3 7.7 University Mother 1 1.4 2 3.2 0 0.0 Working Mother 42 60.0 37 59.7 29 74.4 Unemployed Status Father 1 1.5 2 3.3 2 5.4 Number of 2 or fewer 62 88.6 55 88.7 35 89.7 Siblings 3 and more 8 11.4 7 11.3 4 10.3 Average Less than TRY 1000 46 65.7 32 51.6 20 51.3 Monthly Between TRY 1000 and 2000 13 18.6 17 27.4 10 25.6 Family Income Higher than TRY 2000 11 15.7 13 21.0 9 23.1 Family Help Receiving Status (Food, fuel, other) 10 14.3 8 12.9 2 5.1 Goes to Private Teaching Institution 1 1.4 10 16.1 5 12.8 Private Teaching Private Teaching Institution Fee 0 0.0 2 3.2 0 0.0 Institution of Less than TRY 1000 Student 1 1.4 8 12.9 5 12.8 and Price Private Teaching Institution Fee Higher than TRY 1000

According to Table 1, both parents of 2.9% of students with year-end score of 69 and lower are illiterate. Mothers of 64.3% of students and fathers of 45.7% of students are primary school graduates. Father of 14.3% of students and mothers of 11.4% of them are high school graduates, and only parents of 1.4% of them are college graduates. Among students with a year-end score of 70 to 85 points, 1.6% of them have illiterate fathers, and fathers of 38.8%, mothers of 61.3% of them are primary school graduates. Fathers of 32.3%, mothers of 14.5% of students are high school graduates, and fathers of 4.8% and mothers of 3.2% of them are college graduates. Students with a score of 85 and above have parents at least graduated from primary school. While fathers of 23.1% and mothers of 59% these students are primary school graduates, fathers of 41% and mothers of 15.4% of them are high school graduates, and fathers of 7.7% are college graduates.

Generally, students are the only child in the family or have two brothers (69 and lower for 88.6%, 70-84 for 88.7%, 89.7% for 85 and above). Analyzing students’ parental working conditions, it is understood that

2 Year-end score categories are determined based on provisions on granting Certificates of “Achievement” and “Excellence” by the Ministry of Education Regulation on Pre-Preschool Education and Primary School Education Institutions. 12 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

mothers of many students are housewives (60% for 60 and lower, 59.7% for 70-84, 74.4% for 85 and higher) and fathers of some students are unemployed (1.5% for 69 and lower, 3.3% for 70-84, 5.4% for 85 and higher). Parents of 65.7% of students with low scores have a family monthly income of less than TRY 1000. Nearly half of students with a score of 70 and higher have a monthly income of more than TRY 1000. Students’ parents receive assistance from different institutions and organizations (14% for 69 and lower, 13% for 70-84, 5% for 85 and higher points). Students from each score group receive support from private educational institutions outside the school or receive private tuition. Only 1.4% of students with lower scores receive support from another private institutions outside the school and pay an average fee higher than TRY 1000 annually. The ratio of students taking courses increases slightly among students with higher scores (16.1% for 70-84 score, 12.8% for 85 and higher). Nearly 13% of students in each group spends an average of TRY 1000 for this purpose.

2) Reasons for failure according to students’ opinions Results related to reasons for failure according to students’ opinions are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Causes of failure Success Status 69 and Between 70- 85 and Total Causes of failure Lower 84 Higher f % f % f % f % My family being too much crowded 4 5.7 1 1.6 - - 5 2.9 My family failing in assisting me 11 15.7 11 17.7 5 12.8 27 15.8 My health deteriorated 4 5.7 1 1.6 2 5.1 7 4.1 Lack of a separate study room 22 31.4 18 29 7 17.9 47 27.5 I live apart from my family 2 2.9 2 3.2 - - 4 2.3 My family unnecessarily urges me to study 9 12.9 10 16.1 6 15.4 25 14.6 I cannot behave freely since my family is highly 7 10 11 17.7 5 12.8 23 13.5 authoritative My family do not show interest in me 7 10 3 4.8 2 5.1 12 7 I cannot understand what teacher tells 18 25.7 9 14.5 5 12.8 32 18.7 I am shy about asking question to my teachers on 31 44.3 24 38.7 5 12.8 55 32.2 issues I cannot understand I quickly forget what I learn 27 38.6 22 35.5 6 15.4 60 35.1 I cannot understand what I read 10 14.3 3 4.8 2 5.2 15 8.8 I cannot express in writing what I know 14 20 12 19.4 3 7.7 29 17 I cannot express in word what I know 8 11.4 8 12.9 2 5.1 18 10.5 I am not rewarded when I am successful 7 10 10 16.1 3 7.7 20 11.7 I am not interested in some courses 25 35.7 21 33.9 9 23.1 55 32.2 I cannot follow courses watchfully since our class is - - - - 1 2.6 1 0.6 crowded Information given in courses is useless 4 5.7 2 3.2 2 5.1 8 4.7 I do not know good study methods 15 21.4 19 30.6 13 33.3 47 27.5 I cannot spare time to study because of duties given 14 20 10 16.1 5 12.9 29 17 by my family My teachers deliver subjects monotonously 8 11.4 5 8.1 4 10.3 17 9.9 Unrest in my family 3 4.3 1 1.6 - - 4 2.3 I cannot focus on subject while studying since I 16 22.9 16 25.8 6 15.4 38 22.2 think other things My place in the classroom is not suitable for 20 28.6 18 29 7 17.9 11 6.4 following courses Not enough interest from my teachers 6 8.6 4 6.5 1 2.6 8 4.7 I do not like studying 5 7.1 3 4.8 - - 24 14 I cannot take good notes in courses 16 22.9 4 6.5 4 10.3 31 18.1

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

I do not have friends to study together 18 25.7 10 16.1 3 7.7 26 15.2 Financial status of my family is insufficient 10 14.3 9 14.5 7 17.9 15 8.8 My previous knowledge not enough 9 12.9 4 6.5 2 5.1 45 26.3

Analyzing Table 2, although reasons for failure differ much among students, students mostly explain failure with lack of support from parents (15.8%), lack of a separate study room (27.5%), inability to understand what teacher tells (18.7%), inability to ask questions to teachers in subjects he/she does not understand (% 32.2), immediately forgetting what they learn (35.1%), no interest in some courses (32.2%), unaware of good study methods (27.5%), inability to spare time to study because of duties given by parents (17%), thinking of other things while studying (22.2% ), inability to answer questions in exams despite believing in learning the subject (26.3%), inability to take good notes in class (18.1%) and the lack of friends to study together (15.2%).

3) Causes of failure according to students of upper-lower group in terms of success In this part of the study, chi-square test was performed with a view to determine whether situations shown by students as cause of failure differ according to students in upper and lower success group in terms of success. Chi-square analysis results are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Chi-square results regarding causes of failure given by students as per year-end success scores

N Below 85 and X2 P 70 Higher My family do not assist in my courses Effective 16 15.7 12.8 .167 .457 Not 93 84.3 87.2 Effective 29 31.4 17.9 Lack of a separate study room 2.33 .095 Not 80 68.6 82.1 Effective 23 26.1 12.8 I cannot understand what teacher tell 2.62 .083 Not 85 73.9 87.2 I am shy about asking question to my teachers Effective 33 38.6 15.4 6.38 .009 on issues I cannot understand Not 76 61.4 84.6 Effective 36 44.3 12.8 I quickly forget what I learn 11.21 .001 Not 73 55.7 87.2 Effective 34 35.7 23.1 I am not interested in some courses 1.86 .125 Not 75 64.3 76.9 Effective 28 21.4 33.3 I do not know good study methods 1.86 129 Not 81 78.6 66.7 I cannot spare time to study because of duties Effective 19 20.3 13.2 .85 .258 given by my family Not 88 79.7 86.8 I cannot focus on subject while studying since I Effective 22 22.9 15.8 .76 .271 think other things Not 86 77.1 84.2 Effective 21 25.7 7.7 I cannot take good notes during class 5.23 .017 Not 88 74.3 92.3 Effective 14 15.7 7.7 My previous knowledge is not enough 1.44 .185 Not 95 84.3 92.3 Effective 17 14.3 17.9 I do not have friends to study together .26 .403 Not 92 85.7 82.1

Analyzing Table 3, significant different is observed between causes given by students such as inability to ask questions to teachers in subjects he/she does not understand (38.6% of students in the lower group, 15.4% in the upper group), immediately forgetting what they learn (44.3% of students in the lower group, 12.8% in the upper group) inability to take good notes in class (25.7% of students in the lower group, 7.7% in the upper group) and students’ position in upper and lower success group. In addition, considering findings, we can say that students in the lower success group bring all situations with significant difference to forefront as causes of failure. Besides analyzing Table 3, it can be understood that other situations mostly specified by students as causes of failure do not show significant difference among students in upper-lower success group (p>0.05).

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

4) Causes of students’ failure according to teachers’ opinions As a result of the content analysis, it is understood that teachers explain causes of failure under themes of family, student and school and system. Causes of failure specified by teachers under the theme of family are given in Table 4.

Table 4: Codes regarding students’ failure under the family theme Theme Codes Teachers Presenting Opinion f Low socioeconomic status of the family T1, T2, T4, T6, T8, T9, T10 7 Family Disregard of education by the family T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 6 Structural characteristic of the family T4, T5, T8 3

Analyzing Table 4, it is understood that some of teachers who participated in the study (n = 3) attribute students’ failure to fragmented family structure and the majority of teachers attribute this to low socioeconomic status (n = 7) and disregard of education (n = 6).

Examples of teachers’ opinions that attribute student failure in their schools to socioeconomic level and structure of the family are as follows:

“…Most of our students are from low-income groups and among single parents. Some of them are not cared by neither parents. There are children who live with grandparents. They have nobody to question or protect them.” (T5). “…Unfortunately, families of most of our students are not powerful economically and socially, students are generally from poor and fragmented families.” (T9).

Examples of teacher opinions that attribute school failure to disregard of education by parents are given below:

“…Students cannot proceed much without support from parents. Despite teachers’ efforts, they cannot achieve better. Rather than being interested, many parents leave their children’s responsibility on teachers by remarking similar expressions like ‘be as rough as you want with my child’.” (T6) “…Unfortunately, with the lack of interest by families and effect of the environment, children cannot reach a certain point despite their potential. We are thankful that the children in our school come to school being dressed up at least.” (T3).

Conditions associated with the school theme as the source of students’ failure according to teachers are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Codes regarding students’ failure under the school theme Theme Codes Teachers Presenting Opinion f Parent-school-student collaboration T1, T3, T5, T6, T8, T9, T10 7 School The lack of financial resources-physical-training in T2, T3, T7, T10 4 and Prejudiceschool against school T3, T5 2 System Density of the curriculum T10 1 Prejudice of school staff against students T6 1

Analyzing Table 5, one of teachers participating in the research specified the density of curriculum (T10), another teacher specified prejudice of teachers and administrators against students (T6), two of them specified prejudice against school (T3, T5) and some of them specified the lack of financial, physical and educational resources among causes of failure. Many teachers also talk about student-parent-school cooperation under this theme (n=7). Teachers’ opinions considering low success in schools caused by the lack of parent-school-student collaboration are as follows:

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

“…Unfortunately, there is not enough coordination and cooperation between teacher-student-parent. It is not possible to connect with the parents one-to-one too much. Even at meeting, three or four people barely attend.” (T1). “…In our school, there are many children with social difficulties. When it is required to connect with the family, we cannot find anyone to communicate on the issue.” (T8).

Examples of teachers’ opinions attributing low school achievement to the lack of financial, physical and educational resources are as follows:

“…In order to increase success of students, firstly, physical structure of the school must be appropriate. Are the physical characteristics of our school very well? No. For example, our laboratory is not very good condition. In addition, the laboratory is not always empty. You can visit the lab if it is free.” (T10). “…Our students are those with social difficulties; however, we do not even have a guidance teacher in our school.” (T3). “…Parent profile in our school is obvious, therefore, it is very difficult to raise funds through the PTA. The State pays only expenditure items similar to other school expenditure items. Therefore, we do not have a big budget in financial terms and our change of making improvements decreases.” (T7).

Opinions of teachers attributing students’ failure to the density of curriculum are given below:

“…Our curriculum is very full. I hardly keep up with this performance. There are so many experiments left undone as planned. Students only listen to courses without understanding its logic. Either period must be extended or curriculum must be shortened and simplified.” (T10).

Some of the teachers specified the cause of failure as the prejudice of environment and school staff towards students. Examples of students' opinions on this issue are given below:

“…Teachers and administrators have already accepted the situation with an approach stating that “fabric is not good, how well suit we can make”. For me, this is the most important obstacle to success.” (T5). “…There is a negative perception of the school. Families with better opportunities send their children to better schools. It is necessary to change parents’ perception of the school who will be able to support our school. If students who will be positive samples to other student attend our school, our and other parents’ expectations towards the school and students may change.” (T3).

Codes specified under students theme given among causes of failure are given in Table 6.

Table 6: Codes regarding students’ failure under the students theme Theme Codes Teachers Presenting Opinion f Students’ level of readiness T1, T5, T9, T10 4 Low motivation of students T3, T5, T7, T8, T9, T10 6 Student Students’ prejudice against courses T6, T10 2 Students’ lack of goals for life T8, T9 2

Analyzing Table 6, it is observed that nearly half of the teachers participating in the research specified lack of student readiness (T1, T5, T9, T10), low level of motivation (T3, T5, T7, T8, T9, T10) as the cause of failure. According to two teachers, students’ prejudices felt against courses (T6, T11) and the low expectations of life (T8, T9) bring along low achievement. Examples of teachers’ opinions attributing school failure to graduating students without achieving school qualification, namely low level of readiness among student are given below:

“…Success requires a solid foundation. Many of the students still have reading and writing problems. Students graduating from primary school should be well educated so that we can proceed on this foundation.” (T9).

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

“…Our grade passing system is set up in such a way that child can now easily get the upper grades without receiving enough benefits from previous grade. Because of lack of enough knowledge, student cannot receive educational benefits from upper grades.” (T1).

Teachers’ opinions attributing school failure to lowness of student motivation and lack of life goals are as follows:

“…The students have no goals of life. This situation reduces the motivation of students towards school.” (T8). “…Most students think that they could not achieve their best in current adversities; they are sent to school only to get rid of necessity of sending children to school without any goals and by accepting their conditions.” (T7).

Examples of teacher opinions explaining school failure through students’ prejudice against some courses are as follows: “…Students fail in some courses with a perception of difficulty; they move away from the course. You do not want to study for course you do not like. Despite your abilities, you build a wall between you and the course. If you do not like the teacher of course; here is the failure...” (T6).

DISCUSSION

Analyzing the research findings, it can be understood that students are generally of lower socioeconomic origin and the cause of student failure is generally attributed to family, student, school and the education system despite their diversity. According to the students’ opinions, prominent causes of failure in the context of family are students’ lack of academic support from their families and lack of appropriate physical environment for studying. Similarly, teachers also specified causes such as low socioeconomic level of the family, fragmented family structure and lack of importance attached on education as a part of this failure puzzle. According to field literature, education is a complex process that relies on mutual interaction of many factors. In this respect, failure in education can be regarded as the common representative of elements that allow production of education service. However, family is shown as possibly the most important among these parts. It is stated that socioeconomic level of family affects student achievement and strengthen the effect of education. It is observed that student’s success in test increases as socioeconomic level of family increases (Davis-Kean, 2005; ERG, 2009; Gelbal, 2008; Konstantopoulos, 2006; Köse, 2007; PISA 2009b). In some countries including Turkey, socioeconomic structure of family comes to the front as the main source of failure and inequality of opportunity in education (Ferreira and Gignoux, 2010). Besides, other applied studies have revealed that social support plays an important role in maintaining student’s attendance along his/her academic achievement and his/her adaptation (Cutrona et al., 1994; Yılmaz, 1998). It has been specified that the most important sources of social support for students are family, friend and teacher. However, it has been determined that children of poor families cannot receive adequate social support from their parents (Hashima and Amato, 1994). Indeed, in our study, it is understood that students cannot receive enough support from their families on their education, they do not have friends to study together and they are afraid to ask questions to their teachers about subjects they do not understand. These findings suggest that students of the school in question lack adequate social support. In this context, we can say that results obtained in the research are in consistent with the literature.

According to another finding of the study, teachers and students indicate that the second important part of the puzzle in context of failure is student. Under this dimension, although students’ lack of better learning method, prejudice against courses and lowness of motivation, inability to express oneself and shy personality are among causes of failure, it can be understood that items such as shyness in asking teachers questions about subjects that students do not understand, learning in class but forgetting quickly and inability to take notes vary based on students’ success, and that students within lower success group bring these situations to forefront as causes of failure. It is observed that teachers have also given similar statements among causes of student-based failure. According to teachers, deficiency in students’ readiness level, prejudice towards courses, lowness of motivation and lack of expectations in life are among causes of failure in school. Many

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

social scientists also emphasize a close relationship between academic achievement and student characteristics (Konstantopoulos, 2006; Merrett, 2006). As a matter of fact, in a study in which administrators, teachers and parents were asked about what they did to achieve success, teachers and parents specified that “material is good” and they attributed the basic reason for school success primarily to students (Negis Işık, 2010). Besides, in the field literature, an individual feeling himself/herself inadequate in every subject (Hoffman & Spatariu, 2008) and the motivation level (Arioğul, 2009; Unrau and Schlack, 2006; Yılmaz, 1995) are shown as causes of failure. It is mentioned that a student’s belief in his/her failure in a field affects his/her motivation; causes anxiety and stress (Bandura, 1997), negatively affect academic achievement (Metallido & Vlacho, 2007; Wolters & Pintrich, 1998). In this regard, we can say that research findings are compatible with many studies.

According to another finding of the survey, teachers also emphasize the effect of factors based on school and system on failure of their schools compared to other schools. In this context, many students mentions the weakness of the student-parent-school cooperation. Researches applied on factors increasing school success emerge as a complementary and supportive factor for school-parent cooperation and participation of parents. These studies highlight the importance of home-school cooperation on school success (Çelenk, 2003; Kolay, 2004; Silver, 2004). A direct relationship between parents’ contribution to school and qualified education is established (Aslanargun, 2007). Parent involvement or school-parent cooperation has a direction of increasing success, also there are also social aspects such as embracing school by the society, school finance and assessment of school as a training center (Silver, 2004). In fact, according to some teachers, the prejudice developed by environment towards school, by school staff towards students lie behind failure of school. One of obstacles to development of success is that the environment and school staff focus on students’ negativity and know them with their deficiencies. In some researches applied on the subject, there are findings available that show a consistent and higher relationship between teacher expectations and student success (Brophy, 1983; Özkal et al., 2002; Tauber, 1997). Teachers’ opinions and attitude regarding how much his/her student will learn and what kind of performance he/she will show affect student’s success. While students with high expectations show a success suitable for their potential or closer to this fact, students with low expectations learn less than they could (Arends et al., 1998). The student developing low expectation internalizes this expectation after a period of time, and he/she does not show any efforts towards changing this situation by going into learned helplessness. Thus, we can say that, as a result of teachers’ prejudices and lower expectations towards students, almost a wall of glass between student and achievement is built and student is doomed to failure.

Some of the teachers in the study specified causes of failure as the lack of financial, physical and educational resources of school. Despite differing as per development status of the country, physical facilities and equipment of schools are shown among indicators that negatively affect quality of education and result in performance differences between schools (Kurul Tural, 2002; UNESCO, 2002; UNICEF, 2000). Moreover, it is stated that restrictive effect of such deficiencies in countries such as Greece, Norway and Turkey are higher than expectations (MEB, 2005). Besides, there are also researches available reporting that a relationship does not exist between resource usage and success that the amount of money spent in the event of effective usage of sources has indirect effect on student success (Dünya Bankası, 2011; Hanushek and Wößmann, 2007). Under the circumstances, we can say that quality of physical infrastructure and resources allocated to education do not guarantee success in education, but adequate level in these elements are among prerequisite for effective learning. Also in the survey, according to some teachers, another reason for student failure is the absence of guidance counsellor in school. Researches on the subject show that activities carried out within the scope of educational guidance have positive effect on increasing students’ academic success (Zalaquett, 2005). In this context, contributions of seminars conducted towards students, families and teachers and related to study techniques, coping with exam anxiety and time management are emphasized (Camadan and Sezgin, 2012). Considering from this point, we can say that this finding of the research is consistent with the field literature.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As a result, causes such as absence of suitable study conditions at home and lack of social support and learned failure are said to result in failure. However, some students are able to overcome the difficulties despite all the negative social events they experience and they may reach high academic achievement. Therefore, to achieve long-term solutions rather than immediate returns, powerful and effective guidance services should be provided in schools. Emotional and social supports may be provided to students that will raise awareness about themselves, develop their strengths and allow their true potential and that will assist them to experience joy of success and to believe in themselves. Besides, students and workers should be encouraged with sample experiences relating to the fact that failure is not destiny and can be overcome when attempted. Together with individual and group guidance activities, students may be ensured to cope with learned failure and test anxiety, to make study plans and acquire good study habits. Parents should be informed by discussions and seminars on the subjects of creating positive study environment at home together with such issues. On the other hand, positive learning and study environment may be established in school outside regular hours for students who cannot find a positive study environment at home.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHORS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Emine ÖNDER completed her BA studies on Primary School Teaching, her MA in Educational Administration and Supervision, her PhD on Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy at Gazi University in Turkey. She has been working as an assistant professor doctor in the Educational Sciences Department of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Education since 2013. She is scholarly interested in qualitative research methods, educational quality, equality of opportunity in education and school leadership.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Emine ÖNDER Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Education Educational Sciences Department 15100 Burdur -TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO INFOLLUTION (INFORMATION POLLUTION): TRUST AND SHARE

Dr. Şebnem ÖZDEMİR Istanbul University Department of Informatics TURKEY

ABSTRACT

Information, from the rawest condition to the most valuable form, is the most important and undeniable power of the age we live in. However, gaining this power is quite difficult because of many reasons. For example, information cannot be used in the way it is obtained or it cannot be effectively accessed in a way to fulfill the need. The individuals, who have the capacity to process limited information, struggle with certain problems such as excessive increase regarding information or information overload. As a result, they are exposed to infollution (information pollution). When the role of the individuals on producing and spreading information is taken into consideration, it is possible to accept that they are also effective in the concept of information pollution. The general purpose of this study is to understand the contribution of individuals to information pollution. The special purpose of the study is to identify the main criteria that make individuals effectively using social media believe the trueness of the shared information and the driving forces behind sharing the abovementioned information whose trueness they believe in. In line with this purpose, sample group consisting of 541 individuals was asked open-ended and likert-type questions and their contributions to information pollution were analyzed through a case study. The obtained data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. As a result of the study, it was understood that high school students constituting the majority of the sample group were very effective on information pollution and they did not have consciousness level regarding not sharing inaccurate information on digital world.

Keywords: Information Pollution (Info Pollution, Infollution), Polluter, Digital Natives, Information Overload.

INTRODUCTION

Information considered as a competitive power in today’s world can continue its journey from its rawest form (“data”) to the information in the meaning of informatics and can reach wisdom form when internalized by organizations and institutions. In this journey, digital world elements like social networks, websites and blogs provide individuals with the information in the meaning of informatics rather than raw data. Thanks to these elements, any information can be rapidly disseminated and transmitted worldwide. This freedom in obtaining and transmitting information can be advantageous in some aspects. However, when individuals become addicted to sharing/spreading information in a very unconscious way, this freedom becomes disadvantageous. Because of this situation, the members of the information society turn into a community feeling like they are sunk into information in large quantities since they access any information without any restriction (Kominiarczuk and Ledzińska, 2014).

Information overload has come into prominence with the widespread of corporate information systems. The existence of the concept has made itself apparent with the printed materials such as books or journals (Edmunds & Morris, 2000), the frequency of transmitting these materials to receivers and increase in information density in various sources (Bawden, Holtham & Courtney, 1999). However, discovering new channels for obtaining information or sharing it just with a touch are the factors that have made it a critical issue (Bettis-Outland, 2012; Özdemir, 2015, Özdemir and Gülseçen, 2015). This situation causes individuals to be exposed to excessive information far above their information processing capacity. In addition, their decision making processes are affected negatively and physical ailments occur as well as mental fatigue (Jacoby, 1984; Malhotra, 1982; Schick, Gorden and Haka,1990; Sparrow, 1999; Bawden, 2001; Özdemir and Gülseçen, 2015). Information which has always been considered as a helpful element now has begun to turn into an obstructive 23 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

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element (Bawden, Holtham, & Courtney, 1999; Bergamaschi & Leiba, 2010). Individuals are faced with problems and interruptions at the point of assimilating information. Nielsen (2003) argues that one minute interruption (depending on reconstruction of the mind itself and re-involvement in the flow) causes 10-15 minutes performance loss for an intellectual worker.

Information society is in danger of losing the fundamental philosophy of communication (Nelson, 2007) since individuals generate excessive information with low cost (Suggs, 2006). As a matter of fact, individuals share/transmit information in a conscious or an unconscious manner by using their freedom in obtaining and sharing information. As a result, this situation causes new problems like information pollution in information ecosystem. Accurate and essential information turns into polluted information because of many reasons such as deterioration of the shared/transmitted information, adding misleading elements or hosting malicious contents.

Information pollution, also known as info pollution and infollution, is the contamination of information sources with irrelevant, redundant, unsolicited and low-value information (Orman, 1984). Cai and Zhang (1996) argue that information pollution is a pile of widespread yet unwanted messages and that one day, these messages could deeply influence the social life bearing negative results. The term “infollution” was suggested by Paek- Jae Cho (CEO of Keran Telecommunication Corp.) in 2002. In 2003, infollution was introduced by Jakob Nielsen with the main lines. When information pollution definitions made by Cho and Nielsen are taken into consideration, it is possible to state that information pollution occurs when the individual, whether consciously or not, shares/spreads the information and this negative situation becomes more uncontrollable with the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technologies).

