The Tripura of Bangladesh: a Sociolinguistic Survey

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DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2011-038

The Tripura of Bangladesh: A Sociolinguistic Survey

Amy Kim Seung Kim Palash Roy Mridul Sangma

The Tripura of Bangladesh: A Sociolinguistic Survey

Amy Kim Seung Kim Palash Roy Mridul Sangma

SIL International® 2011

CONTENTS

Abbreviations Abstract Preface 1. Introduction 1.1. Language 1.2. History 1.3. People 1.4. Purposes and goals 1.4.1. Research of language development efforts 1.4.2. Study of the language varieties 1.4.3. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study 1.5. Geography 2. Summary of Findings 2.1. Research of language development efforts 2.2. Study of the language varieties 2.2.1. Lexical similarity study 2.2.2. Intelligibility study 2.3. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study 3. Research of Language Development Efforts 3.1. Procedures 3.2. Discussion of sample 3.3. Results 4. Study of the Language Varieties 4.1 Lexical similarity study 4.1.1. Procedures 4.1.2. Discussion of sample 4.1.3. Results 4.2. Intelligibility study 4.2.1. Procedures 4.2.2. Discussion of sample 4.2.3. Results 5. Language Attitudes, Vitality, and Bilingualism Study 5.1. Procedures 5.2. Discussion of sample 5.3. Results 5.3.1. Language use 5.3.2. Language attitudes – regarding language use 5.3.3. Language attitudes – towards language classes 5.3.4. Language vitality 5.3.5. Bilingualism 6. Recommendations Bangla Translations of Section 1.4, Section 2, and Section 6 Appendices A. Wordlists B. Recorded Text Tests C. Recorded Text Test Responses

D. Questionnaires E. Sociolinguistic Questionnaire Responses F. Subject Biodata G. Tripura Community Information References

ABBREVIATIONS

CIQ = Community Information Questionnaire HTT = Hometown Test LWC = Language of Wider Communication MLE = Multilingual Education MT = Mother Tongue NGO = Non-governmental Organization RTT = Recorded Text Test TNT = Telephone and Telegraph UNICEF = United Nations Children’s Fund

ABSTRACT

The Tripura people collectively speak several language varieties. This survey report gives an account of the sociolinguistic research that took place among the Tripura in Bangladesh, including the Usoi Tripura (who refer to their language as Kau Brung), the Debbarma Tripura (who call their language Kok Borok), the Riang (who sometimes refer to their language as Kau Bru), and ten groups of Tripura from Khagrachari district (who also often call their language Kok Borok). The goals of the research were to better understand linguistic variation, language attitudes, intelligibility in select varieties, current language and community development efforts, and bilingual abilities among the Tripura people of Bangladesh. Tools used in this research were interviews, wordlists, questionnaires, and stories recorded in two varieties (Naitong Kok Borok from Khagrachari, Bangladesh, and Debbarma Kok Borok from Agartala, India). Fieldwork for this research took place from March through July 2007.

PREFACE

As part of SIL Bangladesh’s efforts to assist in the development of minority languages, we researched the many language varieties of Kok Borok in Bangladesh. The field research took us from Naikhongchari in the south to Moulvi Bazar in the north, from Rajbari in the west to Thanchi in the east. This report is the result of the research conducted from March through July 2007.

During this survey, for the first time, we had the able help and cheerful companionship of Palash Roy, a new, full-time Bangladeshi language surveyor. We commend him for his eager-to-learn attitude, his servant heart, and his valuable contribution. We also continued to enjoy the capabilities and fellowship of our other full-time survey colleague Mridul Sangma. We are thankful for these two men’s presence on the team and look forward to seeing them continue to develop into skilled language surveyors who will contribute much to minority language communities through their knowledge, skills, and character.

Many thanks also go out to the people who helped us in many ways. Numerous village and Tripura community leaders took time out of their busy schedules to meet with us, patiently sharing their knowledge of and insights into the Tripura community and graciously serving us tasty tea and fruit. We are especially grateful for the invaluable assistance of many at Zabarang Kalyan Samity, especially Dhana and Doya, who introduced us to many Tripura leaders, organizations, and village communities and accompanied us on several of our visits with these people. We are also indebted to Promud and Jagadish of the Tripura Students’ Forum, for they provided our team with important insights and connections and invaluable translation help. We wish both of these organizations many blessings as they continue to serve the Tripura people.