Berkan (2012) defines information pollution as the odorless and invisible waste of human intelligence. When individuals think about pollution, they can easily trace it with sense organs. However, information pollution is a fact that the individual cannot recognize by himself. An individual cannot discover information pollution without having a mental fatigue, a contradiction on macro or micro level, a process of transition from fallacy to enlightenment and exploration.

Apart from not being able to detect its integrated impact with sense organs, information pollution feeds from individuals’ hunger of making shares continuously. Whether intentionally or unintentionally, every share made without questioning the trueness of the information can reach a great number people within seconds and create a global interaction and effect with re-shares. In our age, individual actions can turn into collective actions and it is possible to state that these actions can have an important role on the outbreak of many problems like financial crises or security issues depending on the content of the shared information. Bray (2008) argues that information pollution is the negative side of the mobility on global level supporting/dragging individuals who want to access and produce information on global level.

When “information” term is taken into consideration, the individual producing and consuming information has the role of information inventor (Uğraş, 2015). When “information pollution” term comes into question, the individual plays the polluter role by producing and sharing inconvenient and malicious contents (Berkan, 2012). Cho and Lee (2011) defines the concepts coming into our lives with the existence of digital world like “violent contents and cyber mobbing” as digital pollutants. Polluter/pollutant role occurring as a result of individuals or messages causes various damages such as negative impacts on decision making processes or mental fatigue.

By 2015, there are 3.174 billion internet users (Statista, 2016). If it is assumed that each of these users sends an e-mail to one person and this person spends 5 seconds to open and understand the e-mail, the individual should spare 1.833.680.556 days in order to perform this process. When it is considered that in every 5 seconds 2315 photo updates are performed on Instagram, 5120 calls are made on Skype, 19675 tweets are shared on Twitter, 57870 file updates are performed on Dropbox, 166665 searches are made on Google, 231665 video are viewed on YouTube, 187816 GB internet traffic emerges and 11.963.542 e-mails (Lewis, 2016) are sent, this situation which is seen as utopic can become a reality in our lives. When this 5 seconds

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journey of the information on different channels is analyzed, it is seen that the amount of the polluted information the individual is exposed to or the increase in information pollution is at a fearful rate. This situation occurs because when the polluted information is shared once it cannot be retrieved.

Information pollution, caused by the individual or the individual is exposed to, is a very important problem of our age and when the children of the digital age and digital natives (Prensky, 2001) come into question, immediate measures should be taken and awareness should be created about information pollution. This new generation plays a critical role in the increase of information pollution and has the potential of being affected from this situation in the severest way because of many characteristics like effectively using technology or adapting to it quickly.

The main purpose of this study is to analyze certain issues like “information pollution, trusting the trueness of the shared information and sharing the trusted information by the individuals using social media effectively”. In line with this purpose, questions were addressed and analysis was conducted through a real incident shared on Facebook and causing information pollution.

METHOD

Research Model Of quantitative methods, descriptive-survey model was used with the purpose of analyzing “information pollution, believing in the trueness of and spreading the shared information” cases of individuals who use social media effectively.

Population and Sample The population of this research is consisted of persons who live in Istanbul, secondary school graduate at least and who can use social network. The sample of the research is represented by 541 persons who define their use of social network as “frequent or very frequent”. Sample group is analyzed separating it into two groups as the ones who continue their undergraduate and postgraduate educations (group 1-LISEUST) and the ones who are high school students presently (group 2-LISE). Table 1 represents the distribution of sample group by gender.

Table 1: Distribution of sample group by gender Female Male n % n % LISEUST 50 39,37 77 60,63 LISE 202 48,79 212 51,21 Total 252 46,58 289 53,42

Data Collection and Analysis Process Data is acquired via 11 questions survey which is consisted of multiple-choice, open-ended and 5 point likert type and prepared by the researcher. In the survey which is presented in three parts; the first part is prepared in a way to involve the criteria of the information shared in social media and information shared by the individual, the sharing criteria and the criteria of individual’s believing in the trueness of information. The second part is designed so as to contain the exemplary case which is claimed to be “copyright agreement” and shared frequently on Facebook. The last part includes demographic information and the questions referring to frequency of social media use. “Information Sharing Survey” (https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1WtxTZtFih7aSlwRV0S3mEMLu-GyS1oUdFHGmyA-SKZY/viewform) is used as a means of data collection which is prepared on Google Docs.

Collected data is analyzed via the evaluation of weights of likert type questions and open-ended questions are analyzed via content analysis. Analysis results are given in the ‘results’ part as percentage and frequency values.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

FINDINGS

The findings obtained from data analysis were examined under three titles for the LISEUST and the LISE groups:  The criteria of believing in the trueness of information shared on individual’s social media account  Driving forces/criteria concerning the spreading of the information which is believed in trueness  Contribution to information pollution with the exemplary case of Facebook rights.

Findings Concerning the Criteria of Individual’s Believing in the Trueness of Information Shared on Social Media Account In this section, the collected data are analyzed in two parts as the LISEUST and the LISE groups. Both groups are asked for their criteria of believing in the trueness of information shared on social media accounts with the choices of “the sharer, comments, personal information/experience, thoughts in the moment of sharing and other”. In the Figure 1, the percentage distribution of the criteria of believing in the trueness of information read on the social media accounts of the LISEUST group is given.

Figure 1: The percentage distribution of the criteria of believing in the trueness of information read on the social media accounts of the LISEUST group

When Figure 1 is analyzed, it is seen that based on their own information and experiences, the LISEUST group mainly believe in the trueness of the information shared/read. In accordance with their life experiences and information, weighing the information met on the social media accounts of individuals, who at least continue and/or completed their bachelor’s degree, is an expected and even a desired case. Though it has a low percentage, it is seen in this group that the sharer is also a criteria (11%) in disbelief in the trueness of information.

Similarly, percentage distribution of the LISE group on the basis of provided choices is given in Figure 2.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

Figure 2: The percentage distribution of the criteria of believing in the trueness of information read on the social media accounts of the LISE group

When Figure 2 is analyzed, it is seen that in believing the trueness of information read, the LISE group highly use the sharer as a base. A great part of social media friends of these individuals who have an education on high school level are consisted of their coevals. At this point, it is thought-provoking that as a result this group’s consideration of their coevals as a criterion about information, the situation can lead to dreadful levels in terms of information pollution.

The Findings Concerning the Driving Forces in Inclination to Spread the Information on Social Media Accounts Believed to Be True by Individuals For the LISEUST and the LISE groups, it is tried to be comprehended what represents the driving force in sharing an information which is read and believed to be true on social media accounts. With the question “your reason in sharing an information you believe to be true”, the choices “finding it funny/amusing, finding it interesting, compatibility with (religious) beliefs, compatibility with world-view, compatibility with political view, specialty/profession orientation, approving the sharer” are provided. In Figure 3, the LISEUST “driving forces in inclinations to spread the information believed to be true” are provided with percentage distributions based on the provided choices.

Figure 3: The LISEUST group’s percentage distribution of driving forces in inclinations to spread the information believed to be true

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

When Figure 3 is analyzed, it is seen that the leading choices as driving forces in the LISEUST group are specialty/profession orientation (62,2%) and compatibility with beliefs (58,3%). These are followed by compatibility with world-view (49,6%) and compatibility with political view (43,3%). It is observed that the trueness of information in the sharings of the LISEUST group is not doubted and that more individuals are aimed to be informed through sharing the information.

Similarly, driving forces are tried to be comprehended in the LISE group with the same choices. In Figure 4, percentage distributions of the LISE group’s inclination to spread the information believed to be true are provided.

Figure 4: The LISE group’s percentage distribution of driving forces in inclinations to spread the information believed to be true

When Figure 4 is analyzed, it is possible to state that the driving force in inclination of LISE group to spread depends on information’s being funny/amusing (100%). This situation is followed by the choices ‘sharing of contents found interesting’ (94,6%) and ‘approving the sharer’ (91,1%). It is observed with the individuals in the LISE group that they are not inclined to question whether the sharings can be wrong or deficient, they believe in inherent trueness and if not, that a simple social sharing does not bear harmful consequences.

Contribution to Information Pollution: Results Regarding the Facebook Rights Sample Case This title analyses the sample group’s sharing condition of information which is frequently shared on Facebook and described to be a preservation text concerning individual rights but which is not. In Figure 5, the so-called text concerning personal information and preservation of rights is given both Turkish and English.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

Figure 5:The frequently shared text on Facebook concerning personal information and preservation of rights

The text given in Figure 5 gives the impression that once an individual shares it on his Facebook account, he will preserve his rights. The fact that this completely unfounded information is shared by many people is sufficient to be an exemplary case of information pollution. The sample group is provided with the relevant text and asked whether they have shared it. Percentage distributions intending the sharing conditions of the text are given for the LISEUST group in Figure 6 and for the LISE group in Figure 7.

Figure 6: Percentage distributions concerning the sharing condition of the relevant text by the LISEUST group

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

When Figure 6 is analyzed, it seen that the LISEUST group mainly does not share this text on its Facebook accounts. When the reason of this situation is questioned, it is understood that 49,6% (63 persons) of those who answer as “No” do not believe in the trueness of the text, know that they are not able to preserve rights with a simple sharing and also know that these sharing can be controlled via privacy settings. Again, 20,5% (26 persons) of those who answered as “No” are observed that they looked at the mentioned convention before sharing but believed it was not a true post since it was completely irrelevant, 13,4% (17 persons) searched this post on search engines and did not share since they understood it was not a true post, and the remaining 7,1% (9 persons) refused to share under the guidance of a trusted friend. It is seen that those who answered as “YES” (12 persons) shared the text just in case with a doubt that the text could be true.

Figure 7: Percentage distributions concerning the sharing condition of the relevant text by the LISE group

When Figure 7 is analyzed, it is seen that the LISE group mainly share the text. When this situation is questioned, it is understood that 86,7% (359 persons) of the group shared it for their friends shared it, 6% (25 persons) doubted its trueness but shared just in case, 1,4% (6 persons) shared since they believed it was true. It is seen that those who answered “NO” (24 persons) found the post nonsensical and believed everything shared on Facebook already becomes open to everybody or to a limited population and no text is able to preserve it.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Today, understanding a read text and discovering the depth of information turned into a struggle with information (Carr, 2010). During this struggle, individuals who are exposed to constant flow of information feel as if they dive into information as a result of excessive information increase and excessive informing (Kominiarczuk and Ledzinka, 2014) and undergo certain cognitive and physical problems (Özdemir and Gülseçen, 2015). Both limitedness in individuals’ data processing capacities and downgrading of received information indicate that these problems are to continue. In case necessary measures are not taken, information pollution which is named as the new kind pollution of 21st century will meet individuals with different and formidable digital world versions of real life pollution problems. Especially when the case is new generation individuals, it is contentious how conscious are information consumers that we are facing with. In this study, the criteria of believing in the trueness of information shared/read on social media accounts and the driving forces in spreading information believed to be true are inquired for the LISE group which can be regarded as digital native class and for the LISEUST group who continue/completed their higher education. While the trueness of the information is mainly identified with the sharer in the LISE group, it is determined via personal information and experience in the LISEUST group. It is possible to say that in interviews with the LISE group, the inclinations “not questioning whether the information is true”, “even though it is not true, it will not

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cause harm or it is doubtful whether it will cause harm” are seen. Thus, it is seen that a great part of the LISE group makes contribution to the sharing of the text concerning Facebook personal information and preservation of rights. This condition indicates that there is a generation who does not have clear consciousness/sensibility on true or deficient information, sharing of information and its importance and the results of information pollution. Furthermore, it is unsettling that this generation has no worries towards information pollution as they contribute to downgrading of information, excessive information increase and sharing of explicit contents.

Digital world is on the verge of an important environmental crisis not only with information increase, but also information pollution. Especially, the fact that the new generation, which is able to use technology as of very early ages, face with pollution elements like “violent video games, cyber bullying, explicit/dangerous contents, viral rumors, technology addiction, privacy invasion” show that this crisis can reach to significant levels. Beside these elements of pollution, in case no consciousness is gained concerning information sharing, it is possible to say that below problems is waiting the information society if we consider the speed of technological development:  Transformation of information access process into a drowning version as a result of intensified feeling of information overload  Transition from weak decision-makers to weaker decision-makers  The problem of dealing with expanding and strong information anxiety  Decrease in taking the responsibility of shared information as generations change  Inability to cope with the pollution in the amount of daily obtained information.

Information society should already take certain measures in order to struggle with “digital environmental pollution”. These are suggested as below:  Creating awareness for new generation pollution elements and teaching coping methods  Guiding the new generation not only about risky attitude and behavior types in their social lives, but also about the methods concerning digital world on which they socialize.  Constituting a powerful ethical perception for digital world  Designing systems which contain proactive regulation approaches

Fundamentally, it is necessary to establish new course contents which are to be developed so as to support mere producer roles of the new generation and beside curriculum alterations, the consciousness of “information producing, sharing and accessing to the right information” should be given. This way, presenting an environment to other generations which will be benefited from more healthily can be discussed.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADREESSOF AUTHOUR

Şebnem ÖZDEMİR completed her PhD studies on Informatics especially in Educational Data Mining. She is scholarly interested in Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Technology Supported Math Education- GeoGebra and Knowledge Management. She worked EU Projects, Ministry of Development supported Projects as researcher, consultant and vice coordinator. She worked as Mathematics teacher for 6 years. She currently works as research assistant at Istanbul University, Department of Informatics.

Dr. Şebnem ÖZDEMİR Istanbul University Department of Informatics TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249

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Bettis-Outland, H. (2012). Decision-making's impact on organizational learning and information overload. Journal of Business Research, 814-820.

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Nelson D. (2007). Reducing information pollution in the internet age. Preventing Chronic Disease: Public Health Research, Practice and Policy. 4(1): 1–3.

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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

THE INVESTIGATION OF THE LEARNING STYLES OF PRE-SERVICE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS BY SOME VARIABLES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir TUNA Kastamonu University Educational Faculty TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Ahmet KAÇAR Kastamonu University Educational Faculty TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This study aimed at determining the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers and investigating whether such learning styles varied by some variables (grade, type of high school graduated, and sex). The study, which was a descriptive one, was conducted on 126 pre-service mathematics teachers attending a state university located in the north of Turkey in the 2013-2014 academic year. Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory was employed for determining the learning styles of the pre-service teachers. It was seen that the pre-service mathematics teachers predominantly had the converging learning style. In addition, it was found out that the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers varied by grade.

Keywords: Mathematics education, pre-service mathematics teachers, learning styles.

INTRODUCTION

People acquire different knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes in their lives due to various factors including heredity, environment, and time. They use different ways in acquiring the above-mentioned. Every individual has a unique manner of learning. Both our knowledge of learning and the research on human brain support the idea that learning is unique to person (Özden, 1999). These differences in the learning process have led to the concept of learning style (Aydoğdu & Kesercioğlu, 2005). Learning style can be defined as using ways different from those of others in the stages of being prepared for learning, learning, and recalling. Temperament, style, field of interest, skills, environment and time are all influential on learning styles. The determination of the learning styles of individuals may facilitate the learning process and give meaning to many behaviors (Vural, 2004). Studying on learning styles, Keefe (1982) defined the concept as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to learning environments”. Gregorc (1985) defined it as “an external behavior, an attribution, and a state which is an indicator of the spirit and some mental qualifications” (Keefe, 1982, Gregorc, 1985; Cited by Açıkgöz, 2003).

Many learning style models have been developed up to now. Since the concept of learning style is a complex structure covering many concepts including but not limited to perception, putting the information in mind, meta-cognition, inherited attributes, and past experiences, it is inevitable that there are a wide variety of models on learning styles. Various learning style models have been developed by Jung, Simon and Byram, Kolb, McCarthy, Gregorc, Dunn&Dunn, etc. (Aydoğdu & Kesercioğlu, 2005). The present study focused on the Kolb’ learning style model.

According to Kolb’s experiential learning model, learning process has two basic dimensions. While the first dimension extends from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience, the second dimension is from 34 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

active experimentation to reflective observation. While how an individual perceives a piece of information is explained by concrete experience and abstract conceptualization, how s/he processes such information is about reflective observation and active experimentation. According to Kolb‘s learning style model, individuals perceive information by feeling or thinking, and process it by watching or doing (Aydoğdu & Kesercioğlu, 2005).

Figure 1: Kolb’s Learning Style Model (McCarthy, 1987)

In 1976, Kolb developed a learning inventory measuring learning preferences on a bipolar basis. He made some arrangements in the said model in 1985 (Özden, 1997; Köksalan, 2007). The points in the inventory reveal different preferences of individuals from abstract to concrete experience and active experimentation. The total points of individuals indicate their learning styles. Based on the dimensions of perceiving and processing information, Kolb mentioned four learning styles: diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating (Kolb, 1985; Cited by Aşkar and Akkoyunlu, 1993).

Figure 2: Kolb’s Learning Style Model (McCarthy, 1987)

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

Diverging: Individuals having this learning style predominantly employ concrete experience and reflective observation. They gather information through concrete experience, and transform it into experiences. They comprehend and process information via reflective observation. They adapt through observation rather than doing actively. They shape their thoughts based on their own feelings and opinions. They perform better when they are requested to generate different ideas through brainstorming, etc. Social scientists and individuals preferring organizational development are in this group.

Assimilating: Individuals with this learning style predominantly employ reflective observation and abstract conceptualization. They gather information through abstract conceptualization, and comprehend and process it via reflective observation. They learn better by thinking and watching. They are skillful in creating conceptual models. They are more interested in abstract concepts and ideas. They are good at understanding information and organizing it in a systematic and logical format. Researchers and designers are in this group.

Converging: Individuals having this learning style predominantly use abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. They gather information through abstract conceptualization and process it through active experimentation. Among the typical characteristics of these individuals are decision-making, problem-solving, putting ideas into practice, systematic planning, and making a logical analysis of ideas. They learn by doing and experiencing. They are successful in traditional intelligence tests. They are better in problem-solving and technical tasks rather than social and interpersonal issues. Engineers are in this group.

Accommodating: Individuals with this learning style predominantly employ concrete experience and active experimentation. They gather information through concrete experience and process it through active experimentation. They learn by doing and feeling. They prefer to plan, get involved in new experiences, take risks, and take actions. They fit the situations where one has to adapt to changes automatically. They can communicate with people easily, and are open-minded. Marketers and salespersons are in this group.

Arguing that every individual has a unique learning style, Kolb’s learning approach may yield efficient results if it is implemented in a learning environment. It goes without saying that one of the fields where the importance of individualized learning is emphasized is mathematics education. Thus, the investigation of the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers is considered significant.

Research Problem The main problem of the present study was as follows: “What are the predominant learning styles of the pre- service mathematics teachers attending the faculty of education of a state university located in the north of Turkey?” In consideration of this main problem, the study made an attempt to answer the following questions: 1. What is the distribution of the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers? 2. Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by grade? 3. Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by the type of high school graduated? 4. Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by sex?

METHOD

Research Model The present study, which aimed at revealing the pre-dominant learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers, employed a descriptive survey model. A survey model describes an existing situation as it is (Karasar, 2007).

Study Group The study group consisted of 126 pre-service mathematics teachers attending the department of mathematics education of the faculty of education of a state university located in the north of Turkey in the 2013-2014 academic year. Demographic characteristics related to the above-mentioned participants are presented in table 1.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

Table 1: Demographic characteristics related to the pre-service mathematics teachers participating in the study Variables f % 1 32 25.4 Grade 2 25 19.8 3 37 29.4 4 32 25.4 Anatolian high school 65 51.6 Type of High School Graduated Anatolian teacher high school 27 21.4 Regular high school 33 26.2 Vocational high school 1 0.8 Sex Female 83 65.9 Male 43 34.1 Total 126 100

As is seen in table 1, of the pre-service mathematics teachers participating in the study, 65.9% were female, 34.1% were male, 25.4% were first grade students, 19.8% were second grade students, 29.4% were third grade students, 25.4% were fourth grade students, 51.6% were graduated from an Anatolian high school, 21.4% were graduated from an Anatolian teacher training high school, and 26.2% were graduated from a regular high school.

Data Collection Tool “Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI)”, developed by Kolb (1985) and adapted to Turkish by Aşkar and Akkoyunlu, and the information form containing the demographic characteristics of the pre-service teachers, prepared by the researcher, were used for data collection. After detailed information was given in regard to the inventory, voluntary pre-service mathematics teachers were included in the study. The inventory consisted of 12 items, each one of which contained four statements. Each one of these four statements represented the sub-dimensions of learning styles. The first statements were about Concrete Experience (CE), the second statements were about Reflective Observation (RO), the third statements were about Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and the fourth statements were about Active Experimentation (AE). The pre-dominant learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers were determined based on their total points in the inventory. Reliability coefficients concerning 4 dimensions of the Learning Style Inventory (Cronbach’s Alpha) varied between 0.73 and 0.83.

Data Analysis Each item in the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) contained four statements. Each one of these statements represented a different learning style. Based on the points given by the pre-service mathematics teachers to each statement in the LSI, total points in the range of 12 to 48 were obtained for each statement. After total CE, RO, AC, and AE points of 12 items were determined, combined points were obtained. In this way, the learning style of each pre-service mathematics teacher was detected. The research data were analyzed via frequency analysis, percentage analysis, arithmetic mean analysis, standard deviation analysis, Pearson chi- square test of independence, and one-way variance analysis. The related findings are tabulated below.

FINDINGS

This section presents the findings obtained in the study along with interpretations of such findings. The findings are interpreted in the order of sub-problems.

Findings Concerning the First Sub-Problem Table 2 presents the findings concerning the sub-problem, “What is the distribution of the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers?” After that, these findings are interpreted.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

Table 2: Findings Concerning the Learning Styles of Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers Learning Style Frequency (f) Percentage (%)

Accommodating 6 4.8 Converging 66 52.4 Assimilating 37 29.4 Diverging 17 13.5

Total 126 100

As is seen in the table 2, of the pre-service mathematics teachers, 4.8% had “accommodating” learning style, 52.4% had “converging” learning style, 29.4% had “assimilating” learning style, and 13.5% had “diverging” learning style. Most of the pre-service mathematics teachers (52.4%) had converging learning style. Individuals having this learning style predominantly use abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. They gather information through abstract conceptualization and process it through active experimentation. Among the typical characteristics of these individuals are decision-making, problem-solving, putting ideas into practice, systematic planning, and making a logical analysis of ideas. They learn by doing and experiencing. Only 4.8% of the pre-service teachers had “accommodating” learning style. Individuals with this learning style prefer to get involved in new experiences, and take risky actions. They fit the situations where one has to adapt to changes automatically. They can communicate with people easily, and are open-minded. The findings concerning the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers are presented in the chart 1.

Findings Concerning the Second Sub-Problem Table 3 presents the findings concerning the sub-problem, “Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by grade?”

Table 3: The Analysis of the Learning Styles of the Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers by Grade Grade Learning Styles 1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade f % f % f % f %

Accommodating 2 6.3 1 4.0 2 5.4 1 3.1 Converging 10 31.3 11 44.0 22 59.5 23 71.9 Assimilating 15 46.9 9 36.0 8 21.6 5 15.6 Diverging 5 15.6 4 16.0 5 13.5 3 9.4

Total 32 100 25 100 37 100 32 100

As is seen in the table 3, the most common (46.9%) learning style among the 1st grade pre-service mathematics teachers was assimilating, while the least common (6.3%) was accommodating; the most common (44%) learning style among the 2nd grade pre-service mathematics teachers was converging, while the least common (4%) was accommodating; the most common (59.5%) learning style among the 3rd grade pre-service mathematics teachers was converging, while the least common (5.4%) was accommodating; and the most common (71.9%) learning style among the 4th grade pre-service mathematics teachers was converging, while the least common was accommodating. It was seen that as the grades of the pre-service mathematics teachers increased, they had converging learning style more.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

Findings Concerning the Third Sub-Problem Table 4 presents the findings concerning the sub-problem, “Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by the type of high school graduated?”

Table 4: The Analysis of the Learning Styles of the Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers by the Type of High School Graduated The type of high school graduated Learning Styles Anatolian High School Anatolian Teacher Training Regular High High School School f % f % f %

Accommodating 5 7.7 1 3.7 0 0 Converging 32 49.2 18 66.7 16 48.5 Assimilating 19 29.2 6 22.2 11 33.3 Diverging 9 13.8 2 7.4 6 18.2

Total 65 100 27 100 33 100

As is seen in the table 4, the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers did not vary by the type of high school graduated. While the most common learning style among the pre-service mathematics teachers graduated from all three types of high school was converging, the least common learning style among the said pre-service teachers was accommodating.

Findings Concerning the Fourth Sub-Problem Table 5 presents the findings concerning the sub-problem, “Do the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers vary by sex?”

Table 5: The Analysis of the Learning Styles of the Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers by Sex Sex Learning Styles Male Female f % f %

Accommodating 1 2.3 5 6.0 Converging 26 60.5 40 48.2 Assimilating 10 23.3 27 32.5 Diverging 6 14.0 11 13.3

Total 43 100.0 83 100.0

As is seen in the table 5, while 60% of the male pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style, 48% of the female pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style. In addition, while 23.3% of the male pre-service mathematics teachers had assimilating learning style, 32.5% of the female pre- service mathematics teachers had assimilating learning style. That shows that converging is a more common learning style among men while assimilating is more common among women.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

The results of the present study, which aimed at determining the learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers, are explained below.

It was seen that while 52% of the pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style, 29% had assimilating learning style. That demonstrates that the pre-service mathematics teachers had such characteristics as problem-solving, decision-making, presenting one’s ideas in a logical and systematic format, and focusing on abstract concepts. The findings of the present study are in parallel with those of some studies in the literature (Kaf- Hasırcı, 2006; Çaycı-Ünal, 2007; Can, 2011, Genç-Kocaarslan, 2013). The information presented to the individuals having this learning style needs to be ordered, logical, and detailed. They like auditory and visual presentations in particular (Kolb, 1984; Felder, 1996; Geiger, 1992; McCarty, 2010).

It was found out that the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers varied by grade. While 30% of the 1st grade pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style, 72% of the 4th grade pre- service mathematics teachers had converging learning style. The courses taken by the pre-service mathematics teachers in their undergraduate education may have been influential on this situation. In other words, it can be said that the courses included in the mathematics education curriculum are congruent for converging learning style. This result is consistent with the research results provided by Matthews (1996), Karademir and Tezel (2010), and Can (2011).

It was determined that the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers did not vary by the type of high school graduated. 49% and 29% of the Anatolian high school graduates had converging and assimilating learning styles respectively, 66% and 22% of the Anatolian teacher training high school graduates had converging and assimilating learning styles respectively, and 48% and 33% of the regular high school graduates had assimilating learning styles respectively. It was seen that converging was the most common learning style among the graduates of the above-mentioned three types of high school.

It was detected that the learning styles of the pre-service mathematics teachers did not vary by sex. While 60% of the male pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style, 48% of the female pre-service mathematics teachers had converging learning style. In addition, while 23% of the male pre-service mathematics teachers had assimilating learning style, 32% of the female pre-service mathematics teachers had assimilating learning style. In other words, while men adopted converging learning style more than women did, women adopted assimilating learning style more than men did.

In consideration of the above-mentioned research results, the following recommendations are put forward. Since most pre-service mathematics teachers are seen to have converging learning style, course plans should be made in accordance with this learning style. In addition, pre-service teachers should be encouraged by their lecturers to employ appropriate teaching methods in their courses by determining the learning styles of their students in their professional teaching lives. The awareness of pre-service teachers should be raised concerning the fact that the individual differences and learning styles of students should be taken into consideration when deciding the teaching method to be employed.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Abdulkadir TUNA is an assoc professor at Kastamonu University, Educatonal Faculty Mathematics Education, Turkey. He received Ph.D İn Mathematics Education from Gazi University. His study areas mathematical thinking and leraning, Mathematis Education and 5E Learning model.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir TUNA Kastamonu University Educational Faculty TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Ahmet KAÇAR is an professor at Kastamonu University, Department of Mathematics,Turkey. He has many researches about mathematics and mathematics education.

Prof. Dr. Ahmet KAÇAR Kastamonu University Educational Faculty TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Açıkgöz, K. (2003). Etkili Öğrenme ve Öğretme (Effective Learning and Teaching). Izmir: Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları

Aşkar, P. & Akkoyunlu, B. (1993). Kolb Öğrenme Stili Envanteri (Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory). Eğitim ve Bilim, 17(87), 37-47.

Aydoğdu, M., Kesercioğlu, T. (2005). İlköğretimde Fen ve Teknoloji Öğretimi (Science and Technology Teaching in Primary Education). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık

Can, Ş (2011). Investigation of The Relationships Between the Learning Styles of Preservice Elementary Teachers and Some Varıables. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, (41), 70-82.

Çaycı, B. and Ünal, E. (2007). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Sahip Oldukları Öğrenme Stillerinin Çeşitli Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi (The Examination of the Learning Styles of Pre-service Primary School Teachers by Various Variables). Üniversite ve Toplum: Bilim, Eğitim ve Düşünce Dergisi. Volume: 7, Issue: 3.

Felder, R. M., Siverman L. (1988). Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education. Engineering Education 78(7), 674-68.

Gregorc, A. F. (1984). Style as a symptom: A phenomenological perspective. Theory into Practice, 23, 1, 51–55.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249

Kaf, Hasırcı, Ö(2006). Sınıf öğretmenliği öğrencilerinin öğrenme Stilleri: Çukurova niversitesi Örneği (The learning styles of pre-service primary education teachers: The case of Çukurova University). Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama (Jounal of Theory and Practice in Education).2(1), 15-25.

Karasar, N. (2000). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi (Scientific Research Method). Ankara: Nobel Yayın ve Dağıtım

Karedemir, E,. Özden, T.(2010). Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının öğrenme Stillerinin Demografik Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi (The examination of the learning styles of pre-service primary school teachers by demographic variables). Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (28), 129-145.

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Köksalan, B. (2007). Beyin Temelli Öğrenme (Brain-Based Learning). K. Ersanlı (Ed), Eğitim Psikolojisi. Istanbul: Lisans Yayıncılık.

Matthews, D. B.(1996). An Investigation of Learning Styles and Perceived Academic Achievement for High School Students. Clearing House, 69(4)249-255.

Mccarthy, B. (1987). The 4Mat system: teaching to learning styles with right/left mode techniques. Barrington: Excel, Inc.

Özden, Y. (1999). Eğitimde Dönüşüm-Eğitimde Yeni Değerler (Transformation in Education-New Values in Education). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.

Özden, Y. (1997). Öğrenme ve Öğretme (Learning and Teaching). Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık.

Vural, B. (2004). Eğitim-Öğretimde Planlama, Ölçme ve Stratejiler (Planning, Assessment, and Strategies in Education). Istanbul: Hayat Yayınları.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249

CONTEMPORARY MATTER ON COMMUNICATION EDUCATION: TECHNOLOGICAL LACK

Prof. Dr. Sedat CERECİ Mustafa Kemal University Communication Faculty 31030 Hatay- TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This study investigates character of communication, and evaluates communication need of people, and handles relation between communication and contemporary technology, and emphisazes technological lack on communication education in many societies. Communication is one of main needs of people and people developed different instruments and technics to communicate in the past. Because of social need, communication became social matter and governments contributed facilities of communication and set communication places for people to meet and to communicate. Industrial Revolution and technological developments also conributed communication technics and proved numerous technological facilities for communication. Education in the world also use developed technology in any department and communicaiton education especially necessities high technological facilities in schools. Many high schools and universities have communication departmens and most of them use contemporary technological facilities, but they are not sufficient. Technology developes rapidly but technological facilities in education can not catch developments and people always hope more.

Keywords: Communication education, technology, technological lack, contemporary conditions, technics.

INRTODUCTION

Communication education containst to create a modern communication concept and routing the communication process, and to acquire skills to deal with communication problems, and to target communication to be successful in all areas of life, and to use the most available technology to communicate in modern age (Lin and Ha, 2009: 581). Effective communication is necessity of modern age because of modern business conditions and modern life style and effective communication is necessity of modern social conditions and and it is necessary for social cohesion (Randall and Graffagnino, 2012: 730). Effective communication is especially necessary for economical organizations in modern age in which economy is the first dynamic of the world.

Because of the importance and necessity of communication, people expect to learn about communication and they want to use modern technology to communicate. Many people have communication technologies like mobile telephones or like computer or like different softwares, however students and officers and workers and all people want to use communication technologies in optimum manner (Kwilecki, 2009: 124). Communication technologies are especially used in education and in health and in transportation and in security and in banking and in journalism and in social media and in shopping and etc. (Bach, 2013: 257). People try to learn news via online methods and many people use internet to send message and to receive message in modern age.

Information and communication technologies that provide to create knowledge and to reach information are the most popular instruments of modern age. Information and communication technologies are all kinds of audio, visual , print and writing instruments and they are main components of contemporary development (McMahon and others, 2014: 261). Many people use computer and television and camera and telephone and printer and monitors and modem and imaging systems and GPS sytems and other for their Works and for their daily lives and for their education. Communication education became more important due to technology use and due to global conditions in modern age recently.

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There are almost 200 universities and almost 11 thousand high school and there are communication departments more than 60 in Turkey. There are journalism and radio and television and cinema and public relations and advertising and visual design departments at high schools and at communication faculties and well-educated teachers teach in educational organizations. High schools and universities have many technological facilities for communication education and they try to follow contemporary developments but contemporary conditions developes faster than educational developments (Stambach and others, 2011: 466). Contemporary conditions change due to political plans and economy changes form due to policy and technology developes due to economical plans and people change their lives due to technology. Mean while form of education and technics in education naturally change and trainers difficulty (Zhang, 2012: 415). Beside trainers educational organizations and administers difficulty on contemporary technology because of financial proglems.

Financial lack is one of the reason of technological lack in education but it is not unique reason. Spiritual lack of administraors of educational organizations on technological developments and necessity of technology in education is another reason and there are a great number of untrained administrators in underdeveloped countries (Kansanen, 2002: 433). Untrained teachers and administrators are always problems eweywhere and governmental and non-governmental educational organizations sometimes neglect training of teachers and admintrators (Akyeampong and others, 2006, 168). Untrained teachers and adminstrators naturally prevent well education.

COMMUNICATION EDUCATION METHODS

The most developed societies and governments realized importance of communication education in modern age and most of them arranged their education methods due to contemporary conditions. Since the field of communications is so broad, there are many career opportunities available for international students studying in the top communications schools in the US. With the newest technology, top ranked professors and a country in which media is at the center, international students seeking to study in the best schools for communication can discover a wide range of opportunity (http://www.internationalstudent.com/, 2016). Communication education requires many modern technics and approaches in modern age.

One of the biggest challenges instructors face in the 21st-century college classroom is the struggle of retaining student interest and engagement while students remain connected to the outside world through their mobile devices. Instructors across institutions of higher education are faced with decisions of whether to allow electronics or instate no-electronics policies in order to create student-centered learning classrooms (Curzan, 2014). It is a common occurrence to observe students who are physically present, yet mentally preoccupied by noncourse-related material on their mobile devices. As mobile devices have deeply saturated the college student population, this problem will likely continue to pose a significant obstacle for faculty (Kuznekoff and others, 2015 358). Mobile devices and other technological products are especially attracts next generation, teenagers and students in university because of their interests.

Modern life can not be evaluated without modern technology because of common technology use. Among the social changes of the past decade, perhaps none is so ubiquitous as the reconfiguration of interpersonal relationships by mobile communication technology. Moreover, college students lead other demographic groups in their level of engagement with social communication technology, and instructors have responded with concern about the effect technology access has on student learning. Instructional communication research supports their concerns, with mobile communication use associated with decreased cognitive learning, and lower final course grades (Ledbetter and Finn, 2015, 6). Contemporary conditions conduct people to use technology and technology developes due to people orientation.

Communication education was applied in traditional methods for a long time but conditions changed day by day especially since Industrial Revolution and approaches also changed. Education contains contemporary components and contemporary tools and contemporary methods in modern age any more. Modern communication education contains classical communication process and also information and creating

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message and announca the message and also creating public and also to persuade people and also affect the world public and also use the technology efficient manner (Lentz, 2014, 196). Communication education also contains psychology and sociology and international relations and electronics and naturally contemporary information because of character of communication (Fortunato and others, 2013, 167). Modern communication education also contains behavioral science because of humanistic character of communication.

Effective communication can ease difficulties and can gather support for an idea or for an approach. Therefore effecftive communication is prefered by administrators and by politicians and by manufacturers and by others who have large target. Effective communication provide people much gain and much prestige due to power of communication. Modern communication education examines details and key points of communication and shows ways of communication succeed and available technichs (Bugs and Crusafon, 2014, 382). Almost all countries are in information competition in 21.st century and all they heed information and communication education. Administrators provide large facilities for educational organizations and for training of trainers in modern age whose base is on information and on communication.

Communication education contains Language and Comunication, and Communication Theory, and Communication Research Methodology, and Cultural Communication, and Organizational Communication, and Rhetoric and Nonverbal Communication, and Listenin and Digital Culture and Communication in some educational organizations and naturally use of communication technology (Dillon, 2004: 140). Contemporary communication education naturally contains conditions of sender and receiver and message and feedback in contemporary conditions too. Communication education also contains calculation of the input and output in communication process (Limburg, 2009: 68). Communication includes many complex components and communication eduaction contains many technical and cultural informations too.

Traditionally, instructional communication researchers have focused on investigating student characteristics, teacher characteristics, or the communicative interaction between teachers and students In order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of instructional communication, however, more recently researchers have extended the investigation of the learning process to include the communicative interactions that students have with one another. Despite the progress these studies have made in understanding student-to-student communication in the classroom, there remains much to be understood in terms of how students influence each other in the learning process. (Johnson and LaBelle, 2015). Communication education is distiinguished from other educations because of its contemporary character. Contemporary communication education must be supported by technological facilities.

TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION EDUCATION

Some educational organizations provide their students technological facilities on communication and media education to train their students to contemporary conditions. Communication, Media, and Learning Technologies Design (CMLTD) Program provides a cluster of degree programs for students seeking to develop leadership capacities in the use of information and communication technologies in education and society. The program applies to all subject areas and serves students, staff, and faculty members who share a commitment as educators to use digital technologies to improve education at all levels (http://www.tc.columbia.edu/, 2016). Many educational organizations are aware of that technology is base of modern age and communication in contemporary conditions.

Different technics are used in education because of necessity and technics changed when ages changed. Communication education begins literacy and understanding and technics and ways are shown to students (McGhie-Richmond and others, 2013: 228). Radio and television have been used widely as educational tools since the 1920s and the 1950s, respectively. According to trainers, there are three general approaches to the use of radio and TV broadcasting in education; direct class teaching, where broadcast programming substitutes for teachers on a temporary basis; school broadcasting, where broadcast programming provides complementary teaching and learning resources not otherwise available; and general educational

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programming over community, national and international stations whic h provide general and informal educational opportunities (Deaney and others, 2006: 472). Contemporary education mostly works on technology base and all educational organizations try to obtain technological facilities in possible opportunities.

Traditional technics changed into modern technics and traditional approaches changed into modern approaches in modern age and hope of people changed too. People began to live in a high rhythm world in modern age and fronted to gain much and to have much and left many humanistic values after Industrial Revolution and after urbanization. Communication methods and languages also changed and many different communication technics participated lives of people (Fassett and Nainby, 2016: 120). Next generation adopted contemporary technologies rapidly and others try. Communication education ease to adopt contemporary technics and use of contemporary technologies.

Technology naturally eases learning and naturally provide wide approaches to comprehend. Learning with the technology means focusing on how the technology can be the means to learning ends across the curriculum. It includes presentation, demonstration, and the manipulation of data using productivity tools, and use of curriculum-specific applications types such as educational games, drill and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratories, visualizations and graphical representations of abstract concepts, musical composition, and expert systems, and use of information and resources on CD-ROM or online such as encyclopedia, interactive maps and atlases, electronic journals and other references. Contemporary conditions naturally presents people many different facilities and ways to communicate (Kem, 2006: 203). Technological literacy is required for learning with technologies to be possible, implying a two-step process in which students learn about the technologies before they can actually use them to learn. However, there have been attempts to integrate the two approaches (Tinio, 2015: 15). Especially electronic technology eases communication education in schools.

Modern age presented people many information and communication facilities and people front to use them. Modern developments in information and communication technologies (ICT) provide exciting possibilities to enhance the quality of education. Interactive education software, open access digital libraries, and cheaper and more intuitive technology may facilitate new forms of interaction between students, teachers, education employees and the community and enhance the quality of education by making it more accessible (http://download.ei-ie.org/). Technology use in communication education is inevitable because of contemporary conditions and expectations, but all educational organizations can not afford for technology or some of them do not think that it is necessary (Chong and Druckman, 2010: 671). Many students use technology better than trainers in schools.

Developing technology presents contemporary world many different facilities and one of the facilities is digital technology. People have been living in a digital world since some time and people form their lives due to digital developments. Digital technology also eases individual communication and mass communication and numerous messages are conveyed via digital technology (Rye, 2010: 88). Digital technology products and digital technology use must naturally be evaluated a matter of communication education in schools. People live in the midst of a period of dramatic global economic change, co-evolving with and fuelled by an equally dramatic technological revolution (Asselin and others, 2005: 804). The revolution forced all sectors to change and education changes as required. Communication education contains many different technological matters and facilities after the Revolution.

CONCLUSION

People have always fronted to live more comfortable and easier and developed their lives and invented many different tools and technics. People have developed not only physical inventions but philosophical approaches too. Education has developed due to conditions of time and many different educational methods were used in the past. Conditions changed educational methods and instruments and any age developed its own methods. Communication education was applied in traditional ways but it also changed due to contemporary conditions.

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Traditional communication instruments and technics were mostly left in modern age and technological methods replaced them. Many technological ways are used for communication in modern age and educational organizations necessarily have them and teach them to their students.

Communication one of the most necessity need of people and people have tried to develope different communication instruments and methods for a long time. People have always used their intelligences and developed technics for their lives and taught their children their technics. Any generation developed technics and changed the world with their technics and created revolutions and new styles. Economical conditions, and social life, and educational conditions changed due to developing technologies and education naturally had a contemporary form. Classical informations left their places to contemporary informations and contemporary technologies.

Communication is subject whose teaching is impossible without technological facilities. Because contemporary communication activities are completely based on technological base. Especially computer and digital technology are used much for communication and the schools that have communication departmens absolutely have communication technologies to teach their students contemporary communication. Mobile telephones and cameras and monitors and computer and software and sender and receiver systems are main equipments of schools in modern age. Most of trainers are trained well about contemporary communication and communication technologies and trainers who are insufficient about contemporary communication technologies are continued to train.

Firstly next generations and especially children and then most of people front to use communication technologies, and communication technology is necessarily used in business world, and people who are in education world use communication technology and many others use in modern age. Communication technology provide people many facilities to communicate and many other facilities to spend time. Therefore communication education is a necessity in schools and communication technology naturally has to be taught due to contemporary conditions because of much use.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR

Sedat CERECİ is professor Communication Faculty in Mustafa Kemal University .Studied radio and television broadcasting at Communication Faculty in the Universtiy of Istanbul between 1982 and 1986. He studied on documentary film at doctorate process at the University of Istanbul between 1988 and 1992. He works at magazines and at newspapers as journalist and as redactor and works at Yuzuncu Yil University as professor and teachs radio and television broadcasting. Wrote many essays, participated in conferences and in symposiums all over the world, worked in international projects, wrote for magazines and for websites. He was assigned as Dean of Fine Arts Faculty at Batman University in 2010 and arranged a multilingual film festival in Batman. He studied classical Turkish music, composed songs in different forms and produced radio programs at TRT Istanbul Radio. He settled a multilingual music group who sings in 5 languages at Fine Arts Faculty and had concerts. He directed documentary films about cultural topics and participate in international film festivals. Beside directing documentary film, he wrote 19 books about communication, and television producing. He also takes photograph and had exhibitions in different cities.

Prof. Dr. Sedat CERECİ Mustafa Kemal University Communication Faculty 31030 Hatay- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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SERENDIPITOUS FACULTY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH INFOGRAPHIC ACTIVE LEARNING EXPLORATION

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Janet T. DAVIDSON Chaminade University of Honolulu USA

Prof. Dr. Jace HARGIS Chaminade University of Honolulu USA

ABSTRACT

This study explores two important college classroom events. First, is enhancing student engagement using a more active learning technique, which is distinctively different than the instructor’s traditional didactic and discussion format. Second, is the specific utility of integrating appropriate, relevant and meaningful (ARM) technology, such as an Infographic as an active learning assessment tool. Students in an introductory Criminal Justice class were assigned Infographics as a way to collaborate and as an alternative assessment to a final exam. Results demonstrate that the Infographic provides a meaningful experience for both the professor and the student. Students ultimately connected with the material in a more authentic way, and they learned to collaborate with their colleagues to produce a thoughtful, informative, and attractive artifact. Students also felt that the Infographic was a meaningful way to attain, synthesize and ultimately express knowledge.

Keywords: Active learning, Collaboration, ARM Instructional Technology, Infographics.

INTRODUCTION

While the intent of incorporating the active learning Infographic session in class was to help reinforce student learning, the process actually ended up as a challenge to current traditional teaching methods. Several salient lessons were learned as a result of this process, including how assessment might be employed in non- traditional ways and how the assessment of learning might be captured by simply asking students along the way.

The university has a diverse student body, one of the most diverse in the country. The student body includes a mix that is 37% Asian and 20% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. These are students that are traditionally more passive in the learning process and are typically quiet in class and have a long history of success in informal learning settings. Informal settings are typically places where learning takes place in museums, zoos, aquaria, science and technology centers, homes, and clubs. They are also characterized where motivation is internal, the content is variable and possibly unsequenced, attendance is voluntary, displays and objects are provided, learners are of all ages, and there is more diversity in the learners’ backgrounds (Hargis, 2001). The level of outward engagement in a formal classroom setting among these students is often low. Thus, understanding which and in what way active learning strategies might better engage students is especially important in this setting. In addition to lack of engagement, students also tend to have a lack of collaborative experience, the type of experience likely to benefit them in life and in the workplace.

The instructor’s experience with a more non-linear approach to teaching and learning began with a freshman introductory criminal justice systems course. This class is normally taught via lecture, some discussion and then assessment follows in the form of traditional multiple-choice and short response questions. This has been the approach for many years and has led to adequate success using the available measures, such as student 50 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

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satisfaction surveys. However, for fun and embracing the philosophy of continuous improvement, the instructor decided to divide the class (two sections of the same course) into groups of four students each and have each group create non-graded Infographics at the end of sharing a content section. It was hypothesized that this would be an enjoyable way to capture what students retained and could apply in a graphical form, important concepts from the current section. Upon implementation of the Infographic, two outcomes were quickly realized. First, many of the freshman students did not know how to collaborate and therefore did not engage in productive conversations. Second, the students were not able to identify and make sense of the major points of the section in a way that was expected. This experience turned the primary author into an experimenter of teaching and learning, which diverter her from the traditional, linear route of content delivery.

The current study stems from this initial experience. Upon reflection, the instructor realized that she never asked students in this freshman class if they knew or took away certain concepts (outside of the traditional exam assessment) yet she suddenly expected them to replicate this information into an Infographic. Thus, the findings from this initial foray into Infographics allowed serendipitous findings to emerge, similar to what is likely with any instructor moving from lecture to active learning. The true power of this initial exercise is exploring failure and how to translate this into success for students. In addition, a powerful outcome was the ability for the instructor to become a social scientist and use their classroom as a laboratory to explore possible ways to attain their instructor goal to enhance student outcomes. This largely qualitative, exploratory study focusses on two overriding questions. 1. Which teaching methods can most effectively engage students in meaningful collaboration, essential to 21st century skills. 2. What is the potential utility of Infographic as an assessment tool, primarily to address knowledge, skills, and overall learner disposition?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Faculty development Although faculty development has been available on many university campuses throughout time, the publication of Ernest Boyer’s Scholarship Reconsidered (1990) provided a clear roadmap and rationale for an additional approach to faculty development. In this landmark book, Boyer extended the definition of traditional scholarship of discovery, adding three other important ways to contribute to the academe. The additional three types included the scholarship of application, integration and teaching and learning, of which this is the foundation for this study. At our particular comprehensive university, Boyer’s model has been overtly integrated into the faculty handbook in the section of research, so the author’s choice to explore this model aligned well with the university mission and was publically valued in their promotion and tenure process. In the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) model, Boyer emphasizes the similarities between SoTL and traditional research methodology. SoTL, therefore maintains rigor, is systematic, and evidence-based. The ultimate goal is to better understand and subsequently improve student learning and instructional strategies. SoTL maintains the academic standards of peer-review and public dissemination, which will advance the field of teaching and learning to build collective knowledge and ongoing improvement (Christensen & Mighty, 2010).

Twenty-five years after Boyer’s work, although some of the myths of SoTL has been addressed, the challenge of faculty time, disposition towards trying new methods, which might fail, and the ability to identify and integrate appropriate innovative teaching methods into their teaching and learning persist. In a ten year study observing faculty from three different universities, Hargis (2014a) found that initially faculty were apprehensive to try new approach to their teaching. However, after debriefing conversations and identifying potential active learning methods, which align well with the instructor’s teaching philosophy and discipline, faculty were able to integrate active learning successfully. One of the major attributes defined by Yee and Hargis (2012), that was observed to increase engagement in faculty development was the role of sociability. The connection to the traditional learning triangle (student, teacher, content) was expanded to include the

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role of faculty development, as it was promoted through relationship building and identifying specific, targeted active learning methods.

Active Learning Active learning is certainly not a new concept to education, as many believe that most learning began with active learning. Before formal education, and even now before young learners enter schools, they engage in active learning. This paper will not attempt to retrace the long history of active learning, but to move quickly to its potential in the context of this study. Faust and Paulson (1998) defined active learning as is anything that students do in a classroom other than merely passively listening to an instructor's lecture. This operational definition opens the door to many interpretations, which can one of the major advantages of active learning - the ability to cater to the specifics of a particular faculty members approach and their students abilities, aptitudes and engagement. One of the major goals of active learning is to help students develop a deeper ability to apply conceptual frameworks by interacting with and reflecting upon the ideas (Angelo, & Cross, 1993). The intent is to provide an environment to scaffold students transition from passive receivers to doers. Fortunately, there are many ways to create active learning opportunities. Also fortunate for organization, activities may take minutes or the entire class period and may involve students as individuals or in collaborative groups (Bain, 2004).

Collaboration is one powerful active learning method. The ability for peer-to-peer learning and sharing can be, at times, allow students to both rehearse and present themselves as a teacher, as their colleagues attend to their message differently than they might an instructor. There are several challenges to productive collaborate work, which might include time, classroom management, the dynamics of team members and the ability to secure appropriate skills sets (including social emotional competencies) and diversity in each group (Barkely, Cross, & Howell Major, 2005). When well-organized, collaboration, has the ability to increase engagement, attention, information processing and many of the 21st century skills, which are needed in the innovative career positions (Davis, 2009). One way to connect students to each other in collaborate groups is the use of appropriate, relevant and meaningful (ARM) instructional technology.