Finally, we reserve our deepest appreciation for the people and leaders of all the villages we researched—Barbakpur, Beltolipara, Bethanipara, Boro Pharangsia, Choto Madhuk, Dolchari, Doluchara, Jarichandrapara, Khagrapur, Katchaptali, Krishna Dayalpara, Laiphu Karbaripara, Lama, Lombapara, Mildhanpara, Noimail Gutchagram, Oldlankar, Pakkhipara, Robertpara, Sapmara, Satchari Tripura Basti, Sinaipara, Tongpaipara—who, no matter when we showed up, no matter how long we stayed, extended warm welcomes and gave their cooperation. We want to thank them for making themselves available for this work, and more than that, for accepting us, not just as researchers but also as friends. They make all the work worthwhile. It is our prayer that this work will enrich their lives in some way.

Seung and Amy Kim Language Survey Specialists SIL Bangladesh July 2007 Dhaka, Bangladesh

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Language Among the more-informed, Kok Borok (also spelled Kokborok) is the name generally used to refer to the Tripura people’s language. In many of the language varieties spoken by the Tripura people, “kok”, or something similar, means “language” and “borok,” or something similar, means “person” but is used to refer to the Tripura people. Thus, “Kok Borok” can be said to mean “the language of the Tripura people.”

Kok Borok was the official language of the independent Tripura kingdom from 585–1949, that is, for 1,364 years (Prabhangshu Tripura 2002:28). Then, on 19 January 1979, it was recognized as one of the state languages of Tripura state, India, and in 1990 Twipra University started offering a certificate of diploma in Kok Borok (Kokborok – Language of Borok people of Tripura). Kok Borok is now being considered for recognition as a national language of India (Wikipedia 2007c).

While Kok Borok is the language of the Tripura people, it may be more accurate to say that Kok Borok is the overriding name given to a group of language varieties spoken by the Tripura people, for there are several rather distinct language varieties spoken among these people. Binoy Debbarma lists “eight distinct Kokborok dialects:” Bru, Debbarma, Jamatia, Koloi, Murasing, Rupini, Tripura, and Uchoi (B. Debbarma 2003:58). Another source (Wikipedia 2007c) lists a slightly different set of eight: Debbarma, Jamatia, Koloi, Rupini, Noatia or Tripura, Darlong, Molsom, and Reang.

Thus, Kok Borok can be used to refer to the language of any Tripura person. It has also come to be known as “the standard dialect of the Debbarma tribe spoken around Agartala and the second official language of Tripura [state]” (Wikipedia 2007e). Among all of the language varieties spoken by Tripura people, it is this Debbarma language variety that has been most developed and that serves as a language of wider communication (LWC) among the Tripura people in many parts of Tripura state.

Within Bangladesh, however, only a small percentage of the Tripura people are of the Debbarma clan and speak this “standard” Kok Borok. Instead, most of the Tripura in Bangladesh speak language varieties which are related to this standard but which also have some notable differences. They do, however, share the same linguistic classification: Sino- Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Konyak-Bodo-Garo, Bodo-Garo, Bodo.

Listening to how the Tripura people of Bangladesh refer to their language among themselves revealed that those who are Debbarma do in fact generally refer to their language as Kok Borok. The Usoi Tripura, however, refer to their language as Kau Brung, and those of the Riang clan generally call their language Riang or Kau Bru. Furthermore, outsiders are generally quite unaware of the nuances of Tripura speakers’ complex language situation and often refer to the language itself as “Tripura.” Within Bangladesh this has become so commonplace that the Tripura people themselves will often call their language “Tripura,” “Tipera,” or “Tipra.” This seemed to be especially true among those living in Khagrachari district, for these people seemed to use the names “Kok Borok,” “Kau Bru,” and “Tipra” interchangeably when referring to their language. In this report the term “Kok Borok” will be used to refer collectively to the language varieties of all Tripura speakers. It will be qualified with words such as “Debbarma” or “Khagrachari” to refer to specific types of Kok Borok.