ARM Instructional Technology Education or instructional technology has seen an increasing role in teaching and learning over the past several decades. In this paper, we will discuss this concept in a specific manner, which we term, ARM Instructional Technology (IT). The ARM is an acronym for Appropriate, Relevant and Meaningful. It has become apparent that many faculty may be resistant of using technology for technology's sake, so we operationalize this term to include only technology that meets the conditions of ARM. Hargis (2014b) has created a template to share with faculty on how to integrate a strategic plan for integrating ARM instructional technology. Much of this approach focuses on the instructor’s teaching philosophy, their abilities in the area of technology as well as the type of technology, which are available to students, as well as their abilities. One of the many challenges for integrating ARM IT is the difficulty to measure student behavior, interaction and ultimately how ARM IT might affect their abilities in the area of knowledge, skills and disposition One specific example that addresses this is a large mobile learning initiative, whose goal was to increase student engagement (Hargis, Cavanaugh, Kamali, & Soto, 2013). In this study, the authors identified key attributes, and unique methods to capture both qualitative and quantitative data in a triangulation method to determine how the mobile learning device and more importantly the change in instructional strategies affected student engagement. Many studies such as this include complex methods of data gathering and analysis, as well as require a concise way to collate and share the findings. To accomplish this, the authors need to fully understand the study and all of the potential permutations. This type of synthetic activity is precisely the type, which instructors are attempting to provide to students. A useful technique to capture this activity is an Infographic. Infographic are a relatively new and are innovative way to integrate ARM IT into and beyond the formal classroom learning environment. They can help you simplify a complicated subject by adding interactive, easy to read graphics. Infographics compress and display information in a clear way. They communicate complex data quickly and clearly in attempt to be effective to a large audience. This approach is especially helpful to second language learners.

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METHODOLOGY

Two main Research Questions (RQ) guide this study: RQ1: Which teaching methods can most effectively engage students in meaningful collaboration, essential to 21st century skills? RQ2: What is the potential utility of Infographic as an assessment tool, primarily to address knowledge, skills, and overall learner disposition?

Session #1 Students were assigned three Infographics over the course of the 16 week term. For the first Infographic, students were assigned to a group by counting from one to four in the first section and one to five in the second section of the course. All groups contained four members. Students were shown several examples of Infographics on the topic of criminal justice. They were also provided Infographic templates in a Power Point format, as well as, two online web sites they might use to create free Infographics (Canva & Piktochart, 2015). Students were then provided with the following prompt:

“I am from another country and not familiar with America. Tell me about law enforcement in America.”

The students were given ten minutes to brainstorm in their groups, and then 55 minutes of remaining class time to create a draft Infographic. At the end of class, each group emailed their final Infographic artifact to the instructor. Students were aware that this initial Infographic would not be graded.

Session #2 Drawing from the initial Infographic in-class experience, students were again assigned Infographics at a second point in the term and remained in the same groups as they had with their first Infographic assignment. The students were again provided templates in Power Point or they could use one of the two online sites as before. Students were asked to create two Infographics for this session, which would count as the traditional final exam for this class. The prompts for these two artifacts contained greater guidance than at session number one. Students had the last day of regular class (one hour and twenty minutes) and the full final exam period (two hours) to create their final two infographics. Following were the prompts:

Infographic 1: Create an Infographic that informs the public about jails and prisons in the U.S. Make sure to address the following: - What are the differences between jail and prison? - Who runs each? - What type of population is in each? - What changes in the population have occurred over the past 40 years? - Are there other interesting facts about jails and prisons that should be presented?

Infographic 2: Create an infographic that informs the public about probation and parole in the U.S. Make sure to address the following: - What are the differences between probation and parole? - What is the function of each? - How do you get there? - What changes in the population have occurred over the past 40 years? - Are there other interesting facts about probation and parole that should be presented?

Students were again instructed to email both of their final products to the instructor, before the end of the exam period. From lessons learned during the initial non-graded Infographic activity, three main differences were employed for the second session.

1. Students were graded on this infographic, as it replaced their traditional final exam.

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2. Students were provided more detail in their prompts to help keep them focused. 3. Additional time was spent discussing collaboration and the importance of this skill to their overall professional development.

Finally, students filled out a short, five question open-ended exit survey once they completed their Infographic to further assist the instructor on the effectiveness of this active learning and assessment tool.

RESULTS

Results - Session #1 Upon reflection on this first Infographic session, two primary observations became apparent and useful. First, in general, students could not develop a storyline, they missed the big picture around the structure and roles of American law enforcement, and information. Students could derive small portions of relevant concepts, however, a salient take-away message was lacking. Second, many students simply did not know how to collaborate, brainstorm, and otherwise work effectively as a group. This lack of collaborative ability came at the cost of students’ ability to utilize the limited time available to complete the project.

Some students were either outwardly stressed or vocalized their stress during the creation of the initial Infographic. Some students did not want to be in a group or their particular assigned group, and vocalized this as well. They found it difficult to work under the time constraint during this first Infographic session. In short, many were frustrated by the authentic process. They often lost focus on the overall task at hand and thus had difficulty effectively communicating what they did know.

The lesson for the instructor was that she could have reinforced the big picture along the way, scaffolding student schema as they advanced through a conceptual framework. Prior to the first artifact she could have discussed the importance of effective collaboration more, and how to collaborate on group projects, perhaps modeling with her colleagues. Students comments at the debrief included their desire that the instructor remind them in person to bring computers to class, rather than via email; they wanted greater direction from the instructor regarding what was expected from them; and they wanted more in-class time to work on this project.

Shortly following the first Infographic and completion of this section of the course, the students had a traditional mid-term exam consisting of multiple choice and short answer questions. Upon completion of the exam, students were asked whether the Infographic helped them prepare for the exam. Half of the 36 students (50%) stated that it did not, 32.4% said it helped a little, and 17.6% said it did help. The average score on the exam was a C, or 76%, which was typical for this class taught by this instructor over the past ten years. However, the instructor hoped that the information required for the Infographic would have increased this score. In addition, outcomes she had hoped to see on the Infographic was ultimately the most important information she reinforced and knew they needed after the class ended. This also led the instructor to re- evaluate the exam versus a more authentic assessment. This experiment led the instructor to believe that the multiple choice exam was not an authentic, nor appropriate assessment of the material or to assess the outcomes that she knew was needed in the field.

Results - Session #2 Results at session two varied significantly compared to the first Infographic session. During the second Infographic session, which was a two-part session, students seemed focused, in general and in terms of what was expected, and did not exhibit the stress witnessed during the first session. The process itself did not inhibit them. Although this took place at the end of the term, students seemed to enjoy and appreciate the process, certainly more than they would a traditional exam. Collaboration was much improved. Students in every group contributed to the team project by either creating the physical artifact, looking up statistics, discussing how to package certain bits of information, and reviewing and commenting on drafts. They were actively seeking facts, charts, and graphs that appealed to them and the story they wanted to tell.

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As an example, Appendix 1 of this article includes a session one Infographic from one group to a session two from the same group. This is the group that clearly had the least effective collaborative skills during the first session. However, the improvement from session one to session two can be seen in the second Infographic created by that same group. All groups nonetheless improved from session one to two.

Overall, improved results at session two seem to be related to four important factors. First, the Infographic was no longer a novelty, the students had previously been exposed to and created one earlier in the term. Almost all of the 36 students (97.2%) indicated that the Infographic was easier during this second iteration than the first. Students noted the following in response to whether session two was indeed easier:  “...I had a better understanding on how to make an Infographic. The first time around was hard because I wasn’t sure on how to make one.”  “It was much easier the second time because I think we knew better what to expect.”  “We had practice with the first one and went over as a class as to what you were looking for in an Infographic. Seeing the other groups Infographics as examples of what not to do/what do do helped a lot.”

Secondly, more context was provided in the prompts for these last two Infographics. The prompt was more detailed and served to concentrate the students on what the instructor really wanted them to demonstrate via their Infographic project, thus engendering a much more transparent process compared to time one. The Following are comments from two students:  “The infographic was easier [the second time] because you gave us more of a direction to go in” and  “...we knew what to do and had an idea of what you were looking for.”

The students did not need the answer, but they needed a better guide about where to move forward. Third, after session one, some class time was devoted to discussion of the importance of collaboration in real world settings, and the importance of working as a team. Particular emphasis centered on the need to draw on the strengths of individuals within the group when meeting project deadlines. At the end of this second session, marked improvements were observed. Students also commented,  “My group personally knew we needed to work together and communicate more” and  “...working in groups helps me more in the real world of working with others efficiently.”

Students certainly seemed to better internalize the importance of collaboration and demonstrated an improved ability to do so.

Fourth, the final two infographics served as their final assessment for the course, so grades mattered at session two project, but did not during session one. Most students (88.9%) responded that they preferred the Infographic assignment over a final exam. In general, they believed the infographic was more hands-on, helped them remember, was more focused, and enhanced their team building skills. Students noted the following:  “...it was a real-life application of information we were taught and researched”  “...it allows us to understand the information better and process what we think is most important.”  “...because I feel like you learn the important parts and the information sticks, compared to exams, most students data dump”  “...it helps develop team working skills, communication, and adaptability to different situations.”

About three-quarters of the students (77.1%) responded that they believed the Infographic, over the exam, best allowed them to demonstrate and apply their knowledge. Here is a comment from one student,  “If we could do an Infographic for each topic, it would demonstrate more knowledge because you would need to portray the information in your own words to someone who might not understand.”

Other students commented on the importance of the infographic in terms of knowledge demonstration:  “[Infographic is important]...because we have to decide for ourselves what information is important.”  “...it is a hands on understanding of the information as opposed to the regurgitation of information”

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 “I feel that an Infographic best allows you to demonstrate knowledge gained because an Infographic is used to inform others of certain information and etc. knowledge is needed in order to complete the Infographic.”

Further, the majority of the students (84.8%) stated that they believed the Infographic would help them retain information better. In terms of retention, students commented,  “I always forget exams but Infographics leave a lasting impression” and  “Infographic actually did help me retain information. I am a visual learner and the pictures and graphs helped me retain/remember information”

Finally, a full 91.4% of the students believed that they would be able to apply what they learned in the Infographic process in the future. Students noted:  “Research, teamwork, and important criminal justice system facts are all things I learned and can apply in the future”  “...it teaches teamwork and presentation skills”  “... to the aspects of working environments and professional places or situation in which you must work with others.”

Again, students seemed to get the value of the group-based Infographic project as a means to develop teambuilding and collaboration skills as well as use critical thinking skills to present salient, key facts to others.

An important serendipitous outcome for the instructor was engagement with a more authentic assessment. Both of the Infographics at time two included prompts that would allow students to demonstrate the most important elements of this portion of the class. Students came prepared, but, as in the real world, they had access to each other, their notes, book, and the internet to enhance the story they wanted to tell through the infographic. They believed that the Infographic forced them to focus on the key elements of the topic and to engage in critical thinking to determine the most important pieces of information to convey. This is truly an important part of an authentic assessment as well. A rubric was adopted to formally assess the students and is located in Appendix 2 of this article for reference.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The process of moving from a traditional lecture to a group-based learning and assessment via the Infographic provided a springboard for having conversations with students that the instructor had not previously had. It was as if the environment needed to be disrupted to really see the importance of these conversations with the students. The vulnerability of this professor, and her willingness to take chances, and make and embrace mistakes, also seemed to resonate with the students and get them to open up as well. In short, Infographics improved collaboration and conversation in the classroom.

Clearly the active learning strategy employed here better and more effectively engaged the students, better focused the students on salient material at hand, and taught the professor the need to stop and reflect during all course sessions, regardless of the nature of the course. These are also skills that are perhaps as important as knowledge acquisition, yet ones that seem to be lost via a traditional method of teaching. In this case, the importance of teaching collaboration in the classroom is an important one. The instructor previously took it for granted that students knew how to collaborate with one another in project based learning assignments. Unfortunately, many students do not currently possess these critical skills. This is certainly a skill that employers look for, and one we should be engendering throughout the student’s undergraduate educational experience.

The students also believed that these Infographics helped them retain information better and that would be more likely to remember the material from these assessments. They also believed that they learned skills that they could apply in future work and other endeavors. In addition to collaborative skills, they feel better able to

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focus on salient issues around a topic that is otherwise complex and full of details. They had to learn to siphon out key facts in order to create effective, informative, and appealing infographics.

The instructor would suggest that anyone wishing to try an Infographic for the first time build in class practice time first. This will reduce the potential negative novelty effect for the students, and will also help the instructor develop adequate prompts. Utilizing the Infographic as a graded artifact is also likely to make students more serious about the project. In the appropriate situation, though, this is clearly an authentic assessment method.

LIMITATIONS

There are several limitations to this exploratory study. First, this primary author is a novice at the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL). As such, she did not start the term with a study in mind. The study emerged naturally during the course of the term (although this could be seen as a strength as being open to exploring alternative teaching methods in the future). As such, a stronger design method was not employed. The first Infographic was a non-graded assignment and had much novelty for both the students and instructor. Prompts were changed, based on student feedback, from the first session to the two Infographics created for the final course assessment. Nonetheless, important lessons were learned during the course of this work, ones likely to enhance active learning, engagement, and collaboration in the college classroom.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Dr. DAVIDSON is currently an Associate Professor of Criminology & Criminal Justice at Chaminade University of Honolulu. Her research interests include recidivism, community corrections, risk and need assessment instruments, and gender and crime. Her work has appeared in Feminist Criminology, Critical Criminology, Sociology Compass and Federal Probation. She is also the author of a book titled Female Offenders and Risk Assessment: Hidden in Plain Sight. She has been active in applied research on Hawaii’s correctional system for the past fifteen years, including work with the Department of Public Safety, Hawaii Paroling Authority, Hawaii State Judiciary (Adult Probation), and Girls Court Hawaii. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Janet T. DAVIDSON Chaminade University of Honolulu USA E. Mail: [email protected]

Dr. Jace HARGIS is the Associate Provost of Faculty Development, Assessment and Research and Professor at Chaminade University Honolulu. Previously, he was a College Director in the UAE; an Assistant Provost and Associate Professor at the University of the Pacific; and a Director of Faculty Development and Assistant Professor at the University of North Florida. He has authored a textbook, an anthology and published over 100 academic articles as well as offered hundreds of academic presentations. He has earned a B.S. in Oceanography from Florida Institute of Technology; an M.S. in Environmental Engineering Sciences and a Ph.D. in Science Education from the University of Florida. Dr. Hargis' research agenda focuses on how people learn with the use of emerging instructional technologies.

Prof. Dr. Jace HARGIS Chaminade University of Honolulu USA E. Mail: [email protected]

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REFERENCES

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge: Harvard University.

Barkely, E.F., Cross, K.P. & Howell Major, C. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Boyer, E. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Canva.(2015). https://www.canva.com/

Christensen, J. & Mighty, J. (Eds.) (2010). Taking Stock: Research on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Kinsgton, ON: Queens-McGill University Press.

Davis, B.G. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed). (pp. 190-221). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Faust, J. L., & Paulson, D. R. (1998). Active learning in the college classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 9 (2), 3-24.

Hargis, J. (2001). Can students learn science using the Internet? ISTE Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(4), 475-487.

Hargis, J. (2014a). A ten year study of faculty classroom observations. Transformative Dialogues: Teaching and Learning Journal, 7(2), 1-21.

Hargis, J. (2014b). Eager adopters: Strategic plan ideas for integrating instructional technology. Turkish Journal of Distance Education, 15(4), 14-22.

Hargis, J., Cavanaugh, C., Kamali, T., & Soto, M. (2013). Measuring the difficult to measure: iPad mobile learning. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 3(2), 60-77.

Piktochart. (2015). http://piktochart.com/

Yee, K., & Hargis, J. (2012). Indirect faculty development and the role of sociability. Journal of Centers for Teaching and Learning, (4), 61-79.

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APPENDIX ONE - Before and After Artifact

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APPENDIX TWO - Infographic Rubric

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USAGE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR PRISONER DISTANCE LEARNERS: ANADOLU UNIVERSITY OEF CASE

Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY Prof. Dr. Sezen UNLU Prof. Dr. Serap SUGUR Assoc. Prof. Dr. Incilay CANGOZ Assist. Prof. Dr. Esra Pınar UCA GUNES Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY

ABSTRACT

Around the world, various correctional jurisdictions are struggling to enable the delivery of higher education into prisons. At a time when universities are moving increasingly online, very often access to the internet is restricted or disallowed in correctional environments. Many universities, leading in distance education provide in their countries in which they are based, are delivering higher education into prisons using technology to varying extents.

This paper reports on distance education into prisons, particularly using technology, in Turkey, by Anadolu University. In Open Education Faculty jurisdictions, in prisoner access to computer hardware, personal devices and to the internet. How these differences impact on the delivery of distance education is explored with an examination of various learning initiatives and lessons learned.

Keywords: Distance Education, prisoner, using technology, open education faculty, Turkey.

INTRODUCTION

“He who opens a school door, closes a prison”. Victor Hugo

Anadolu University Open Education Faculty established in the 1982-83 academic year with the Economics and Business Administration undergraduate programs, by aiming high standards of higher education and equality of opportunity in education for Open and Distance Education System began the first school providing education services. The first year 29.500 students registered to the Economics and Business Administration undergraduate programs.

Anadolu University, Open and Distance Learning System today training its total of 12 licenses (university degree), with 46 undergraduate (associate degree and many certificate programs beyond national borders, North Cyprus Turkish Republic, Turkey and several Kazakhstan (Ahmet University), Azerbaijan and a leads the education service for Turkish citizens living in West European countries, with contemporary.

Open and Distance Education System has 1.9 million active and 2 million passive students and over 2 million graduates. Almost again 2 millions student graduated form Anadolu distance education system since 1987. The first graduate were about 10.000 (nearly 2.500 from Economic department and 7.500 were from Business Administration Department) of the first enrolled 29.500 students.

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The average Anadolu University distance learning student is in his/her mid-twenties; 65% of the students are metropolitan-based, 70% have jobs, 40% are married, 42% are female and 1.5% has some disability. In regular, Anadolu University also has aimed to give an education service its student by using latest technology at the moment it has. Most of Anadolu University’s academics are follow technology and research how adopted new technologies in his/her study materials or search how more rentable usage of this new technology. I hope 80% they success and reach their aims.

Undoubtedly Anadolu University Open Education Faculty wishes all technical possibilities they have in their educational practices given in each level, and thus to bring to all the prisoner students registered "the right to “be educated," the fulfillment of both "equal opportunities in education" want to use to perform.

Anadolu University located in Eskisehir where the Central Anadolu Region by surrounding the cities Bursa, Ankara and Afyon, Bilecik, Kütahya and Konya. Today, population of Eskisehir is 685.135. Eskisehir is well known middle level industrial and University City of Turkey.

PRISONER IN TURKEY

CHP (Social Democrat Party) Ankara deputy and Human Rights Investigation Commission, Member Sinan Aygün, a press release, "the number of prisoners held in prisons and penal institutions in Turkey has increased by 177.3 percent since 2002," and "in custody in prisons and penal institutions in 2002, 55 929 and the number of inmates that come 165.033 in March 2015".

He noted that in the same period increased by only 16.5 percent of Turkey's population reminding Aygün, according to the population number of detainees and prisoners must be questioned stated that the reason for the increase is 10 times faster. Order half of the increase in this crime and criminals, also stated that he thought due to the known problems of the justice system Aygün, said that race is known for its authoritarianism in the country with statistics about Turkey's prisons.

According to TurkStat data, the age of the convicted prisoners within the prison is higher than the average over the age of 30, that is, half of the 30 convicts. In 2008, with the highest number of convicts for convicts received an average age of 35 and 36 for the convicts.

The rate of illiteracy among convicts is quite low, and this rate has remained around 1% in recent years. The proportion of primary school graduates increased rate of primary school graduates convicts decreased significantly within 10 years, which is a decrease of graduates of secondary schools and vocational schools. This is due to the differing definitions of compulsory education. Increase of higher levels of education are observed (2009-2013 data sources are different, this should be taken into account) Civil case of convicts, which is higher than the proportion of married; The rate is around 30% as never married.

According to media type of crime in the last decade as well Bankruptcy Code opposition, fraud, assault and theft crimes are the crimes most committed. The rate of sexual offenses 1.9'k% in 2004 and rose to 2.6% in 2013. (but this rate has been 1.7% or 0.9% on the penalty convicts that have not innocent)

Thieft environment in the last decade of 5.9%; the lowest level in 2007 and 13.8% in 2013. (http://zete.com/turkiye-tutuklu-ve-hukumlu-sayisinda-rekora-kosuyor [Turkey is run to highest score in the numbers of prisoners and Detainees], retrieved on 29.10.2015 and also available from http://zete.com/turkiye-tutuklu-ve-hukumlu-sayisinda-rekora-kosuyor .

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REGULATION RULES FOR DISTANCE LEARNERS EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN PRISON BY THE MINISTRY OF JUSTICE

Ministry of Justice has to provide an educational service for prisoners up to finish their penalties. This education service rules are selected and regulated by Dated on 27.07.2007 and Numbered as B.03.0.CTE.0.00.09.00/010.06.02/12 of General Directory of Prison Young and Adult Prisoners Education and Betterment of Prisoners Operations and Other Provisions Circular letter Numbered No: 46/1 and Section 2 is regulated by mentioning of the Education Rules right and in prison as:

 The necessity and benefit of prisoners and detainees of physical and educational activities for spiritual development has been recognized by the whole world. These actions, as well as the most effective means of recruitment, discipline and order as required by the corporate regime of living systems is the best fit.  There are expected to work for education; the correct behavior of prisoners and detainees, adopting attitudes and habits, to prevent re-offending to gain moral values, zooming in corporate life to normal life, these people are released afterward to facilitate their adaptation to society and external events, patient against driving is to bring resistant and cold-blooded case.  The Council of Europe Committee of Ministers R (89) 12 on "Education in Prisons Authority" on the recommendation of the adoption by member states on education in prisons proposed the following basic principles are followed; . All prisoners, vocational education, creative and cultural activities, physical education, sports, have been designed to include a social education and library facilities, training will be provided. . The training will be given to convicts and prisoners to the outside world in the education provided to the same age group and area that will provide the same learning opportunities will be as wide as possible. . Training in penal institutions; person's social, economic and cultural conditions in mind will aim to develop it in its entirety. . All of the institutions that govern the execution of penal institutions and criminal participants in the management of education systems to support more and will facilitate as much as possible. . Prisoners, make every effort to all aspects of education to promote the active participation will be shown. . The trainer of penal institutions, development programs will be provided to ensure the adoption of appropriate adult education methods. . Those with special difficulties with literacy problems to prisoners and detainees, and in particular will be given special attention. . Vocational education, as well as individuals to the development of a broader, will be held taking into account the needs of the job market. . Convicted and imprisoned at least once a week should be able to go to a library well organized. . Convicts and detainees to participate in physical education and sports activities should be encouraged to do the work. . Will be given a key role in the creative and cultural activities. Because of these activities has a special potential of prisoners and detainees in self-expression and development. . Social education, in order to facilitate the return to society, prisoners and the administration should take to ensure that the applicable elements into the daily life of prisoners in penal institutions. . Whenever possible, prisoners should be allowed to participate in education outside of prisons. . Should be given in case of prisons Education should be support from outside agencies. . After release of convicts and prisoners to enable them to continue their training measures should be taken. . Prisoners’ financial resources to enable them to receive appropriate training, tools, equipment and teaching staff should be ready.

And the same Circular letter, Section 4 Item B, is regulated educational services for distance Education learners in prison for Open Primary School (OPS), Open High School (OHS) and Item C regulated

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educational services for distance Education learners in prison Anadolu’s Open Education Faculty (OEF). Section 4, Item says that:

Open Primary School and Open High School  Persons with the following conditions to be able to apply the Open High School and Open Primary School:

. Open Primary School, adult II. Grade education achievement certificate of achievement after completing the course, graduates of Primary, middle 1,2,3. 6,7,8 or Primary school. Leaving the classroom, secondary school leavers who enrolled the young and adults can apply for external final exam. Therefore, by determining the status of all prisoners and detainees from learning institution, providing information about the Open Primary Schools with reference to the above-mentioned conditions will be encouraged to attend school. . The Open High School, graduated from Primary or secondary school 1.2.3. Young and adult prisoners and detainees separated from class may apply. Open High School to provide information about the application meets the requirements mentioned above will be encouraged to attend school.  Providing all kinds of services free Open Primary School. In the Open High School diploma goes outside will not be charged.  To schools for reference, education original of the certificate showing or after the original institution certified copies to be sent, ID card copy or newly drawn one with a certified photocopy of the passport photo will be sent.  Registration process can be done by one of his close students. The registration process in which the students found that the institution is bound by provincial/district will be held in. In case of failure of transactions carried out by relatives of the student enrollment, administration institutions by a staff member appointed by the provincial/district offices will be carried out through public education.  Students are mailed to the address books by school administrations. Registration applications and provincial/district offices will be made over the internet through public education. The staff will take care of recording and encoding application.  If prisoner registered any one of distance education institution such as Open Primary School (OPS), Open High School (OHS) and Item C regulated educational services for distance Education learners in prison Anadolu’s Open education Faculty (OEF), not subject to audit their books or printed educational materials.  The examination will be held to determine the centers and the examination of documents and records that are new students attending school to be submitted shall be determined by screening period before the exam to be held within the organization.  Participate in the examination of decentralized agencies that contains information about students Adult and Young Public Primary School Convicts or Status Notification Form (Annex 1-A and Annex 1-B No. Form), Adult and Junior OHS of Convicts Status Reporting Form (Appendix 2-A, Appendix 2-B No. Form) and participate in examinations of the institutions testing center organized shows a list of the number of students from the date of the exams twelve days will be sent to be the General Manager. Students will be allowed by the General Directorate in order to ensure their participation in the examination. In addition, students who wish to attend as a day to test the statement "Daily" will not necessarily be indicated.  Examination of the institutions that will participate in the exam center students, specifying only the number of names shall be notified to the Directorate General. These students will be sent a written permission from the General Directorate for accession for participation in the exam, the exam will be provided by the institution directly participate in the administration.  With the Ministry of Justice General Directorate of Social Assistance and Solidarity Minister of State attached to the protocol signed between the examination fees of the prisoners were found to be in poor condition will be provided from the Social Assistance and Solidarity Fund. Protocol contains that the financial situation of insufficient open university, open high school and signed a protocol related to open primary schools to meet the prisoners continued their exam fee.

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 According to the protocol, open faculty of Prisons and Detention Centers, will report to open high school or elementary school open to students continuing good financial situation of prisoners who do not have Social Assistance and Solidarity Foundation, headed by the place they were found. On behalf of prisoners for Social Assistance and Solidarity Foundations of test expenses will be credited to the relevant account.  The Agency if it is new from convicts; In institutions where to take the examination to show the list of the number of students participating in the exam organized form containing information on students who need referral to another agency, the first thing the week before exams, at 12: 00 until notification can be made, received after this date, students will take the test, the replacement box. The accuracy of the students who take the test, answer the spare box of paper to write their student number and code will be checked to ensure examination by the personnel responsible institutions.  Examination, which will be sent to the penitentiary institutions designated as examination centers will be made by the examination commission.  If distance learner in military and convicts in prisons and detention centers, military prisons and detention centers in the petition related to the subject they wish to take the test each examination period of at least two months before (considering the evacuation possibilities) must apply to the Ministry of National Defense.  Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Defense is the list of who will take the exam in place to inform the Anadolu University students take the exam in prisons or detention centers are not addressed in this list.  In addition, prison administrations and students directly related to the prosecution of the Anadolu University, their application to the relevant faculty or OEF offices in the province are receiving treatment.

Examination central institutions which, in order to conduct regular examinations and recording of provincial education directorate and provincial/district education directorates will be done with the cooperation of the people. Let’s have look for now how Anadolu’s Open Education Faculty uses technology for its prisoner students in prisons in allover Turkey?

WHICH TECNOLOGIES ARE BEING USED FOR DISTANCE LEARNER IN PRISON: ANADOLU UNIVERSITY OEF CASE

As mentioned above, the main education components of the Anadolu University Open Education Faculty are printed materials, TV and Radio programmes and academic counseling. Beside these main components Anadolu University is trying to use latest technology for preparing and serving distance education study materials for its distance learners as well as have such internet-based, computer-based, mobile-based and eLearning-based technologies are using too for delivering educational service its students such as.

The program integrates a wide variety of learning media, teaching, and assessment strategies including print materials, eBooks, eCourse, e-Seminar e-Consultancy, e-Certificate, e-Exam, iTunes U via asynchronous and synchronous interactions, virtual experiments, face-to-face lab activities in the summer term, weekly assignments, multiple choice and open-ended tests.

Exams and student services centers are more than 100 office in Turkey, NCTR, West European countries which are about 20), Face to face Academic Advising Services (in more than 100 center, more than 2000 academics, television programmes which over 5.000 programmes, books are over 8 million copy.

Versus traditional components of Anadolu’ Open Education System produced course software is delivered on the Internet via the web server park of CBE Center. Nearly, 1000-2500 units multimedia courseware for labs, CD-ROMs and internet by content designers for computer-based education since 1990s.

Today, these labs are transformed the Internet cafes and the students can use these centers to access the e- learning applications in the Internet by taking appointment, students can interact with the multimedia environment to study their courses in these labs.

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In this project, the new computer labs were founded in the 15 different cities. E-learning applications in Open Education were started to produce computer-based education software and service the distance students from different cities via the established computer labs. The produced CD-ROMs were installed the computers in the labs to serve students. Having own her/his own computer had increased obviously among the open education students.

By taking of this improvement, open education multimedia course software was produced with coming together e-textbooks copies and the digital videos of TV programs on the CD- ROMs. Both through interactive books were prepared by using the e-learning technology and served in e-learning portal with test questions very effectively.

With TV programs, the most important feature of the open education multimedia software can integrate different learning environment, such as textbooks, TV programs, drill and practice software, trial exams, etc., multimedia CD-ROMs (2000-2001) in the CD-ROMs, students do not have to watch TV at the determined times and they have find chances to watch them a lot of times when they want. Internet-Based Drill & Internet- based drill and practice software project was founded in Open education Faculty by the computer based education center since 2002-2003 academic year. http://dersler.anadolu.edu.tr http://dersler.aof.edu.tr Anadolu University is the biggest e-learning project in Turkey in terms of the quantity of the provided contents.

The Internet based drill and practice software project of the open education system of Anadolu University is the biggest e-learning project in Turkey in terms of targeting and reaching numbers of students. Therefore, the students can easily access the textbooks and TV programs. http://tv.anadolu.edu.tr http://tv.aof.edu.tr

Since 2003-2004 academic years, the textbooks and TV programs are delivered on the Internet. Students can access the courses from their works or Internet cafes, and also have a chance to watch TV programs, study with multimedia software, test themselves via trial exams, and examine). The computer based education center was completed all investments for the Internet substructure to meet this demand effectively. It is observed that a huge demand to access the trail exams, drill and practices software, textbooks and TV programs delivered on the Internet, especially before the exams week.

DIMENSIONS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION SERVICE TO THE PRISONERS, PROVIDED BY ANADOLU’S OEF

As well known that continuous professional development activities and refreshing in work place addressing instructional ICT use can be helpful to improve with regard to Teaching-Learning Methods, Learning Communities, E-learning and E-interaction. Providing pre-service teachers with meaningful and instructional ICT use experiences carries importance since they cannot be expected to implement what they did not experience. In addition, rather than the quantity of PC experience, type of ICT experience matters. Finally, administrative precautions can eliminate the negative findings observed in technical and social issues (Akbulut, 2008). OECD countries, the expectation for ICT use in Education were mostly left unfulfilled and ICT investment made by the public sector did not result in improved performance, quality, or access to a better Education. The lesson learnt from these attempts in OECD member countries led researcher to focus on the concern over the return on ICT investment (Ozdemir, 2010).

Unfortunately, Anadolu University does not use all these opportunities which are technologically prepared all education service channels for its distance learners who are in prison by the reason some limitations under prison conditions such as prisons regulations by ministry of Justice, impossibility of technological limits, nature of living way of prison life, timing and some exact forbidden rules. For example Live TV panel session which is broadcast one week before mid term final, make-up exams. There in no enough opportunity for watching activity this Live TV session which are containing questions from students and answering by academics lively instantly.

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For the rules of prison, the prisoners can be busy such as they can be in counting activity, maybe in dinner or other process of the prison during broadcasting time. Another limitation of the prisoners is using computer at any time via internet connection. They can use their computer for studying PDF formatted course books or any regisrated study materials.

However, according to the circular of prisons is indicated that every prison has to have “Prison Teacher” if they have prisoner distance education learner as OPS OHL or OEF. Prisoner students are realize their registration or re-registration process beside their relatives through this prison teacher. Prison teachers can get the their registration or re-registration process forms from the Open Education Faculty Student Center, than after filling in the required information, including information slips through prison teacher still can perform their re- registration process.

These prisoned students obtain their books, lecture notes and other study materials or any documents that can be taken from the prison teacher through the open education faculty offices in the province. These prison teachers are also help to prisoner student for using internet, mobile phone and other technological equipment, when they need by asking or requesting for the prison teacher help. Again, this prison teachers are responsible for to realize and monitoring mid-term, final and make-up exams three times in a year.

Prisoner students' exam papers are reach in a separate package to the director of the prison and prison teacher province under the responsibility of the exam coordinator start regular exams period to prison time delivered and exams are with prison teacher by the rules to fit the performing provincial exam coordinator couriers through.

Their exam papers are evaluated in Anadolu University Computer Research and Application Center, around two weeks period and then results are send to the prisoner students by posting.

SOME LITERATURE AND ANADOLU-OEF’S PRISONER STUDENTS

Education and training can be provided in a multitude of arenas, prisons being one of them. Prisons form a very specific learning environment with distinct challenges differing from those faced in the mainstream education and training sector. Firstly, prison education and training is provided in overcrowded institutions with an average occupancy rate of 105% across the EU-27. Secondly, the prison populations are becoming increasingly. The report titled as “Prison Education and Training in Europe” shows “how education and training for prisoners help reduce the social costs of crime and support the rehabilitation of prisoners and their reintegration into society”.

By using the technology, the possibility of distance education is becoming necessary and urgent for the prisoners who have already done some studies and choose the experience of postgraduate or lifelong education (Kaya, 2002; Kaya, 2005).

For these reasons, prisoners could be favorably treated if they miss an examination period because of a trial, taking into account the difficulty the prisoners have on the one hand to cover the student fees and on the other the need, for psychological reasons, for examinations to take place in a location not exposed to other students (Linardatou and Manousou, 2015).

The conclusions identify key elements for efficient and effective education and training provision in prisons as well as specific needs for further research on the complex interplay between education and criminal behavior.

Distance education provides many opportunities with its learner-focused approach for lifelong learning due to the flexibility it offers for teaching and learning at a distance.

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A review of the other European projects about prison education shows that many have paid attention to the need to use multimedia technologies for teaching and learning at penitentiary institutions.

Virtual European Prison School (VEPS) project run by EPEA (European Prison Education Association) by aimed at the exchange of penitentiary teaching materials of different subjects such as language, arts and e-learning. In the framework of this Lifelong Learning Program Grundtvig Multilateral Project, the module system and distance learning have been preferred for a flexible and learner-centred approach.

The report also says that prisons are all too often negative learning environments -or environments for negative learning- and there is a risk that a prison sentence could actually aggravate the factors associated with re-offending. Challenges currently faced by prison staff and educators are manifold.

These include the diversity and ever-changing profile of the prison population; the need to keep pace with changes in mainstream education and training systems; and the adoption of new technologies for learning, which presents particular challenges in relation to security issues in the prison environment. Furthermore, with growing prison populations across Europe-there are currently around 640,000 prisoners in the EU Member States (Hawley, et. al., 2013).

The thesis which completed by Linardatou and Manousou, 2015, in Hellenic Open University, titled as The Role of Open and Distance Higher Education in Detainees in Greek Detention Facilities concluded that the role of HOU was found to be pivotal in the ability to provide educational opportunities to this target-group of socially excluded people.

It is a necessity so that prisoners can deal with the conditions of their confinement on a psychological level, especially in the case of a life sentence. Internet access for prisoners enrolled in tertiary distance education is a prospect which HOU would be advised to include in the implementation strategy of distance education for prisoners, taking into account the existing security system in Prisoner Centers. (Linardatou, & Manousou, 2015).

Lionarakis, (2010) points out as concerned the Open University of Great Britain, by Shipley (2003) that “the support and guidance for prisoner students receive from the network of Regional Centers as well as professors-counselors are essential for the academic success of the institution” To better inform prisoners, it would also be beneficial to provide them brochures about the HOU curricula and their attendance options. (Linardatou, & Manousou, 2015).

Another Project study which Anadolu University were partner of this Project that focus on role and function distance education for the language problems of prisoner in EU countries prisons.

The idea behind the project is that the initiation of communication between the staff and prisoners in the mother tongue of the prisoner may facilitate rehabilitation of the latter group and increase their motivation to learn the language of the host country and lead to an interest for adaptation and integration.

Project concluded that ELBEP created an e-learning environment to provide Russian, Polish, Spanish, Greek, and Turkish language skills to the prison staff in EU member countries (Belgium, Germany, and Greece).

The project was designed to meet the requirements for ALTE A1 standards in order to produce a reliable and efficient ICT-based environment that can be certified and accredited in the future in many European countries without serious concerns on the credibility issues.

A second language e-Learning portal in the ODL format, addressing the European prison staff, was developed and delivered to meet the language needs of the target.

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The main objectives of the project included promoting Education of guards and other penitentiary authorities within a perspective of lifelong learning; creating an environment conducive to mutual understanding and learning; improving understanding of the difficulties and cultural backgrounds of foreign prisoners so as to prevent prejudiced attitudes from arising; improving the communication within prisons by helping to prevent prejudice and intolerance; and improving services such as consultation, guidance, and health service provided to prisoners.

The choice of an e-learning environment as the main delivery method provided innovative ICT-based content, pedagogy, and service as a lifelong learning opportunity.

Considering the limitations based on the nature of the profession, flexibility and accessibility provided by ODL could be essential to create effective and efficient learning environments suitable for such target populations. (Barkan, M., et. Al., 2011).

When we browse for prisoners in Turkey, who are still registered in different Anadolu University Distance Education programmes and attending to their higher education we meet with some interesting map. When we back to last three-year records we will see that number of prisoner is slightly increasing around 10-11% yearly, such as:

Table 1: Number of the Prisoner Students Who Have Taken June Term Final in Between 2012-2015 Academic Year, Number of the Exam Halls and Increasing Percentage Academic Year June Term Final Numbers of The Prisoner Increasing Numbers of Increasing Exams Students Who Have Percentage Exam Hall Percentage Taken June Term Final of Prisoner of Exam Exams Hall 2012-10213 Academic Year June Term Final Exams 1777 - 103 - 2013-10214 Academic Year June Term Final Exams 1962 10.4% 133 29.1% 2014-10215 Academic Year June Term Final Exams 2196 11.9% 163 22.5%

Source: BAUM. (2015). Anadolu University Computer Research and Application Center, Data obtained by BAUM on 23-24 October, Eskisehir Turkey.

When we look to this table from point of gender distribution in 2014-2015 academic year, table 1. Shows us that prisoner men are five times more than women prisoner.

Table 2: Distribution number of the prisoners according to gender in 2014-2015 academic years Gender Number of the prisoner Total Man 2089 2196 Woman 107

Source: BAUM. (2015). Anadolu University Computer Reseach and Application Center, Data obtained by BAUM on 23-24 October, Eskisehir Turkey.

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Table 3: Distribution numbers of the prisoner according to degree level in 2014-2015 academic year Degree Level Total University degree 1260 Associate degree 936 Total 2196

Distribution number of the prisoners according to degree level in 2014-2015 academic year Anadolu’s prisoner students are mostly come from four-year University degree student.

Table 4: Numbers of the prisoner, according to the regional distribution in 2014-2015 academic years

Region Women Man Total Akdeniz (Mediterranean Region) 10 226 236 Doğu Anadolu (East Anadolu Region) 5 153 158 Ege Region (Aegean Region) 12 225 237 Güneydoğu Anadolu (Southeastern Anadolu) 6 179 185 İç Anadolu (Central Anadolu Region) 25 306 331 Karadeniz Region (Black Sea Region) 13 369 382 Marmara Region (Marmara Region) 36 631 667 Grand Total 107 2089 2196

Associate degree students are around 1000 when bachelors 1260. Turkey has 7 regions geographically. Mostly these regions show differences according to the some criteria such as education level economic level, industrial differences, climate, customs etc.

Table 5: Distribution number of the prisoners according to their attending and registered programme and in 2014-2015 academic years in the context of woman and man Title of Programmes Woman Man Total Justice (Jurisprudence) 9 165 1 74 Banking and Insurance - 21 21 Office Management and Executive Assistant Training 3 13 16 Call Center Services - 2 2 Labor Economics and Industrial Relations - 29 29 Foreign Trade 2 20 22 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution - 19 19 Real Estate and Real Estate Management 2 44 46 Home Management - 4 4 Philosophy 1 27 28 Pho Photography and Camera Operation - 10 10 Public Relations and Advertising - 1 1 Public Relations and Publicity 2 53 55 Economy 2 52 54 Theology 7 165 172 Human Resources Management 1 3 4 Business 10 302 312 Business Management - 21 21 Gendarmerie Professional Training - 1 1 Public Administration 11 233 244 70 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

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Army Professional Training - 1 1 Accommodation Business Administration 2 61 63 Cultural Heritage and Tourism - 3 3 Laboratory Assistants And Veterinary Laboratory 2 56 58 Logistics 1 19 20 Finance 3 32 35 Brand Communication 1 6 7 Media Communication 3 12 15 Accounting and Taxation Applications - 11 11 Early Childhood Teacher Training 1 - 1 Private Protection and Security - 1 1 Retailing and Store Management - 6 6 Police Professional Training - 2 2 Radio and Television Program Production 3 17 20 Management of Health Institutions 6 48 54 Health Management - 1 1 Social Sciences 1 5 6 Social Services 7 40 47 Sociology 13 229 242 Sport Management 3 33 36 Agriculture - 31 31 History - 55 55 Tourism and Hotel Management - 24 24 Tourism and Travel Services - 3 3 Turkish Language and Literature 3 33 36

International Relationships 8 150 158 International Trade and Logistic Management - 1 1

Local Governments - 24 24

Grand Total 107 2089 2196

Source: BAUM. (2015). Anadolu University Computer Research and Application Center, Data obtained by BAUM on 23-24 October, Eskisehir Turkey.

When we try to closer looking to the Numbers of the prisoner, according to the regional distribution in 2014- 2015 academic year, the table says us that Marmara Region has higher number prisoner as total and according to the gender (36 women, 631 men Totally 667 prisoners) than the regions. One of the reasons should be that Istanbul (the biggest city of Turkey placed in Marmara Region, even Bursa City too). Secondly women are a bit more in Central Anadolu Region and men are in Black Sea Region.

Distribution number of the prisoners according to their attending and registered programme and in 2014-2015 academic year in the context of woman and man shown in the table 5.

Anadolu’s prisoner students are mostly come from Business programme and Human Resources Management programme as women and man.

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Than in the second rank Sociology and in the third rank in International Trade and Logistic Management programme than theology and International Relationships programmes are coming.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS

Dr. DEMIRAY is Professor Faculty of Communication Sciences now and teaching in the School of Communication Sciences of Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey. He holds Undergraduate B.A. in 1981. And also Ph.D. degree completed at Anadolu University, in May 1986. His researches are dealt with distance education application of Anadolu University, Ministry of Education and by other universities in Turkey. His researches on Communicational gaps of distance education students with their institution, also interest also lies towards the profile of DE students, and relationship of graduates and job market in Turkey. He is also interested about changing of ethical behaviors around the world by inserting technological developments to the educational field especially Distance education applications on marketing of distance education programmes and e-learning. In addition, his studies are focused on Distance Education field and scholarly online journalism especially on DE.

He has an extensive experience publishing e-journal on distance education internationally under the patronage Anadolu University since 15 years (2000-2015), named, TOJDE-Turkish Online Journal for Distance Education. TOJDE is a peer-reviewed quarterly e-journal. He is also an editor, consultant editor, reviewer for more than 15 international journals which are deal with distance education and educational technology. In addition, he has responsibilities on advisory boards and as referee for conferences, symposiums, and panels. He has co- authored and individually contributed chapters in some Turkish and international books. Up to now he has around 15 imprint or eBooks dealt with distance education and many articles, which has been published national and international journals. He is now Editor-in-Chief of GLOKALde which is official eJournal of UDEEEWANA creation. Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY Anadolu University Faculty of Communication Sciences Yunusemre Campus 26470-Eskisehir - TURKEY E. Mail(s): [email protected] or [email protected] URL: http://www.ugur-demiray.com URL: http://www.midasebook.com URL: http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr URL: http://www.udeeewana.org URL:http://www.glokalde.com

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Prof. Dr Sezen UNLU was born in Eskisehir. She completed her primary and middle school education in Eskisehir up to junior high school. She attended her junior and high school in Ohio, USA, than and she graduated from Clinic Psychology Department of the OHİO State University. Unlü is now Professor Faculty of Communication Sciences and teaching social psychology, project management courses in the School of Communication Sciences of Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey. She interested in with some EU Projects and recently conducted and completed project on “Violence on Women”. In addition she is interesting deal with handicapped distance learner students. Prof. Dr. Sezen UNLU Anadolu Üniversity Faculty of Communication Sciences 26470, Yunusemre Campus, Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Serap SUGUR is graduated from Ankara University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Sociology in 1988. She completed her Masters’s and PhD degrees in Sociology at the University of Bristol in 1992 and 1997.

Serap Sugur has various publications on middle class, urban poverty, working poor and women in Turkey.

Prof. Dr. Serap SUGUR Anadolu University, Faculty of Literature Department of Sociology, 26470 Yunusemre Campus, Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Incilay CANGOZ graduated from Anadolu University, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Department of Journalism in 1992. She completed her Masters’s and PhD degrees in Communication Studies at the Anadolu University.

Incilay Cangoz has various publications on power, ideology and mass media, urban poverty and consumption of mass media, gender studies and media in Turkey.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Incilay CANGOZ Anadolu Üniversity Faculty of Communication Sciences 26470, Yunus Emre Kampüsü, Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Dr. E. Pinar UCA GUNES works at Open Education Faculty in Anadolu University. She received her Ph.D. in Distance Education from Anadolu University, in 2014. She is interested in Distance Education Management, Distance Education Programs, Social Network Approaches, e-learning, Adult Learning, Lifelong Learning.

Assist. Prof. Dr. E. Pinar UCA GUNES Anadolu University Open Education Faculty, Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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REFERENCES

Akbulut, Y. (2008). Exploration of the attitudes of freshman foreign language students toward using computers at a Turkish state university. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 7(1), 18-31.

Barkan, M., Toprak, E. Kumtepe, T. A., Kumtepe, G. E., Ataizi, M., Pilanci, H., Mutlu, E. M., Kayabas, I. & Kayabas, K. B. (2011). Eliminating language barriers online at European prisons (ELBEP): A Case Study, Educational Media International, 48:3, 235-248, DOI: 10.1080/09523987.2011.615160, Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information, http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/remi20 retrieved on 20.10.2015

BAUM. (2015). Anadolu University Computer Research and Application Center, Data obtained by BAUM on 23- 24 October, Eskisehir Turkey.

Gunes, C. & Kumtepe, G. E. (2011). Distance Science Learning Challenges and Experiences, International Conference The Future of Education, In “The Future of Education Conference Proceedings 2011”, ISBN: 978-88- 7647-648-8) by the Italian publisher Simonelli Editore.

Hawley, J., Murphy, I. & Souto-Otero, M. (2013). Prison Education And Training In Europe Current State-of-Play and Challenges, report has been prepared for the European Commission by GHK Consulting in May.

Turkey is run to Recor score in the numbers of prisoners and Detainees, retrieved on 29.10.2015 and also available from http://zete.com/turkiye-tutuklu-ve-hukumlu-sayisinda-rekora-kosuyor

Kaya, Z. (2002). Uzaktan Eğitim [Distance education], Pegem A Yayıncılık ,ISBN 975-6802-82-0, Ankara, Turkey.

Kaya, Z. (2005). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Geliştirme [Teaching Technologies and Material Development], Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. ISBN 975-8792-59-8, Ankara, Turkey.

Linardatou, C. & Manousou, E. (2015). The Role of Open And Distance Higher Education In Detainees In Greek Detention Facilities, European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, ISSN 1027-5207, Vol. 18/ No. 11.

Lionarakis, A. (2010). Open Universities and Distance Universities in Europe. Two different educational outlooks in search of identity. Retrieved 6.9.2015, please visit for details, available from http://www.edu4adults.blogspot.hu

Ozdemir, S. The e-Learning The Puzzle in Turkey: Deja Vu”, in Bolanle A. O. (2010). Cases on Successful E- Learning Practices in the Developed and Developing World: Methods for the Global Information Economy: Methods for the Global Information Economy, IGI Global, USA.

Pike, A. (2010). Building bridges across the digital divide for HE students in prison. COLMSCT Final Report. The Open University. Retrieved 27.10.2015, please visit for detail, available from http://www.open.ac.uk/opencetl/resources/colmsct-resources/pike-2010-colmsct-final-report- %E2%80%98building-bridges-across-the-digital-divide-he-students-prison%E2%80%99

T.C. Adalet Bakanliği Ceza ve Tevkifevleri Genel Müdürlüğü, 27 / 07 /2007 Tarih ve B.03.0.CTE.0.00.09.00 / 010.06.02/ 12 Sayılı Genelge [T. C. Ministry of Justice General Directorate of Prisons and Detention Centers, dated 12 27/07/2007 with B.03.0.CTE.0.00.09.00 / 010.06.02 Issue:]

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Wilson, A. (2010). Goodwill and Good fortune: Obstacles and opportunities for level 2 learners in local jails. A report to the Prisoners Education Trust. Retrieved on 14.10.2015, please visit for detail from the website: http://www.prisonerseducation.org.uk/resources/goodwill-and-good-fortune-obstacles-and-opportunities-of- level-2-learners-in-local-jails

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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY STUDIES OF RECOGNIZING AND COMPREHENDING EMOTIONS TEST

Assist. Prof. Dr. Elif ÜNAL BOZCAN Cyprus International University Nicosia-TRNC

Prof. Dr. Müfit KÖMLEKSIZ European University of Lefke Lefke - TRNC ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this study is to reveal the results of validity and reliability tests of Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test designed to make assessment on the 6-year-old (60 to 72 months) children in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. In the study, samples comprise of a total of 108 children, of which, 49 are girls and 59 are boys. Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test is a test consisting of two part; the “Recognizing Emotions” part and the “Comprehending Emotions” part. In order to assess the construct validity of these tests, a “Principal Component Analysis” using the varimax rotation was preferred during exploratory factor analysis. As a result of factor analysis of “Recognizing Emotions” and “Comprehending Emotions” tests, five-factor structures were obtained. These structures were confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. Recognizing Emotions test included ten photographs consisting of facial expressions of anger, fear, bewilderment, shame, and disgust; and in Comprehending Emotions test, ten items pertaining to everyday emotional states children may encounter, such as happiness, sadness, anger, bewilderment and shame were present. For reliability, KR-20 internal consistency coefficients are calculated. Data from the analysis provided evidence to the fact that Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test is a valid and reliable test.

Keywords: Emotional Skill, Recognizing Emotions, Comprehending Emotions.

INTRODUCTION

The age of 0-6 years referred to as the early childhood years is a phase during which children grow fast and are affected the most by their environment. Children encounter many emotions during this period. The very initial experiencing of emotions occurs between the mother and the infant. At the month, while children respond positively to familiar faces, unfamiliar faces bring about the response of crying. The infant responds especially in accordance with the mother’s expressions of happiness and unhappiness. Between the ninth and the thirteenth months, babies respond to the emotions of anger and crying. Babies manage to respond accordingly with the emotional expressions (joy, fear or anger) of the mother (Pehlivantürk, 2004). Starting at age two, children start mimicking adults and discovering many new situations and experiencing diverse emotional responses. Children experiencing emotional processes such as feeling oppositional defiance, anger, shame start developing socially appropriate responses to such feelings. Around three years of age, children get a chance to experience and recognize many emotions through social game playing (Durualp and Aral, 2011). Fogel and Melson (1988) state that at the age of three, children start experiencing basic emotions such as pleasure, interest, excitement, fear, sadness, shame and rage. Around the ages of four to six, such emotions turn into more conscious responses. During this phase, children experience positive and negative emotions naturally (Özgören, 2011). In addition, children observe adults in controlling their emotions and they learn to manage their own emotions during these years (Berk, 2013).