Kok Borok is a tonal language (Kokborok – Language of Borok people of Tripura). Kok Borok author Nanda Kumar Deb Barma states that there are seven tones in Kok Borok but that a symbol is needed for perhaps only three of them (Nanda Kumar Deb Barma, personal communication). With regards to tone Dr. Francois Jacquesson writes,

In Kok Borok, we have a low tone and a high tone, for instance, what Binoy Debbarma writes thwi ‘to die’ (low tone) and thwih ‘blood’ (high tone). This scholar, as others before him, writes the high tone with a final h, and wisely decided that all words without final h have the low tone. Of course, in this case all high tones should be written with h, because if you don’t do it consistently, words without h will be understood as being low tone. (2003:110)

Standard Kok Borok has tones, but whether all varieties of Kok Borok have tones is not clear. To the researchers Usoi Kau Brung sounded more tonal than the other varieties researched in Bangladesh, but whether the tones occur in minimal pairs is not known.

Dr. Jacquesson has also done some grammar and phonological analysis of Kok Borok. According to his research standard Kok Borok has 20 consonants, six vowels, and two main diphthongs. Echo words are common in Kok Borok, and suffixes are more common than prefixes on nouns. Verbs are complex, but the ways in which they are conjugated for tense and mood are fairly systematic, and they do not change for person (2003:110–116). Anyone interested in standard Kok Borok grammar should read Jacquesson’s works for much more detail.

Not only have grammar and phonological analyses been done of standard Kok Borok, but the language itself is becoming increasingly developed. Ruhi Debbarma, president of the Tripura Drama and Cultural Centre, said there are now many films and music albums in Kok Borok (personal communication). Nanda Kumar Deb Barma said there are four or five publishing companies that publish Kok Borok books, and he himself has written many pieces of literature in Kok Borok including 30 plays (personal communication). Binoy Debbarma is another well-known author of Kok Borok literature. In addition to writing numerous books and short stories, he has published an English-Kok Borok-Bengali dictionary through the Kokborok Tei Hukumu Mission (2002b).

Finally, an introductory comment about script seems fitting here. Kok Borok has a traditional script called “Koloma.” It was in this script that the chronicle of the Tripura kings was first written. This chronicle has since been translated into Sanskrit and then again into Bengali, and the original chronicle written using the Koloma script has been lost (Wikipedia 2007c). Today both Roman and Bangla scripts are used to write Kok Borok. In India Roman script seems to be more prevalent, and in Bangladesh using Bangla script to write Kok Borok seems more common. The results of an opinion survey conducted in India by Movement for Kokborok was that 63 out of 70 participants said they thought only Roman script should be used for Kokborok (B. Debbarma, comp. 2006:66). This issue will be explored more in section 3, Research of Language Development Efforts and in section 5.3.2, Language attitudes – regarding language use.

1.2. History Numerous people have written about the history of the Tripura, their origin, their kings and their kingdom. Some of these accounts are extensive, and, as is the case with most accounts

about the history of a people group, not all are in agreement. The purpose of this section of the report is not to give a lengthy account of the history of the Tripura people or to negotiate disagreements about their history; rather, its purpose is to give a synopsis of the Tripuras’ history for the less-informed reader.

Legend has it that as early as 600 B.C. the Riang, a clan of Tripura, lived in the hills south of the Matamuhuri River in present-day Bandarban district in southeast Bangladesh (B. Tripura 1978:20). It is also written that at some point in time both the Garo and the Bodo lived in Assam, India. In search of new land, the Garo settled in the areas now known as the Garo Hills, and the Bodo went to present-day Comilla district of Chittagong division, Bangladesh, and to Tripura State, India. “The successors of Boro (Bodo) later came to be known as Tipra or Tipara or Tripura” (B. Tripura 1978:9). Perhaps, at a later point in time, during the period 1463–1467, “a group of Tripuras living in the Mainyanithlang area of Lushai Hills, bordering and stretching into Arakan, immigrated to the Karnaphuli valley” of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (Rafi 2001:22).