By considering factors supporting emotional skills during preschool years, it is observed that certain factors take prominence over others. It is emphasized that activities designed to improve the understanding and organization of emotional skills by using active educational methods applied by teachers improve emotional comprehension of children by supporting the development of emotional skills (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, 76 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

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Taylor & Schellinger, 2011; Min-Ju-Tsai, 2008; Payton, Weissberg, Durlak, Dymnick, Taylor, Schellinger & Pachan, 2008; Quinn, Kavale, Mathur, Rutherford & Forness, 1999; Rispoli, 2011). Furthermore, it is possible to state that children receiving preschool education are at an advantageous position in managing emotions in comparison to those who do not receive preschool education; in other words, emotional development, school maturity supports (Yazıcı, 2002). Studies have been carried out that imply the importance of interplay between the child and their teacher, parents, siblings and peers in the development of emotional skills (Denham, 2006, as cited in Morris, 2010; Milonnet, 2008). At the same time, in the studies that assess the influence of the teacher on the issue, it has been emphasized that the positive attributes of a qualified teacher are reflected on the lifelong management of a child of emotional skills (Ahn, 2005; Morris, 2010).

In the studies on the effects of intelligence, genetic disposition and social environment, along with personal traits and close environmental influences, it has been emphasized that socio-emotional and cognitive support are positive influences on children’s perception of self, self-assurance, their level of readiness and socio- emotional conformity (Çataloluk, 1994; Davaslıgil, 1985; Oktay, 1983; Turaşlı, 2006). Within this context, it is possible to claim that, during the preschool phase which are the most important years of life, behavioral patterns acquired by the child play a big role in shaping the rest of the life of the individual.

In Davis (2004), it is stated that the inability to recognize and differentiate between emotions affects all the other skills. In this sense, the work that is put forward in recognizing and comprehending emotions carries a high importance within the context of developing emotional skills.

When preschool programs that are about to start to be recently developed are considered as prerequisites of formal school programs (Gormley, Phillips, Newmark & Perper, 2009), the dire need for tests and scales that will be used in developing children’s emotional skills can easily be seen. Within this framework, tests that are developed and applicable are available within Turkish culture. These tests include Marmara Development Inventory (Güven Metin, 1999); The Emotional Intelligence Scale for Children (by Sullivan) (Ulutaş, 2005); The preschool version of the Social Skills Rating System (Elibol Gültekin, 2008); Test of Emotional Facial Expression Identification”(Balcı Akpınar, 2010); happy, sad, angry and suprised facial expressions developed by Cüceloğlu (Çelik, Tuğrul & Yalçın, 2002), The Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Scale-30 (SCBE-30) (Çorapçı, Aksan, Arslan-Yalçın & Yağmurlu, 2010), Social Skills Scale Developed by Acun Kapıkıran et al, (Durualp & Aral, 2011), and validity-reliability of Vineland Social-Emotional Early Childhood Scale (VSEECS) (Ceylan, 2009).

Another example of these tests is the Assessment of 6-year-olds’ Emotional Skills Test, is developed by Shultz and Izard (1998) and is adapted and tested for validity and reliability by Saltalı et al. As a result of the validity and reliability tests conducted in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) (Ünal Bozcan & Kömleksiz, 2014), the test designed to scale the four basic emotions (happy, sad, angry and scared) had insufficient psychometric properties. There upon, the researchers, Fogel and Melson (1988), Dökmen (2002), Min-Ju Tsai, (2008), Schultz, Izzard, Stapleton, Buckingham and Bear (2009) emphasized the basic seven emotions that helped to develop the scale for “Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test” (DUTAT) and thus, the validity and reliability tests were conducted in TRNC. Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test (DUTAT) was planned as a two-dimensional test including “Recognizing Emotions” and “Comprehending Emotions” components. Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test aims to scale the emotional development of 6- year-old (60-70 months) children.

METHODOLOGY

Data Source and Sample The main purpose of this study is to conduct validity and reliability tests for Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test byusing TRNC samples. In this respect, the study utilizes a descriptive survey method. Samples were gathered from the preschools over seen by the Ministry of National Education (MONE) of the TRNC, 7 of which are located in the province of Nicosia and 1 in Famagusta, 2 were from a course and some examples were gathered among 6 years old from playgrounds where children of various ages were present. 72 (25 girls and 47 boys) were from 8 preschools; 17 (11 girls and 6 boys) were from 2 different courses and 19 were from

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playgrounds (13 girls and 6 boys). In total, 108 children (49 girls and 59 boys) took part in this study. All necessary permissions were taken from the families and from the MONE of the TRNC in order to carry out this study.

Instruments It is planned that the measuring tool will comprise of two separate tests; “Recognizing Emotions” and “Comprehending Emotions”. The developmental phases of these tests are described below.

Recognizing Emotions Test: The first step of development of this test, similar to what Schultz and Izard (1998) had decided in their study, was to take photographs of faces of the children with emotional expressions. In order to accomplish this, researchers put the children on a 12-week program of “Drama Supported Emotional Skill Development Activities”that consisted of 36 activities of one of the preschool class to take part in these activities. It is assumed that the children in this trial application group had awareness of how their emotions are reflected as facial expressions.

An informative letter was sent to parents and permissions were taken to photograph the facial expressions of the children. A permission document with the same request was acquired from the MONE of the TRNC. 18 out of the 22 parents agreed to allow photographing of their children. 9 girls and 9 boys were photographed for the study.

As a result of the work done with these children, photographs of the seven emotions were taken. In an attempt to evoke the target emotion and create the expression on the faces of children, they were given a set of questions and cues. In order to accomplish this, children in the application were reminded of particular exercises. With the guidance of two professors of Fine Arts and Graphics Design and two professional theater actors, it was decided to dress children in grey and photograph them against a white backdrop so as to attract attention only on the facial expressions.

Afterwards, photographs were studied one by one and photos were designated to be forwarded to experts. As a result, 91 photos depicting 7 emotions were assessed by a total of 8 experts; 2 in the field of Fine Arts and Graphics Design, and 6 in the field of preschool education; and their feedback were received. Experts were asked to rate photos from 1 to 5, 1 representing the meaning of very bad and 5 representing the meaning of very good. As a result of these assessments, it has been decided that the expression of girls depicting “disgust” were not sufficient. A 6-year-old child whose mother is a professor suggested to do a session with her daughter where the researchers were able to choose 2 out of 32 photos with well-depicted expressions of disgust on the face of the girl. Finally, a total of 20 photos were selected to be included in the study and the structure of the test was finalized. However, on the first day of the test, it was observed that the children were having a hard time recognizing “fear” on the photos. 4 more photos depicting “fear” from the set that were sent to the experts were added to the test and a trial form consisting of 24 photos was prepared again.

Comprehending Emotions Test: Literature was scanned and tests pertaining to the study were examined for the test. A preliminary form consisting of 7 emotions with 32 items was drafted. As a result of the assessment and feedback from 6 preschool experts, the number of items was reduced to 21. In the assessments, the experts were asked to comment on the appropriateness of each item for 6-year-old preschoolers. Nevertheless, on the very first day of study, it was observed that the majority of children were having difficulty in comprehending items pertaining to “fear” and “anger”. As a result of this, short interviews were held with the children where they were asked questions. The questions included the following examples: what angers you the most? Who do you get angry at? How do you behave when you get angry? What are you afraid of? What do you do when you are afraid? The answers of the children were written down and necessary adjustments were made on the form. Additionally, a new item pertaining to “anger” was edited and added to the form. The final version of the test included 22 items.

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Data Collection Applications were completed in 6 weeks at the preschools, the courses and the playgrounds. Application took place at a quiet place where the researcher and each child were alone and worked together for 15-20 minutes. Preschools and courses provided an appropriate space for the researcher to work in. At playgrounds, researcher sought a suitable spot within the park or in a quiet corner nearby. When it was observed that the child no longer seemed to be engaged, the researcher took a break and chit chatted with the child on other topics. During the application, the researcher kept his attitude and voice neutral. The researcher made sure to exhibit neutrality in eye contact, emphasis and tonality.

Data Analysis Correct answers were attributed a value of “1” and incorrect or blank answers were attributed a value of “0” in Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test. Data were processed with SPSS 16.0 program.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis has been made to construct validity. The exploratory factor analysis has been made with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) because confirmatory factor analysis, which is the most conservative method of testing factor and item fit indices is used to test validity of the measurement model and Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) was not necessary. On the other hand as the measuring model Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) of which the factors consists of maximum 2 items is sensitive to material variances its results would be misleading (Ho, 2006). Varimax rotation is used in exploratory factor analysis. By assessing the factor loading of a factor an item is in and by observing other factor loadings of other factors, it was made sure that at least a difference of .20 exists between factor loadings.

Within the context of subtest item, item-test correlations, item mean and standard deviations are calculated. For reliability, KR-20 reliability coefficients are computed.

FINDINGS

Findings of this study can be found below under the subheadings “Recognizing Emotions Test” and “Comprehending Emotions Test”.

Recognizing Emotions Test A factor analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PAC) method using varimax rotation, was applied to the items of “Recognizing Emotions Test” (24 items). As a result of this analysis regarding the “Recognizing Emotions Test”,five factors with Eigen values of 2.07, 1.65, 1.40, 1.29, 1.11 and portions of variance explained of 20.74, 16.57, 14.08, 12.98, 11.13 were obtained (Table 1). These five factors explain 75.52% of the total variance. These factors are labeled as “bewilderment, anger, disgust, shame, fear” sequentially as they relate to emotions. Items regarding the recognition of the emotions of happiness and sadness did not come together during factor analysis.

The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin “Measure of Sampling Adequacy” shows compatibility with a rate (.45) below average with regard to the Recognizing Emotions Test. The chi-square (χ2=.217.448, p=0.0001) value obtained with the Bartlett test was found to be meaningful. As seen in Table 1, the communality value of items was over .60. The factor loading of the items varied between .78 and .92. When subtest item correlation coefficients were observed, correlation coefficients varied between .75 and .92; item-test correlation coefficient varied between .20 and .58. The KR-20reliability coefficient for factors were .83 for (bewilderment), .73 for (anger),.62 for (disgust), .56 for (shame), and .45 for (fear).

The results of fix index values obtained in confirmatory factor analysis of Recognizing Emotions Test are shown on Table 3. Path diagram with 5 factors of Recognizing Emotions Test is shown on Table 2.

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Table 1: Item Factor Loadings of Recognizing Emotions Test, Eigenvalues, Proportion of Variance Explained, Item Subtest, Item-Test Correlations, Mean and Standard Deviation Values Subtest Item Subtests and Commu- Factor Loadings Item Test Items nalities r r M SD 1. Bewilderment (KR-20 = .82) .8 M5 7 92 .91 .32 91 27 .8 M6 6 90 10 16 .92 .48 90 28 2. Anger

(KR-20 = .73) .8 M1 0 89 .88 .17 95 21 .7 M2 7 87 .88 .28 95 21 3. Disgust

(KR-20 = .62) .7 M9 8 .12 85 17 .83 .51 67 46 .7 M10 2 16 83 .85 .56 47 49 4. Shame

(KR-20 = .56) .7 M7 3 18 83 .78 .49 87 32 .6 M8 7 81 .87 .45 76 42 5. Fear (KR-20 = .45) .6 M3 7 81 .81 .42 61 48 .6 M4 3 78 .78 .37 71 45 Eigenvalue 1.11 2.07 1.65 1.40 1.29 Proportion of Variance 2 1 1 12.9 11.1 Explained 0.74 6.57 4.08 8 3

Table 2: The Path Diagram of 5 Factor Model of Recognizing Emotions Test

*F1: Anger; F2: Fear; F3: Bewilderment; F4: Shame; F5: Disgust

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However, Çokluk, Şekercioğlu and Büyüköztürk (2010, 377) indicate that this ratio must be below 3.In accordance with this, it can be said that the compatibility is perfect. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)< .06 = good fit. According to this, it can be claimed that harmony is perfect. Moreover,GFI (.97) and AGFI (.92) are seen to have a good compatibility. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR < .06 = good fit; and comparative fit index (CFI ≥ .90 = adequate fit. According to these values (SRMR=0.55 and CFI=1.00) are said to have a good compatibility. In accordance with these data, it can be said that the constructed mode has been verified.

Table 3: Recognizing Emotions Test Model Fit Index χ2 Df χ2/df GFI AGFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 19.995 25 0.800 .97 .92 1.00 .000 .055

Comprehending Emotions Test Factor analysis has been carried out for the items pertaining to “Comprehending Emotions Test” (22 items) by using Principal Component Analysis method and a varimax rotation. As results of such analysis, five factors with Eigen values for “Comprehending Emotions Test” of 2.02, 1.67, 1.60, 1.29, 1.09 and portions of explained variance of %20.20, %16.76, %16.04, %12.96, %10.91, were obtained (Table 4). The five factors explain 76.89% of the total variance. These factors are labeled as “happiness, sadness, anger, bewilderment and shame” sequentially as they relate to emotions. Items regarding there cognition of the emotions of disgust and fear did not come together during factor analysis.

Table 4: Item Factor Loadings of Comprehending Emotions Test, Eigenvalues, Proportion of Variation Explained, Item Subtest, Item-Test, Mean and Standard Deviation Values Item Item

Subtests and Items Commu- Factor Loadings Subtest Test

nialities r r M SD 1. Happiness (KR-20 = .79) M1 ,85 ,92 .88 .08 .99 .09 M2 ,85 ,92 .94 .06 .98 .13 2. Sadness

(KR-20 = .66) M3 ,79 ,88 .81 .24 .99 .09 M4 ,76 ,86 .93 .14 .97 .16 3. Anger

(KR-20 = .68) M5 ,82 -,14 ,89 .89 .54 .75 .42 M10 ,78 ,19 ,83 ,11 ,21 .84 .69 .84 .36

4. Bewilderment

(KR-20 = .58) M6 ,76 -,14 ,85 .84 .48 .84 .36 M7 ,73 ,21 ,14 ,81 .82 .57 .86 .34 5. Shame (KR-20 = .48)

M8 ,65 ,80 .78 .42 .91 .27 M9 ,66 ,13 ,79 .83 .47 .88 .31 Eigenvalue 2.02 1.67 1.60 1.29 1.09 Proportion of Variance Explained 20.20 16.76 16.04 12.96 10.91

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin “Measure of Sampling Adequacy” shows compatibility with a mean of .51with regard to the Comprehending Emotions Test. The chi-square (χ2= 211.881, p=0.0001) value obtained by the Bartlett test was found to be meaningful. As seen on Table 4, the communality value of items is over .60. When factor loadings of the factors are observed, factor loadings range between .79 and .92. When item-subtest correlation coefficients are observed, it is seen that correlation coefficients vary between .58 and 1.00 and the

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item-test correlation coefficients vary between .11 and .59. The KR-20 reliability coefficient for factors are sequentially listed as follows .79 (happiness), .66 (sadness), .68 (anger), .58 (bewilderment), and .48 (shame).

The values of fit index observed as a result of confirmatory factor analysis of the Comprehending Emotions Test are shown on Table 6. The path diagram of 5 factors of the Comprehending Emotions Test is shown on Table 5.

Table 5: The Path Diagram of 5 Factor Model of Comprehending Emotions Test*

*F1: Happiness; F2: Sadness; F3: Anger; F4: Bewilderment; F5: Shame

When the results of Table 6 are examined, it is found that χ2 =8.587, df=25. When referring to Table 4, it is seen that χ2/df rate is 0.343. It can be said that the fit is perfect because the rate is below 3. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is 0.000. It can be said that the fit is perfect because the rate is below .05. Furthermore, GFI (.98) and AGFI (.97) are seen to have good compatibility. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) < .06 = good fit; and comparative fit index (CFI) ≥ .90 = adequate fit. According to these values, (SRMR=0.44 and CFI=1.00) are said to have good compatibility. In accordance with these data, it can be said that the constructed model has been verified.

Table 6: Comprehending Emotions Test Model Fit Index χ2 Df χ2/fd GFI AGFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 8.587 25 0.343 .98 .97 1 .000 .044

DISCUSSION

In this study, researchers conducted the Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test to assess the validity and reliability of the TRNC samples. As a result of exploratory factor analysis, five-factor structures were formed from Recognizing Emotions Test and Comprehending Emotions Test. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis, which has been set for both tests with 5-factored model show that they are verified.

Emotions within the framework of relating to factors in Recognizing Emotions Test were given labels such as “bewilderment, anger, disgust, shame, fear”. Items regarding the recognition of emotions of happiness and sadness did not come together. One of the probable reasons for this may be that happiness and sadness are the fundamental emotions rendering it very probable for children to identify. As defined by Izard in his 1993 study titled “Differential Emotions Theory (DET)”, emotions of interest, joy or happiness, rage, sadness, fear 82 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249

and disgust start developing within the first years of life (Schultz et al., 2009). Studies on reflecting and perceiving emotions show that even babies identify emotions from facial expressions (Russel & Bullock, 1986). According to the results of another study, 3 to 4 days old babies are able to identify the persons they have seen two minutes earlier (Pascalis & de Schonen, 1994). Furthermore, 2 days old babies can identify faces and facial mimicry expressing happiness, sadness and bewilderment (Field, Woodson, Greenberg & Cohen, 1982, as cited in, De Haan, Belsky, Reid, Volein & Johnson, 2004).Fogel and Melson (1988) state that children start experiencing fundamental emotions such as happiness, anger, sadness and fear around the age of 3. Four fundamental emotions which are happiness, anger, sadness and fear attract the attention of researchers and all of these emotions are observed in babies during the first year after birth (Berk, 2013).

Factors of Comprehending Emotions Test attributed the labels “happiness, sadness, anger, bewilderment and shame” as they relate to emotions. Items pertaining to the recognition of the emotions of disgust and fear did not come together during factor analysis. It is possible that the probable reason for this is that the hypothetical situations in the test were not adapted well to the level of 6-year-olds. When the assessment is done from a different perspective, it is known that the skills of children of accurate verbal labeling of emotional expressions keep developing until their early teens. Although the children aged 3 and 4 know and use labels defining emotions of fear, bewilderment, and disgust, they use labels defining the expression of emotions of happiness, sadness and anger more often. The use of the word defining the emotion of “disgust” extends to the 9th year (Gros & Ballif, 1991; Vicari et al., 2000; Widen & Russell, 2003; Widen & Russell, 2010, as cited in, Rosenqvist, Lahti-Nuuttila, Laasonen, & Korkman, 2014). In this sense, expressing the emotions of fear and disgust as part of the natural progression of development of the children may be delayed.

In a study conducted by Widen and Russell (2003), 80 (40 boys and 40 girls) children between the ages of 4 and 6 were given stories in order to evoke certain emotions in them. It was observed that out of the five emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust), the smallest margin of error was in recognizing the emotions of “happiness” and “anger” and the largest margin of error was in recognizing the emotions of “fear” and “disgust”. In light of these findings, it is possible to declare that recognizing the emotions of fear and disgust in different situations is a natural part of the development of children.

Furthermore, it is possible to pose that the social and emotional milieu of the TRNC affects the test results. As per the observations, the over protectiveness of parents in the TRNC and the way they keep their children away from challenging situations and environments requires attention. It is meaningful that mothers get support from their own mothers and that grandmothers to have a strong say in raising and educating their children. Leaving the initiative of decision-making raising and educating their children to their own mothers, the traditional sentiment of grandmothers who want to give their grandchildren what they could not provide for their own children is generally reflected in their approach towards the decisions pertaining to their grandchildren. It is possible to deduce from this that because children are given everything they ask for and because they are isolated, kept away from challenging social environments, children are unable to experience the emotions of fear and disgust. It is acknowledged that this understanding is passed on from one generation to the other. Thus, first emotions are experienced between child and mother (Pehlivantürk, 2004). The emotional reactions of the mother are especially of utmost importance and meaning to the child (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2003). In this sense, in the TRNC, the way adults, especially parents, experience their emotions and reflect them may hold great importance in the emotional and social development of children.

Also, as TRNC does not have an active and cosmopolitan social life, and because it lacks the neighborhood/street culture (playing with friends on the street may enrich social and emotional life) may mean children lack the opportunity of experiencing different lifestyles.

For “Recognizing Emotions” and “Comprehending Emotions” tests, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin “Measure of Sampling Adequacy” value is observed to be slightly lower than the average at .45 for “Recognizing Emotions”, and .51 for “Comprehending Emotions” test, which is a level of average compatibility. It can be said that, in order to increase the value of the measures of sampling adequacy in future studies, there seems to be a need for preliminary research to enable such adequacy. At the same time, the results of the Bartlett “Sphericity”

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test for both tests appear to be at a sufficient level of .0001. Within the framework of this, it can be said that the “test size” seems to be sufficient.

Upon reviewing the item subtest correlations of“Recognizing Emotions” and “Comprehending Emotions” tests, it has become evident that such correlation values are significantly high. As these values are also interpreted as the item validity coefficients, it can be declared that the item is of significance in the subtest and is qualified to measure the emotions in the subtest. Nevertheless, when item-test correlations are reviewed, items in the subtests “Recognizing the Emotion of Anger” and “Comprehending the Emotion of Happiness and Sadness” seem to have low item subtest correlations. However, considering the two tests actually measure different emotions and it can be safely said that acquiring a total point holds little to no meaning within this context.

Upon reviewing the KR-20 reliability coefficients, it has been observed that the values differ between .45 and .82. During the application, it became clear that children experienced difficulty in recognizing the emotion of fear and had a tendency to confuse it with bewilderment. Upon the discovery of such, 4 newly selected photos by experts were added to the test. This may have affected the validity and reliability results of recognizing the emotion of fear subtest.

Implications In general, given assessments have been conducted with great care and attention and it can be said that the psychometric qualities of Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test are sufficient. Performing the Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test again with a new set of samples and conducting new studies on the emotions that are not coming together in factor analysis might be important contributors to the previous studies in the field that aim to develop tests/scales.

In addition, these studies may also contribute to the emergence of the intercultural differences in terms of the development of emotions.

For example, items related to the recognition of the feelings of happiness and sadness did not come together as a result of factor analysis. One of the reasons why the factors related to these feelings did not appear can be considered as the incompetence of children under 6 years to recognize these feelings. The extent of the validity of this situation on each culture can be demonstrated by this type of scales to be developed.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Elif ÜNAL BOZCAN is a fulltime Assist. Prof. Dr. in the Faculty of Education, Department of Preschool Education at Cyprus International University, Nicosia, TRNC. She has been teaching; Guidance in preschool education, drama in education, educational psychology. Her research interests are emotional skill, recognizing emotions, comprehending emotions, drama in education and educational technology.

Assist. Prof.Dr. Elif ÜNAL BOZCAN Cyprus International University, Faculty of Education, Department of Preschool Education Nicosia-TRNC E. Mail: [email protected]

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249

Müfit KÖMLEKSIZ currently employed as a Prof. Dr. at European University of Lefke, Department of Classroom Teaching. He has completed his PhD. in the field of Curriculum Development. He is scholarly interested in cooperative learning, ability grouping, democracy and education.

Prof. Dr. Müfit KÖMLEKSIZ European University of Lefke Gemikonagi, Lefke - TRNC E. Mail: [email protected]

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Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2003). A closer look at preschoolers' freely produced labels for facial expressions. Developmental psychology, 39(1), 114.

Yazıcı, Z.(2002) Okul öncesi eğitimin okul olgunluğu üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 155 - 156, 17-23.

Appendix

Recognizing and Comprehending Emotions Test Recognizing Emotions Test

Instructions: Emotions are an integral part of our life. We experience many emotions in our everyday life. For example; we feel fear, bewilderment, anger or shame. Sometimes we also experience such things that we feel disgust/loathing. Below are the photographs of some facial expressions. As far as you are concerned, which one shows the emotions offear, bewilderment, anger, shame and disgust?

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249

M1, M2 (ANGER)= 4. and 10. photos; M3, M4 (FEAR)= 1. and 8. photos; M5, M6 (BEWILDERMENT)= 2. and 6. photos; M7, M8 (SHAME)= 5. and 7. photos; M9, M10 (DISGUST)= 3. and 9. Photos.

Comprehending Emotions Test

Instructions: Emotions are an integral part of our life. We experience many emotions in everyday life. For example, we feel happiness, sadness, shame and bewilderment. Sometimes, we experience such things that we get very angry. Below are some situations experienced by different individuals. As far as you are concerned, which emotions did these individuals experience based on the situation they were in; happiness, sadness, anger, bewilderment, or shame?

M1. Kudret’s teacher said, “Good for you!” when Kudret answered a question right and asked Kudret’s classmates to applaud him. In this situation, what do you think Kudret felt? (HAPPINESS)

M3. Emel asked to borrow her friend’s bicycle. Her friend did not allow Emel to borrow the bicycle. In this situation, what do you think Emel felt? (SADNESS)

M2. A friend of Ela’s gifted her a painting she made for Ela’s birthday. Ela loved the painting. What do you think Ela felt in this situation? (HAPPINESS)

M4. Bora broke his favorite toy by accident. Which feeling do you think Bora felt? (SADNESS)

M5. Zehra’s friend opened Zehra’s bag, took her cookie and ate it. What do you think Zehra felt in this situation? (ANGER)

M7. Upon seeing a magician pulling out a rabbit from his hat at school, which feeling do you think Orhan felt? (BEWILDERMENT)

M9. Efe hid behind his mom when he saw the visitors arriving at their home that wereunfamiliar to him. He did not raise his head to look up or answer any of the questions they asked. Which emotion do you think Efe felt? (SHAME)

M8.The teacher came into the class wearing a big snowman costume. He was such a gigantic snowman that the kids could hardly believe their eyes. Which emotion do you think the children experienced? (BEWILDERMENT)

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M10. Kemal started a new school. When he entered into the classroom on the first day of school, he realized he didn’t know any of the kids. Therefore, he wanted walk into the classroom with the teacher. The teacher introduced Kemal to the rest of the class. Which emotion do you think Kemal felt? (SHAME)

M6.Şerife’s friend tookŞerife’scoloured pencils without permission and did not return them. In this situation, which feeling do you think Şerife felt? (ANGER)

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BASED ON SOCIAL MEDIA RELATIONSHIP MARKETING APPROACH: A STUDY ON ANADOLU UNIVERSITY OPEN EDUCATION SYSTEM WEBSITE AND THE FACEBOOK NETWORK

Assist. Prof. Dr. Berrin Ozkanal Dr. Gülendam Uygucgil

Faculty of Open Education Anadolu University Eskisehir- TURKEY

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the relational marketing approach based on social media as marketing communication strategy according to the students’ opinions in making, the continuation and the development contact open and distance education institutions with current and prospective students. The study was performed with questionnaires administered through the corporate website of Open Education System with enrolled students in Anadolu University Open Education System. With the survey questions satisfaction brand loyalty, interactive communication and views on usability elements for service providers of corporate website and the Facebook network was evaluated. In the study, Anadolu University Open Education System website and Facebook network cannot meet enough expectations of students within the framework of relationship marketing approach based on social media has emerged.

Keywords: Open and distance education, social media, relationship marketing.

INTRODUCTION

The marketing communications is a term used to continue, develop and establish long-term successful relationships with students, with a student-centric approach in Open and Distance Learning (AUA) institutions. Marketing communications is evaluated as efforts carried out to offer services beyond their expectations and earn the trust and loyalty (Demiray, 2009) of the students by good analysis claim and expectations of students. Considering flexible structure of distance education and independent of time and space consisting of students, to establish intended communication ODE institutions with current and prospective students benefiting from social media and the corporate website appears inevitable.

The website of the ODE institution is an environment where first contact and communications with students are established. At the same time there are functions such as support services located on websites; increasing their satisfaction and success by facilitating the work of enrolled students, ensure their loyalty to institution. Therefore the websites of ODE institutions reviews in the context of marketing communication channel (Jones and Meyer, 2012), corporate social media links on the websites is required to use as an interactive communication media between students and institutions.

Social media is an environment that all educational institutions in general, in particular Students can interact directly communicates for OED institutions. The social media-based relationship marketing will be created in this environment, in today’s environment that institutions increasingly given more attention to customer loyalty, in addition to winning new customers, especially to keep a current customer, customer loyalty and brand loyalty along with the aim to provide an understanding of marketing for ODE institutions offers an extremely convenient approach (Uygucgil, 2013). Therefore, to what extent websites can meet students’ expectations, to how much social media can provide intended interaction and communication evaluate the views of students who are users of these platforms constitute the problem of the study.

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The purpose of this study is to evaluate Facebook which is one of the social networking with Anadolu University Open Education System’s institutional website in frame of “Social Media Based Relationship Marketing” approach according to the students’ opinions.

LITERATURE

The institutions and organizations that provide ODE in order to maintain their existence, to keep up with the competition, to gain new students, establish, develop and maintain long-term successful relationships with students need to introduce audiences for distance learning programs and produce new methods for this purpose. Almost all educational institutions around the world in order to promote institutional features such as to inform audiences have different demands and expectations about training programs correctly, original products to the target audience, academic experiences, price, quality of education, and so on. (Demiray et al, 2009: 98-99).

Today it is accepted that educational institutions considered as a service provider, students are a potential customer and the parties to a mutually interactive process and training has a marketable service quality (Rogers, 1996; Demiray and Sever, 2009; and Xu, 2009). Education marketing is described as a process required to implement with a very good planning by institution (Kotler and Fox, 1985:7) to achieve corporate goals and a satisfied framework (Michael, 1990: 2) it will be defined in order to ensure mutual benefits of a special public dealing with education and educational institutions.

Open and distance learning (ODE) is a widely used training method that unlike traditional training, characterized by its philosophy and technology usage (Akeusola et al, 2011:700) and to respond to the increasing educational needs of today’s. The opportunities offered by communication technology leads to development of ODE institutions on the other hand the emergence of new expectations from education system. As with other organizations in the ODE institutions Developing appropriate service concept for students’ expectations and a competitive environment, the approach of considering and evaluating education as a service industry is being adopted (Demiray and Sever, 2009). Consequently in today’s increasingly competitive education environment, in order to meet student needs and expectations ODE institutions should develop different ways that can be used marketing communication as the active.

As in institutions and organizations in all sectors, in the education sector there is a need to develop marketing strategies that affect students in the frame of customer-oriented approach based on customer satisfaction. If we think about these strategies together with flexible structure of ODE all regulations included courses and materials prepared according to the needs and wishes of students in terms of learning styles, cultural differences and learning experience and ever-increasing preferences should be strategies in favour of the kind of students can be met (Akeusola et al., 2011: 701; Demiray and Sever, 2009:13). Because ODE institution have group of customers independent time and space, corporate websites and social media platforms stand out at the point of meeting with clients in marketing communication.

Corporate Websites and Social Media The website of ODE institution are platform that provide the first contact with potential students, for registered students education services as well as can also receive the need for specific services (Jones and Meyer, 2012). Many services such as to offer institutions promises, to provide information about organization (Programs, courses, operation and registration requirements and so on.), student support services (Online registration, online payment, consultancy, online courses, etc.) are provided by the website.

Social media environments are rapidly growing and mutually contact with each other, institutions can communicate directly with people, allowing information to be learned about many individual environments (Richter and Koch, 2008). The most popular social network among adult social media network users is Facebook with %72. The use of social networking sites such as Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, etc. tends to increase constantly. Especially Facebook have become used to share by students entered into educational environment about course, lecture notes, assignments, extra information and reviews (Yagcı, 2015). With

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extreme heavy use of social media in higher education learning and the teaching process efforts to integrate social media is increased (Kilis et al, 2016). The previously studies the use of social networks in education make the adoption of e-learning students more easy and ready (Baran, 2010). It was observed that besides having an important potential for social media for education played a major role on the adaption to college life (Madge et al, 2009).

It has been demonstrated that in made different studies about being linked students to social networks have developed strong feelings and they noted positive emotions in terms of learning experiences (Hung and Yuen, 2010), there is a positive relationship between academic performance with Facebook (Ainin et al., 2015).

Another comprehensive study on learning experiences and social media showed that there is a positive relationship between dissemination of information, common interests, motivation and interaction opportunity among offering with the Facebook use (Coklar, 2012).

At the same time social media serves as an important marketing communication channel (Akar, 2010: 108, Torlak et al., 2014: 148). Made works show that virtual community located in social media plays a role in consuming, buy and formatting ideas of goods and services to consumer (Kim et al, 2008: 815), they have a convincing strong potential (Akar 2010: .115 quoted from Khaled et al.). Therefore social media is an important marketing communication channel in attracting new customers for businesses and institutions and increasing in purchasing through available customer (Fox, 2009: 100). There are 3.5 billion internet users and 2.4 billion social media users in the whole of the world. It is seen that the number of internet users exceeds 46 million and there are 42 million active users of social media in our country. Keeping that in mind internet use 4 hours per day, social media usage is 2 hours; Facebook is most commonly used (32%) (Internet and Social Media Stats, 2016) the importance of the use of these media in education stands out clearer.

Relationship Marketing Based Social Media Experienced increase in technological developments and competition put more emphasis on increasing customer loyalty of businesses and institutions and it raises the concept of relationship marketing as an indispensable marketing concept in ensuring customer loyalty.

While it described as increasing, maintain and make relational marketing customer relations attractive, it is assumed to be based on establishing and managing the marketing relationships (Yurdakul, 2007 Karadeniz, 2010). It is seen as an effective method in areas such as the communication to be established in the audience with social media; finding solutions to customer problems, building trust and loyalty, convince customers with a positive approach, establishing interactive communication, creating brand loyalty, retention customers and gain new customers (Strategic Direction, 2010: 21).

Social media-based relational marketing, as an important marketing strategy (Demiray and Sever, 2009) considered as a feasible approach on the establishment of relationships with students, development and sustaining. This approach play an active role by creating a systematic feedback mechanism relating to products and services provided with interaction will be provided with all the other stakeholders, in evaluation of how much meet promises and services, in the long run on thrusting to the institution and the creation of customer loyalty and in the process of creating brand value (Farrell, 2012). In media based on relationship marketing; ‘interactive communication’, ‘Service provider satisfaction derived from’, ‘Loyalty to the social pursuits’ and ‘Brand loyalty’ stands out as elements that reflect the content of social activity (Koksal, 2012).

Satisfaction from Service Provider Websites of the ODE institutions are the environments can access to all kinds information and communicate as well as education for students far away. It should include services will make student's works easier in these environments such as online registration, student support services, help desks, timely and reliable feedback, online learning tools and flexible programs as well as education (Kocak, 2011: 22). All facilities and capabilities must be used in accordance with the satisfaction from service providers of the students. Analysing and meeting accurately of the needs of students will increase the perceived value of the product and service such

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as increasing satisfaction of student and increasing customer satisfaction will also provide enthusiasm of making and using offered service (Gupta, 2005).

Brand Loyalty Brand is an important phenomenon in establishing and maintenance of network of exchange relationship creating value to the parties in relationship marketing (Erdogan, 2009). Brand value representing the sum of all assets has of a brand; consists of components of brand awareness, affected by brand, brand trust, associations about brand, brand image and brand loyalty (Keller, 1993). Brand loyalty is one of the most important concepts for long-term relationships which will be established between customers and businesses shows the degree of binding to a particular brand of a customer (Podoshen, 2008). Brand loyalty is important in the scope of establish long-term relationships constituent focus of the relational marketing approach and the ability to sustain these relationships (Torlak et al., 2014: 148).

Interactive Communication It plays an active role on trusting institution in long term and the creation of brand loyalty, between students and ODE institutions relationship marketing based on continuity and interaction. Farrell (2012) in his work on social media-based relational marketing defines marketing strategy in ODE institutions as “Education in the constantly evolving relationship over time with customers and the establishment of communication”. He implies trust could create in time, in accordance with the products and services rely an organic community could be built.

In order to maintain mutual communication he emphasizes the need of feeding in creating trust, he suggests it will be facilitated as social media providing continuous interaction and feedback mechanism. In ODE up to provide quality programs, establishing an interactive communication with students being in close contact, responds quickly to needs of customer happiness and in order to ensure customer loyalty bears value.

Usability For audiences of institutions website must be easy to use and it is the key point. The users should not spend more time to access information in website, therefore the website contained which information, and the links connected where should be clearly visible. Each link in the website should be held in such a way so as to provide transition to previous or next connection (Seitel, 2004: 447). Further to website be effective it is a desired text weighted state. Further the focus of the website should be related to the product or service of the organization. A Web site should not be giving a negative opinion about the image of the organization to the audience because corporate image is important in communication with audience of any organization.

Therefore ODE institutions should be designed web pages that provide communication and interaction with students extremely attentive, clear, and understandable and demanded everything is easily accessible format.

The website of the ODE institution and social media environment to be able to easily communicate with other students, self-learning, the ability to organize and manage their time, virtual libraries, news services, providing numerous choices and an active learning environment such as Ability to enter information into the dispenser unit etc. factors will improve the availability of these platforms.

Purpose of the Research The purpose of this study is to evaluate Facebook which is one of the social networking with Anadolu University Open Education System’s institutional website in frame of “Social Media Based Relationship Marketing” approach according to the students’ opinions. In accordance with this purpose questions sought for answers are follows:

 What are the opinions of Students studying with the Open Education System on the organization’s web site (Satisfaction with service providers, interactive communication, brand loyalty and availability?)  What are the opinions of Students studying with the Open Education System on institutional Facebook (Satisfaction with service providers, interactive communication and brand loyalty?)

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Research is limited views of Students using Open Education System’s corporate website and the Facebook network in 2015-2016 semester.

METHOD

Research Model Research is accomplished by scanning model which is one of the qualitative research approaches. This model is an approach aiming to describe a situation which in the past or are currently as it was (Karas, 2002). In this model individuals or objects will attempt to describe the situation that exists in its own terms. In the study views of participants on corporate website and the Facebook network is evaluated in terms of different variables.

Universe and Sample Students studying with the Anadolu University Open Education System Faculty of Economics and Business form the universe of the study. The sample of the survey is 756 persons from Anadolu University Open Education System corporate website and Facebook followers. As the sampling method ‘Non-probability sample’ one of the kind of ‘Appropriate sampling’ (Convenience sampling) was used. This sampling method is a method consisting of respondents units in the universe, consisting of the group and person wishing to participate in the study (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996: 99; Balci, 2010: 92). The participants of the study are Anadolu University Open Education System web site users and Facebook followers. The questions about the Open Learning System’s corporate website and the Facebook network 225 people expressed they use Facebook and 602 respondents expressed they use website so data on website and Facebook users was evaluated separately those numbers.

Data Collection The data obtained from this study are collected by a questionnaire. For the survey primarily a questionnaire has been prepared. In the questions form, literature and the scale Used in the study of Interactive Communication (Ko, Choi & Roberts, 2005), Service Provider Satisfaction (Burnham and others, 2003 and Gustafsson et al, 2005), Brand Loyalty (Algesheim and others, 2005), Usability (Kent and Taylor, 1998), “Effects of Social media on Brand Loyalty As a Promotional Tool” (Koksal, 2012) was used. Survey form was examined by those skilled in the art and the decision to use a questionnaire survey in a preliminary study that tested 43 students participated and changes in some incomprehensible statement is made.

In the first part of the questionnaire 10 questions is located regarding gender, age, high school graduation, where they live, their study program (pre license / license) and internet usage causes, time and the membership status on social networking sites of participants. In the second part of the questionnaire 27 expression were located related to Open Education System web site; Service provider, interactive communication, brand loyalty and availability, 22 expression were located related corporate Facebook network; service provider, interactive communication consisting of elements of brand loyalty is included. The lack of availability element in questions related to Facebook network arises from the absence of standardized design of Facebook. The survey questions were prepared by the likert scale and questions are expressed as 1- Strongly Disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-I have no idea, 4-Agree and 5-Strongly Agree.

In the data collection process questionnaire was placed in the poll section Located in the personal user page of students log in with their National Identity Number and it is connected to a database. By adding URL address of survey to the survey page students are allowed to reach the survey and reach out to those who fill in the questionnaire responses are automatically recorded in the database.

Survey data depicted as frequency (f) and Percent (%), cross relations established among opinions with personal data, to determine the difference between groups regarding the use of corporate website and Facebook network t-tests were used. Frequency, average, standard deviation and information on the t-test were analysed using SPSS statistical software.

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FINDINGS

Feedback Regarding the Usage of the Internet and corporate Internet Tools with Personal Information of Students In this part of the research findings on data obtained from the survey of “Evaluation by Open System Corporate Website and Facebook Network Student Opinion” of students. Personal information of the students participating in the study the findings of (sex, age, high school graduation, where they live and faculty they are enrolled), Internet usage habits (Purposes, daily usage periods the use case) is given.

Findings Related to Personal Information of Students Attending Research’s In this chapter personal information of the students who participated in the survey (gender, age, type of high school they graduated, living place and faculty mater) was examined.

Table 1: Gender, age, graduated high school type of students participating in the study distribution according to living place and faculty they study in Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Gender Female 291 38.5 Male 465 61.5 Total 756 100 Age 24 years and under 303 40.1 25 years and over 453 59.9 Total 756 100 Graduated High School Type Common High School 276 36.5 Anadolu High School 92 12.2 Private High School 8 1.1 Teacher High School 7 0.9 Science High School 6 0.8 Vocational / Technical High School 221 29.2 Foreign Language Intensive High School 18 2.4 Second University 128 16.9 Total 756 100 Living Place Town Centre 521 68.9 District 201 26.6 Village 34 4.5 Total 756 100 Alma Mater Open Education Faculty 539 71.3 Faculty of Economics 130 17.2 Faculty of Management 87 11.5 Total 756 100

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Table 1 shows the personal characteristic of the students who participated in the survey. According to Table 38.5% of the participants were female and 61.5% were male. It is observed that there are 40.1% people between 18-24 years and 59.9% of the students 25 years and over considering the distribution of the ages of the students range. When students graduate from high school are examined; Students who graduate from general high school are 36.5%, Vocational/Technical High School students are 29.2% and Second University (Who have completed a higher education program and re-studying students) are 16.9%. 68.9% of the students live in the city centre, 26.6% of the students live in the district and 4.5% of the students live in the village. The distribution of students according to the school they studied is 71.3% Open University (undergraduate and graduate education), 17.2% Faculty of Economics (bachelor’s degree) and 11.5% Faculty of Business Administration (bachelor’s degree).

In accordance with these data students who participated in the survey consists of both at the college-age and the last college-age. Regarding the distribution of the type of high school graduation outside Normal high school and Vocational High School the second University (Studying again completed a higher education institution) is observed. Residences of the students are 68.9% city centre, 26.6% district and 4.5% village. This situation Due to flexible structure of open and distance education system all ages all income, every profession and without losing productivity of people from different geographical regions, they demonstrate compliance with a system (Moore and Kearsly 1996: .2) maintained their education by adjusting their speed and capacity.

Findings Related to Internet Usage Habits of Students Attending Research’s The findings concerning internet usage purpose, time, membership of social networking sites institutional website and the usage status of the Facebook network of the students participating in the study are given in Table 2. According to Table 2 students who participated in the survey use internet mostly education / research (81.2%), information (80.4%) and communication (66.9%). Social media (61.1%), bank transactions (57.8%), newspapers (57.4%), shopping (50.4%) and chat (45.8%) are following this purpose of the use.

The percentage of the members of any social networking sites among students is 85.8%. More social networking’s are also used by members of the social networking site are indicated as Facebook (77.1%), Twitter (46.4%), Google (45.1%) and YouTube (41.1%). The proportion of participants used 3 hours and over is 52% and the proportion of participants used 1-2 hours is 48% considering daily use time of internet. It is observed that 79.6% of participants use the institution’s website, 29.1% of participants use the Facebook network when examining the use case of corporate website and Facebook network for students. In line with this data it was observed that students visited internet with purpose of mostly education/research, information and communication. This situation can be interpreted as students in open and distance education give priority to the needs of internet use education, information and communication. Using students more Facebook network one of social networking sites the Facebook network may be due to a common interactive communications network worldwide and in our country (Internet and Social Media Stats, 2016).

Table 2: Purpose of internet usage of students participating in the study, time and corporate website and condition of use the Facebook network Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Purpose of Internet Usage* Shopping 381 50.4 Entertainment / Chat 346 45.8 To Read Newspapers / Magazines 434 57.4 Banking 437 57.8 Using Social Media 462 61.1 Communication 506 66.9 Education / Research 614 81.2

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Information 608 80.4 Daily Internet Usage Time 1-2 hours 363 48 3 hours and over 393 52 Total 756 100 Membership of Any Social Sharing Site Yes 649 85.8 No 107 14.2 Total 756 100 Being Member to Social Networking Sites * Facebook 583 77.1 Twitter 351 46.4 YouTube 311 41.1 LinkedIn 123 16.3 Google 341 45.1 Web Dictionaries 91 12 Others 234 31 Use Case of Corporate Web Site of The Open Education System Yes 602 79.6 No 154 20.4 Total 756 100 Use Case of Corporate Facebook Network of The Open Education System Yes 220 29.1 No 536 70.9 Total 756 100 * Because respondents tick more than one option is so different from the total.

The reason why students studying with the Open Education System use the corporate website more than the Facebook network and the purpose of social networking and the services offered may differ. Students benefit from Open Education System corporate website for get information about the institution, learn the notes, to take advantage of e-learning environment and to follow news and announcements, etc. (Ozkanal, 2006).

This situation because students studying in open and distance education system are far from the campus, they are in the information, communication and learning needs and it can also be explained as they met through the website.

On the other hand, despite being a member of sharing site (85.8%) and Facebook sharing network (77.1%), Using Open Education system Facebook network only 29.1% of the platform shows that students do not prefer. This is because that Open Education system the Facebook network serves as a medium giving interaction service by sharing news and events related institution, students are given the answers to standard questions. Considering mutual interactive communication objectives should be pursued in finding quick

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solutions to questions and problems learning problems by getting feedback from students from social networking sites Facebook’s corporate network considered to be inadequate in accomplishing this goal.

Results Regarding the Use Case of Corporate Website and Facebook Network According to Faculty and Settlement In this chapter using the corporate website and Facebook network status of the students who participated in the survey by place of residence is examined in the cross table.

Table 3: Usage situations of corporate website and Facebook network according to settlement of students attending research Use Case of Corporate Web Site of The Open Education System Residential Town Centre n 418. 103 % 80.20 19.80 District n 156 45 % 77.60 22.40 Village n 28 6. % 82.40 17.60 Total n 602.00 154 % 79.60 20.40 Use Case of Corporate Facebook Network of The Open Education System Residential Town Centre n 145 376 % 27.80 72.20 District n 62 139 % 30.80 69.20 Village n 13 21 % 38.20 61.80 n 220 536 Total % 29.10 70.90

According to Table 3 it is observed when the status of using the website is analysed, Students living in the village use the website more (82.4%), living in the city centre are following (80.2%) and living in the district use less (77.6%).

Upon analysing the usage status of institutional Facebook network by place of residence those living in the village (38.2%) uses institutional Facebook network than those living in district (30.8%) and city (27.8%).

In accordance with these data it can be interpreted as students living in the village need to more information, interaction and socialize, they met this requirement on website and from social networks via Facebook.

Because of absence of a centre where the students can get information face to face (OEF office), it can be considered they met their information requirements (learn the grades, benefiting from student support services, etc.) through the website. The reason of those living in the village use internet (38.3%) more despite the use of Facebook network (29.1%) is less throughout the study can arise from the more interactive communication requirements of students living in rural.

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Findings Related to Corporate Website (Service Provider Satisfaction, Interactive Communication, Brand Loyalty and Usability) of Students Attending Research The findings on the views on “Service provider”, “Interactive communication”, “Brand loyalty” and “Usability” the elements for Open Education System corporate website According to Internet usage time, sex and age of The students who participated in the study are observed on Tables 4, 5 and 6.

Table 4: T-test of students participating in the study according to gender N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction Female 230 1.91 1.35 598 7.43 ,000* Male 370 2.70 1.20 Interactive Communication Female 230 1.89 1.3 598 9.15 ,000* Male 370 2.83 1.16 Brand Loyalty Female 230 1,68 1,14 598 16,7 ,000* Male 370 3,34 1,19 Usability Female 230 2,07 1,47 598 3,03 ,002* Male 370 2,40 1,17 *p<.05

Comparative analysis of the views of the students who participated in the study on “Service provider satisfaction”, “Interactive communication”, “Brand loyalty” and “Usability” element are given in Table 4 by gender.

According to table opinions of student service providers, interactive communication, the brand loyalty and the usefulness are significant differences by gender. While the average of female students close to “Disagree” in response to questions about the service provider, the average opinion of the male students close to ‘Have no idea’, in interactive communication, brand loyalty and availability issues the average opinion of female students close to “Disagree”, the average opinion of male students close to ‘Have no idea’. To determine whether differences in the degree of participation of students in these statements or not t-test was used.

When students’ opinions for service providers analysed by gender (t (598)=7.4, p<.05), male students (X=2,70) give an opinion on the service provider different from female students (X=1,91). When students’ opinions for interactive communication analysed (t (598)=9.15, p<.05), male students (X=2,83) give an opinion different from female students (X=1,89). When students’ opinions for brand loyalty analysed (t (598)=16,7, p<.05), male students (X=3,34) give an opinion different from female students (X=1,68). When students’ opinions for availability of corporate websites analysed (t (598)=3.03, p<.05), male students (X=2,40) give an opinion different from female students (X = 2,07).

These findings show that there is differentiation among service provider, interactive communication, brand loyalty and usability according to gender. According to these data related to Open Education System the website we can say that female students reported negative opinion, male students have no idea.

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N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction 24 years and under 231 2,27 1,32 598 1,76 ,078 25 years and over 387 2,47 1,30 Interactive Communication 24 years and under 231 2,35 1,32 598 1,72 ,086 25 years and over 387 2,54 1,28 Brand Loyalty 24 years and under 231 2,52 1,44 598 2,36 ,0.18* 25 years and over 387 2,81 1,4 Usability 24 years and under 231 2,17 1,29 598 1,44 ,150 25 years and over 387 2,33 1,31 *p<.05

There is not a significant difference considering the t-test results made regarding age distribution of the students who participated in the study satisfaction from the service provider, interactive communication and the availability factor, 24 years old and younger students vary from 25 years and over students. According to these data 24 years old and younger students close to “Disagree” option on brand loyalty, 25 year and over students close to ‘Have no idea’ option.

It appears that as a result of t-test made to the element of brand loyalty (t (598)=2,36, p<.05), participants aged 25 and over (X = 2.81) as different from 24 years and under participants (X = 2.52) the ideas related to brand loyalty . These findings show age variable with the differentiation of student perceptions of brand loyalty.

According to these data it can be interpreted as Open Education System did not create brand loyalty of its corporate the website for students under 24 years, 25 years and older students have not ideas on this subject. While internet usage rate of young people under 24 years is 77%, these rate decreases in large numbers after age 30s (TUIK Information Technology Usage Survey, 2015).

This situation suggests that young people use the internet more, they have even more control over the internet and therefore with more options for opportunities to encounter expectations are high, and result is commitment low.

Table 6: T-test of students participating in the study according to internet usage time N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction 1-2 hours 213 2,27 1,32 579 1,87 ,062 3 hours and over 368 2,48 1,31 Interactive Communication 1-2 hours 213 2,35 1,32 579 1,82 ,069 3 hours and over 368 2,55 1,28 Brand Loyalty 1-2 hours 213 2,52 1,44 579 2,47 ,014* 3 hours and over 368 2,83 1,41 Usability

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1-2 hours 213 2,17 1,29 579 1,62 ,104 3 hours and over 368 2,35 1,32 p<.05

Table 6. Comparative analysis according to internet usage time of the students who participated in the study shows their views on elements of “Satisfaction with service providers”, “Interactive communication”, “Brand loyalty” and “Usability”.

Considering the t-test results made regarding internet usage time of the students who participated in the study there was no difference in usability and interactive communication elements, satisfaction from the service provider between those using internet 1-2 hours per day and those using 3 hours and more, if the opinions differ on brand loyalty is observed. According to these students who use the internet 1-2 hours while close to “Disagree” option, students using internet 3 hours and more are close to “Have no idea” option.

According to the t-test results an analysis of attitudes towards brand loyalty (t (579)=2,47, p<.05) those using internet 1-2 hours (X=2,52) have negative feedback compared to those using internet 3 hours or more (X=2,83). This finding shows the difference between brand loyalty and internet usage time. In accordance with these data it is interpreted as those using internet less have low brand loyalty.

Findings on Anadolu University Open Education System Facebook Network of Students Participating In The Study According To Gender, Age And Internet Usage Time

The findings on the views on “Satisfaction with service providers”, “Interactive communication” and “brand loyalty” the elements for Open Education System Facebook Network according to internet usage time, sex and age of the students who participated in the study are given on Tables 7, 8 and 9.

Table 7: T-test of students participating in the study according to gender N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction Female 93 1,97 1,02 223 9,09 ,000* Male 132 3,22 ,99 Interactive Communication Female 93 2,08 1,10 223 10,12 ,000* Male 132 3,45 ,90 Brand Loyalty Female 93 2,08 1,13 223 9,91 ,000* Male 132 3,46 ,94 *p<.05 Table 7 indicate views of the students who participated in the survey on “Satisfaction with service providers”, “Interactive communication” and “Brand loyalty” for Open Education System institutional Facebook network according to gender.

According to Table opinions of student for service providers are significant differences by gender. In response to questions about Service provider satisfaction, interactive communication and brand loyalty while the average of female students are close to “Disagree” the average of male students are close to “Have no idea” option. To determine whether differences in the degree of participation of students in these statements or not t-test was used.

When students’ opinions for service providers analysed by gender (t (223)=9,09, p<.05) male students (X = 3,22) give an opinion on this element in contrast to female students (X = 1,97) is observed. When students’ opinions for interactive communication analysed (t (223)=10,12, p<.05), male students (X=3,45) give an opinion different from female students (X = 2,08). 101 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249

When students’ opinions for brand loyalty analysed (t (223)=9,91, p<.05), male students (X=3,46) give an opinion different from female students (X=2,08). These findings show that there is difference among service provider, interactive communication and brand loyalty by gender.

According to these data it can be said that the male students have got no idea about three categories specified related to Open Education System Facebook network and female students thought negatively.

Table 8: T-test of students participating in the study according to age distribution N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction 24 years and under 82 2,52 1,13 223 1,77 ,077 25 years and over 143 2,81 1,19 Interactive Communication 24 years and under 82 2,66 1,18 223 2.10 ,036* 25 years and over 143 3.01 1,19 Brand Loyalty 24 years and under 82 2.63 1,19 223 2,41 ,016* 25 years and over 143 3.04 1.22 *p<.05

Table 8 indicate views of the students who participated in the survey on “Satisfaction with service providers”, “Interactive communication” and “Brand loyalty” for institutional Facebook network according to age. Considering the t-test results made regarding the age distribution of students it seems vary on interactive communication and brand loyalty of 24 years old and younger students. According to this data it is observed that while 24 years old and younger students are close to “Disagree” option on interactive communication and brand loyalty, 25 years and older students are close to “Have no idea” option.

According to the t-test results When opinions of interactive communication (t (223)=2,10, p<.05) analysed students aged 25 and over (X = 3,01) have no opinions about interactive communication (t (223)=2,41, p<.05) in contrast of 24 years and under students (X=2,66). When brand loyalty is examined (t (223)=2,41, p<.05) it can be said that participants aged 25 and over (X=3,04) have no idea about the brand loyalty (t (223)=2,41, p<.05) unlike 24 years and younger participants (X=2,63). According to these findings, interactive communication and student perceptions about the brand loyalty is varied according to the age variable.

According to these data students less than 24 years are in more interactive communication expectations related the Facebook network of Open Education System and therefore it can be interpreted as the brand loyalty is low. The reason of that may be susceptibility of young people to the use of technology and using the internet extensively. It can be said due to the less prone to use technology of 25 and over the age of students have no idea brand loyalty and demand for interactive communication.

Table 9: T-test according to internet usage time of students participating in the study N X S sd t p Service Provider Satisfaction 1-2 hours 145 2,79 1,15 223 1,55 ,122 3 hours and over 80 2,54 1,21 Interactive Communication 1-2 hours 145 3,01 1,15 223 2,17 ,031* 3 hours and over 80 2,65 1,26 Brand Loyalty 1-2 hours 145 3,04 1,18 223 2,47 ,014*

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3 hours and over 80 2,62 1,26 *p<.05

The opinions on the views on “Satisfaction with service providers”, “Interactive communication” and “brand loyalty” for institutional Facebook network according to internet usage time of the students who participated in the study are given on Tables 9. Considering the t-test results made regarding internet usage time of the students, there was difference in interactive communication and brand loyalty between those using internet 1- 2 hours per day and those using 3 hours and more. According to these students who use the internet 1-2 hours while close to “Have no idea” option about interactive communication and brand loyalty, students using internet 3 hours and more are close to “Disagree” option. According to the t-test results it is seen when opinions of interactive communication (t (223)=2,17, p<.05) analysed those using internet 1-2 hours per day (X = 3.01) reported different views In contrast to those using internet 3 hours or more (X = 2.65) on interactive communication (t (223)=2,17, p<.05).

When brand loyalty is examined (t (223) = 2.47, p <.05) those using internet 1-2 hours (X = 3.04) have made no submissions in contrast those using internet 3 hours or more (X = 2.62) on the brand loyalty (t (223) = 2.47, p <.05). These finding shows differentiation of student perceptions about interactive communication and brand loyalty with variable of internet usage time.

According to these data it can be said that students who use the internet less are in less expectation for Open Education System Facebook network on interactive communication and the brand loyalty. The reason is that it can be interpreted as increasing of interaction and communication requirement and brand loyalty of internet usage time.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this study, within the framework of relationship marketing approach based on social media Anadolu University Open Education System institutional website and Facebook network evaluated according to students’ opinions and the following results were obtained. it was observed that students visited internet with purposes of mostly education / research, information and communication. It is clear that the services offered at the corporate website of the Open Education System are shaped to meet priority expectations that open and distance education students reveal at the highest level.

Students who participated in the study are use website of Open Education System more than Facebook that is social media environment. Although the rates are not a member of any social networking site of students (Table 2) are quite high, the low rate of use of the Open Education System Facebook network shows that this platform is not attractive enough according to students and meet their expectations.

Another result of the study is use a lot more social media of students living in rural.

Because of the nature of open and distance education system (being far from campus) providing mutual sharing with students, establishing and maintaining an interactive communication actively benefiting requirement from these channels is obvious.

In the study, the results obtained in the framework elements of social media-based relationship marketing (satisfaction from the service provider, interactive communication, brand loyalty and availability) are follows: It has emerged that within the framework of discussed elements of Corporate website and the Facebook network internet usage varies according to gender, age and internet usage time. These platforms do not provide satisfaction and interactive communication and do not create brand loyalty for the female students and the male students have no idea on these components.

Considering the views of the students who participated in the study according to age groups and internet usage time on the website and Facebook network generally it was seen that they cannot meet the

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expectations of interactive communication, they cannot feel the brand loyalty or have no idea on these subjects.

The basic framework of the study the elements that reflect the content of the relationship marketing based on social media the service provider satisfaction, to meet the expectations of students for institutions of social media and to give place to the services that will improve their satisfaction (Kocak, 2011: 22) is based.

Starting from this approach, website and social media of the open education system in the framework of relationship marketing based on social media should be reviewed and the needs of students by analysing correctly, to attract new students and to keep existing students in the system with other programs arrangements should be made to ensure student satisfaction.

When social media evaluated in terms of interactive communication mechanisms must be created that allows feedback and interaction for students on Open Education System social media, and thus Foster trust to institution should be ongoing interactive communications in time.

In creating brand loyalty establishing long-term relationships and the ability to sustain these relationships that is the focal point of the relational marketing approach has a great importance (Torlak et al. 2014: 148). Therefore establishing and maintaining long-term relationships with students social media, in order to ensure interaction active, actual and equipped with original content, not just offers announcements and news at the same time it must be evaluated an environment where students ask questions, they received answers, they solves the problem, the provision of long to spend time with different activities and thus brand loyalty should be created.

When Open Education System’s website evaluated in terms of practicality; ensuring this environment be visited more frequently and longer period for staying in this environment it should make arrangements is clear. To be able to communication interactively Students with student, students with instructive and institute, self- learning, virtual library, ability to enter information into the dispenser unit as news services, synchronous and asynchronous courses, online registration, and so on. Enrichment with many options, alive, the provision of support required services of all kinds and ensuring active form of interaction, evaluation of all factors that increase the availability is required.

Shaping The Open Education System website to find what they are looking, to meet the expectations of students literally, attract their attention will be positively affected academic achievement of students and satisfaction. Social media will play a role on sense of belonging institution and feel the dependence by receiving feedback from students, solving the problem, establishing interactive communication with students, staying away from the institution and maintain its direction increasing the satisfaction of the students. Every effort for the satisfaction of the students having great value on the success of the institution and continuity.

This work can create a foundation for future studies and social media use of different institutions and different cultures can be examined in this context.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

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Berrin OZKANAL is a fulltime Assist. Prof. Dr. in the Faculty of Open Education, Department of Distance Education at Anadolu University, Turkey.

Her main interests include institutional communication applications, new communication technologies; web sites, social media and the relations among them in open and distance education. She has participated in projects related to distance learning, public relations, media and communication and information technologies. She has been teaching courses in distance learning, institutional communication.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Berrin OZKANAL Anadolu University Distance Education Faculty Yunusemre Campus Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

Gülendam UYGUCGİL performs a duty Anadolu University, Distance education faculty, TV Production Centre Since 1999. Dr. Uyguçgil graduated from Eskisehir Anadolu University, Faculty of Communication Sciences Department of Printing and Publishing. She worked at the News Department of TRT Istanbul Television Channel between1998-1999. She graduated from the master Anadolu University Social Sciences Institute The Department of Press and Publication in 2004. She completed her doctorate in Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute Public Relations and Publicity Department Advertising and Publicity Department of Science in 2013.

Dr. Gülendam UYGUCGİL Anadolu University Distance Education Faculty Yunusemre Campus TV Production Centre Eskisehir- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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A GROUP OF ON-CAMPUS EFL LEARNERS’ READINESS FOR INTERNET-BASED DISTANCE LANGUAGE LEARNING

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ALTUNAY Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Science and Letters Department of Western Languages and Literatures Hatay-TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the learner beliefs of a group of on-campus students about Internet-based language learning and the language learning activities that they do on the Internet in order to determine their readiness for a potential distance language learning course. The participants of the study are 62 first year EFL students in a public university in Turkey. A 5-point Likert scale-based questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire was prepared by the researcher in Turkish. The participants of the study think that use of the Internet is effective in language learning. Yet, half of the participants favor the traditional classroom environment to learn English. Among the other half, the number of undecided participants is higher than the ones who favour the Internet-based language learning environments. The study shows that the participants use the Internet mostly for translation and learning vocabulary, but they do not use it for interaction and as a knowledge-sharing platform.

Keywords: Internet-based language learning, EFL, learner beliefs, learner activities, distance language learning.

INTRODUCTION

Today, Internet has been widely used in different areas of education. One of these areas is the field of language learning and teaching. Internet contains a large number of free materials at different levels which can be used by language learners or teachers. Internet makes learning more learner-centered (Means and Olson, 1997) and thanks to the Internet, learners have the chance to help learners use language in real communication situations (Wiburg and Butker-Pasceo, 2002). Multimedia facilities and interactive resoures make the Internet appealing for learning and teaching (Li and Hart ,1996). Language teachers use a large variety of Web 2.0 applications such as discussion lists, blogs, wikis, social networking, chat rooms, virtual worlds, podcasting, and there are many tools that allow learners or teachers to download audio recordings from the web (Walker et.al., 2011). Videos in the Internet and podcasts give the learners the chance to hear authentic language and to be exposed to different dialects. Similarly, learners have the chance to find and read authentic materials and hence to see the use of the varieties of the target language. Using social media allows learners to be involved in genuine communicative activities with native speakers or other learners. Environments such as wikipedia or blogs allow learners to act as the creators of content and to collaboratively construct knowledge. Internet provides a collaborative learning environment and advantages for the learners who cannot be successful in traditional classrooms (Joyce, et.al., 1992).

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Aim of the Study The study aims to investigate the learner beliefs of a group of on-campus Turkish EFL learners about Internet- based language learning and to find out their Internet-based language learning activities in order to determine learner readiness for a potential Internet-based distance language learning environment.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature shows that Internet has many advantages in the field of language learning and teaching. In addition, Internet provides an environment for teaching and learning culture (Cononelos and Olivia, 1993; Singhal, 1997). Kötter (2001) states that CMC (computer-mediated communication) allows quick feedback, storing information, and more opportunity to participate. White (2003) states that CMC allows independent learning supported by interaction. Aydin’s (2007) study which was carried out with 115 EFL learners shows that that Turkish EFL learners in general have positive attitudes towards the Internet. Coniam and Wong’s (2004) study which was carried out with EFL learners in Hong Kong shows that using Internet Relay Chat results in more complexity in the written production of the learners. Sa’d’s (2014) study demonstrates that Iranian EFL learners think that accessing a large number of examples in grammar, vocabulary items and so on which may not be available in their textbooks and making traditional classes more motivating are some of the advantages of the Internet. Srichanyachon’s (2013) study which was carried out with students at Bangkok university shows that learners have a moderate level of attitude toward using the Internet as a learning tool. Internet use for learning English in general is also moderate. Heirati’s (2015) study demonstrates that most of the Iranian teachers and learners have positive attitudes towards using the Internet for language learning.

METHOD

Research Questions

Participants:The participants of the study were 62 first year students in the faculty of science and letters in Mustafa Kemal University in Turkey. Their majors were archaeology (17 students), anthropology (16 students), chemistry (1 student), biology (4 students) and mathematics (24 students). The students were taking a face-to- face beginner level English course 2 hours per week when the study was conducted. When the study was carried out, there was a possibility for teaching English courses through Internet-based distance education in the coming years.

Material: A 5-point Likert scale-based questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire was prepared by the researcher in Turkish. Findings of the Altunay&Mutlu’s (2010a) study and other findings in the literature were used while preparing the items. The questionnaire consisted of three sections. Section A included demographic questions such as the majors of the participants and a question on their regular access to the Internet. Section B aimed to investigate the learner beliefs. It included items on participants’ level of agreement to the statements about language learning on the Internet. Section C consisted of participants’ level of involvement in Internet-based language learning activities. Section D involved an open-ended question.

Data collection: The questionnaire was distributed to the participants on their final exam day to obtain maximum participation. The questionnaire was distributed to the participants together with the exam papers. The participants were asked to fill in and submit the questionnaire just after finishing their exams.

Data analysis: The number, percentage and mean scores of the answers given by the participants to each item were calculated.

FINDINGS

Most of the participants stated that they had regular access to the Internet. The items used in the questionnaire and the findings on learner beliefs about Internet-based language learning are shown in Table 1.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

Table 1: Learner beliefs about Internet-based language learning Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Disagree Agree N % N % N % N % N %

1.It is possible to improve 4 6 6 10 10 16 30 48 12 19 English on the Internet Environment 5 8 7 11 9 15 34 55 7 11 2. Internet is effective for foreign language learning

3.Language learning 9 15 22 35 19 31 10 16 2 3 through the Internet is more effective than language learning in classroom 7 11 25 40 15 24 9 15 6 10 4.Language learning through the Internet is more enjoyable than learning in classroom

5.Learners can do an 3 5 8 13 10 16 28 45 13 21 activity as much as they can on the Internet 4 6 7 11 11 18 29 47 11 18 6.Thanks to the Internet, learners can study at any time and at any place even if they do not have books

2 3 9 15 12 19 28 45 11 18 7.Finding authentic materials (News in English, online magaziens, etc.) on the Internet supports language learning

4 6 13 21 14 23 21 34 9 15 8.Developing awareness towards the varieties of English in various countries (England, USA, Canada, etc.), and in different settings is easier on the Internet compared to classroom settings

9. Internet environment 4 6 5 8 16 26 28 45 9 15 contains a large number of materials at any level which meets the needs of different learners 111 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

10.Studying on the 3 5 10 16 14 23 24 39 11 18 Internet environment is less stressful than classrooms 11.Using the Internet to 5 8 10 16 18 29 19 31 10 16 learn a language increases motivation 12.Among a large variety 1 2 17 27 18 29 23 37 3 5 of materials on the Internet, it is difficult to choose the one which is suitable to my level and needs 1 2 8 13 23 37 22 35 8 13 13.Audio-visual English language learning platforms allow learners to practice English more often than face-to-face classrooms

14.Studying on the 3 5 14 23 18 29 22 35 5 8 Internet means studying alone without getting support from anybody

Findings show that the most strongly disagreed item is item 3. Nine participants i.e, 15% of the participants state that they strongly disagree that language learning through the Internet is more effective than language learning in classroom. This shows that 15% of the participants certainly think that language learning in traditional classrooms is more effective than language learning through the Internet. Totally, 50% of the participants favour the traditional environment for language learning. %19 of them favour the Internet environment. 31% of the participants are undecided. The most disagreed item is item 4. Twenty-five participants i.e., 40% of the participants state that they disagree that language learning through the Internet is more enjoyable than learning in classroom. This means that those participants think that classroom-based learning is more fun than Internet-based learning. 39% of the participants state that studying on the Internet environment is less stressful than classrooms. The most undecided item is item 13. Twenty-three participants i.e., 37% of the participants are undecided about whether audio-visual English language learning platforms allow learners to practice English more often than face-to-face classrooms. The most agreed item is item 2. Thirty-four participants i.e., %55 of the participants agree that Internet is effective for foreign language learning. The study shows that the most strongly agreed item is item 5. Thirteen participants i.e., 21% of the participants strongly agree that learners can do an activity as much as they can on the Internet.

The rounded means for each item was found either 3 or 4. If mean is 3, this means in general the participants are undecided about the statement. If mean is 4, this means in general the the participants agree with the statement. The mean for each item is as follows:It is possible to improve English on the Internet Environment (M=4); Internet is effective for foreign language learning(M=4); Language learning through the Internet is more effective than language learning in classroom(M=3); Language learning through the Internet is more enjoyable than learning in classroom(M=3); Learners can do an activity as much as they can on the Internet(M=4); Thanks to the Internet learners can study at any time and at any place even if they do not have books (M=4); Finding authentic materials (News in English, online magazines, etc.) on the Internet supports language learning(M=4);Developing awareness toward varieties of English in various countries (England, USA, Canada, etc.) and in different settings is easier on the Internet compared to classroom settings(M=3); Internet environment contains a large number of materials at any level which meets the needs of different learners 112 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

(M=4); Studying on the Internet environment is less stressful than classrooms (M=4); Using the Internet to learn a language increases motivation(M=3); Among a large variety of materials on the Internet (M=3), it is difficult to choose the one which is suitable to my level and needs (M=3); Audio-visual English language learning platforms allow learners to practice English more often than face-to-face classrooms(M=3); Studying on the Internet means studying alone without getting support from anybody(M=3).

The items used in the questionnaire and the findings on Internet-based language learning activities are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Internet-based language learning activities Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always N % N % N % N % N % 1. I use the Internet 6 10 11 18 32 52 11 18 2 3 to learn English without the encouragement of the teacher 2.I try to read the 3 5 18 29 27 44 13 21 1 2 English websites to improve my English 3.I use the 4 6 12 19 21 34 16 26 9 15 dictionaries on the Internet 4.I use the 4 6 5 8 20 32 14 23 19 31 translation tools on the Internet such as Google translator 5.I find and watch 8 13 10 16 33 53 8 13 3 5 videos teaching English on the Internet 6.I watch videos 6 10 13 21 19 31 14 23 10 16 and films in English on the Internet 7.I watch song 6 10 12 19 20 32 12 19 12 19 videos with subtitles 8.I use English 9 15 16 26 28 45 6 10 3 5 learning platforms or teaching sites such as Babbel, Italki.com, LiveMocha 9.I practice English 12 19 16 26 21 34 9 15 4 6 with other learners or speakers on the Internet 10. I share anything 12 19 20 32 20 32 9 15 1 2 regarding learning English with my friends on the Internet 113 Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

11.I use the 12 19 11 18 31 50 7 11 1 2 Internet to learn English grammar 12.I use the 7 11 13 21 21 34 16 26 5 8 Internet to improve my listening skills 13.I use the 5 8 14 23 23 37 17 27 3 5 Internet to improve my speaking skills 14.I use the 7 11 10 16 22 35 18 29 5 8 Internet to improve my reading skills 15. I use the 7 11 17 27 24 39 9 15 5 8 Internet to improve my writing skills 16.I use the 4 6 10 16 21 34 19 31 8 13 Internet to learn vocabulary 17.I use the 2 3 13 21 23 37 18 29 6 10 Internet to learn pronunciation

One of the activities that are not preferred by the participants is item 10, “I share anything regarding learning English with my friends”. %51 of the participants indicate that they rarely or never do this. This shows that learners do not use the Internet as a knowledge-sharing platform. The findings show that 45% of the participants never or rarely practice English with other learners or speakers on the Internet. 54% of the participants state that they use the translation tools on the Internet such as Google translator and 31% of the participants state that they always do this. The reason for this is that the participants’ proficiency level is low so they rely on the translation tools. 44% of the participants state that they use the Internet to learn vocabulary.

For the item ‘I use the translation tools on the Internet such as Google translator’, the rounded mean is 4. This shows that the participants do this activity often.The rounded mean for the other items is 3, which means that the mentioned activities are sometimes done by the participants.

The open-ended question was: Would you like to learn English through an Internet-based English language teaching program without a face-to-face classroom environment, which is prepared by experts and which makes self -study easy (e.g, an environment which includes videos in English, vocalizations, animations or summaries of grammar topics, etc.)? Write your answers and explain the reasons.

Examples from the participants’ answers are as follows:

Yes, I’d like to because I don’t feel motivated in classroom. I cannot follow the lesson because I talk to my friend who is sitting next to me.

Yes, I’d like to because of visuals. They make the topic easier to understand.

Yes, I’d like to learn vocabulary there and practice them in sentences.

No, I prefer face-to-face learning.

Yes, I want because in the Internet environment I can write without hesitation.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

Yes, but we need a teacher to learn, at least to guide us.

Certainly, I think it will be more effective than traditional classrooms.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The participants of the study think that use of the Internet is effective in language learning. Half of the participants prefer traditional classrooms to Internet-based learning environments. When a comparison is made with Altunay&Mutlu’s (2010a, 2010b) studies, which showed that the participants favoured traditional classrooms, it can be concluded that traditional classroom has been losing its popularity as time goes on.

The study shows that learners who prefer the Internet-based language learning environment favour it because of the following reasons: It allows a more individualized environment compared to traditional class, where students can work on their own and are not distracted by other students. Visuals makes learning effective and the Inernet allows learners to learn more vocabulary . It also allows shy learners or learners having anxiety to produce more language in a relaxed environment. This finding supports Warschauer’s (1996), Beauvois’ (1997), Perez’ (2003), Roed’s (2003), and Altunay&Mutlu’s (2010a) studies. Yet, the learners feel the need to be guided by a teacher. If Internet use become more widespread and learners use Internet-based language learning programs and see that they are effective, the number of learners who prefer the Internet-based language learning may increase. Yet, as the participants state, teacher guidance may be needed. As indicated before, 41% of the participants state that they rarely or never use English learning platforms or teaching sites. This finding is similar to the findings of Wang & Hemsley’s (2008), Altunay & Mutlu’s (2010a), and Altunay’s (2013) studies. This may be because the learners are not aware of those sites or they use translation tools on the Internet rather than real language learning platforms. They look for practical ways of dealing with language problems through using the Internet for translation rather than to learn the language itself and to interact with others.

The study shows that the learners use the Internet mostly for translation and to learn vocabulary. Learners do not use the Internet as a knowledge-sharing platform. However, learners need an environment where they collaboratively construct knowledge and produce output through genuine interaction with each other. Therefore, teachers should encourage learners to use the Internet not only for translation and learning vocabulary but also to collaborate, interact with each other and share knowledge. Teachers can make suggestions about the ELT sites on the Internet where learners can interact with each other or native speakers, and they can create groups on social media and use them as learning platforms.

In conclusion, the participants believe that Internet is effective for language learning. However, when we ask their preferences half of them still favour traditional classrooms. 31% of the participants among the other half is undecided. The reason for this can be that learners did not have a regular and systematic use of the Internet. If they are involved in a systematic Internet-based course, those undecided participants may have more certain ideas about the effectiveness of the Internet-based language learning. Learners have some familiarity with using the Internet for language learning but the range of activities they perform seems limited. Therefore, if learners take an Internet-based distance language learning course, there must be platforms which include a wide range of activities and which allow interaction and knowledge sharing. It can be concluded that learners need orientation and teacher guidance to obtain maximum benefit from an Internet-based language course.

This study was carried out with learners who took the English language course face-to-face and who used the Internet for language learning with their own initiatives. In other words, the students did not have a systematic Internet-based language learning experience which was forced by the curriculum. Further studies could be carried out with learners who have taken both face-to-face and Internet-based distance language courses. Finally, technological factors such as learners’ access to the Internet and the tools that they use to access the Internet should be investigated since they affect the effectiveness of the Internet-based learning.

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR

Dilek ALTUNAY is currently an assistant professor in Mustafa Kemal University, Department of Western Languages and Literatures. Previously, she worked in Anadolu University, Open Education Faculty as a lecturer and assistant professor. She received her PhD degree from Anadolu University, ELT programme. She obtained her M.A and B.A degrees from Bilkent University, Turkey. Currently, she is the vice head of the Department of Western Languages and Literatures, and also the assistant director of the Distance Education Research and Application Center at Mustafa Kemal University.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Dilek ALTUNAY Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Science and Letters Department of Western Languages and Literatures Hatay- TURKEY E. Mail: [email protected]

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