An important source of information about the history of the Tripura kingdom is the Rajmala, a chronicle of the Tripura kings. According to this chronicle, 184 kings ruled the Tripura kingdom for about 5,000 years (Independent Twipra Manifesto 2001:1). It seems little is known about events that took place during the earlier part of these 5,000 years, however, for any sort of account of these kings’ rule goes back to a period no earlier than 585 A.D. (Saduram Tripura 10).

It is believed that the ancient kingdom of Tripura consisted of Kamalanka (Comilla), Chattal (Chittagong), and Barmanak (Rosang or Arakan) (B. Tripura 1978:11). The boundaries of the kingdom changed as the Tripura’s power waxed and waned, and the rule of this kingdom, though vast and long, was not without strife. Baren Tripura recounts:

Due to frequent attacks from the Rosang (Arakan) Kings the Muslims and from the Portugueese [sic] Pirates, the Tripura kings sometimes lost their control over Chittagong. Still at various times the ancient state of Tripura gained conquests and possession which carried its armies from Sunderbon in the west, to that Burma in the east and Kamrup in the north and Burma in the south. The Tripura Kings were at the height of their power during the sixteenth century, while Kings Dhanya Manikya (1463–1515), Deva Manikya (1515–28) and Bijoy Manikya (1528-70) were ruling their country of ancient Tripura (B. Tripura 1978:13).

Then, in “about the year 1733…Tripura was overrun by the Mughals and became a province of the Mughal Empire” (B. Tripura 1978:20). In 1760, Chittagong came under rule of the British East India Company (Islam 2006). The next year, Tripura followed suit. In 1765, the Comilla area was granted to the East India Company, but the area was established as Tripura district in 1790 (Siddiqi 2005–2006). In spite of all of this:

…the Tripura Raja was left undisturbed in his possession of the hills and in 1838 the position of Rajas as independent Chiefs of the four thousand and odd square miles of mountainous country now known as state of Hill Tipperah was recognised by the Governor of Bengal. In spite of the Kingdom being desolated by the Mughal Force…the independence of his kingdom was not interfered with. (B. Tripura 1978:21)

The last independent and coronated King of Tripura, Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya, died in 1949 (Wikipedia 2007h). In the same year the Tripura kingdom was officially joined with the Indian Union. Thus, from 585 A.D. until 1949 the Tripura kingdom’s rule lasted 1364 years (Saduram Tripura 10). 1.3. People There are at least two hypotheses about the origin of the name “Tripura.” Some believe the Tripura once lived at a river junction and that the name comes from the combination of two Kok Borok words: ‘tui,’ meaning “water,” and ‘pra,’ meaning “confluence” (Geocities). Others believe the word “was derived from the word ‘Tipet-rao,’ (man group of Tipet or Tibet)” (B. Tripura 1978:4).

The Tripura people have mongoloid features, and it is believed that they originally migrated from Western China sometime before 65 AD (Wikipedia 2007g). Now the Tripura live primarily in Tripura state, India, and in Bangladesh. One source estimates the total Tripura population to be 950,000 (Wikipedia 2007g). Another source says there are more than one million in Tripura state alone (Ruhi Debbarma, personal communication). Reported population figures for Bangladesh range from 81,014 (The Statistical Pocketbook Bangladesh 2000) to 200,000 (Prabhangshu Tripura 2001:8). The actual figure is probably somewhere in between. Monindra Lal Tripura (personal communication) suggested there are 150,000 Tripura in all of Bangladesh with 85,000 in Khagrachari district, 17,000 in Rangamati district, and 25,000 in Bandarban district. Abhijit Debbarma (personal communication) said there are approximately 5,000 Debbarma in Sylhet division, and Hasi Chawdhury (personal communication) estimated there are 300 Tripura in the Rajbari area.

These population figures include Tripura from many clans or “dophas.” It is commonly reported that there are 36 Tripura clans, but there is not exact agreement about the names of these 36 clans, for different lists give slightly different names. Table 1 shows a comparison of three such lists, all published by Bangladeshi Tripura researchers and historians. The clans that are most commonly named are at the top of the table, and those that are named on only one of the three lists are given at the bottom. The fourth column in table 1 lists the dophas that were studied during the field research that led to this report.

Table 1. Comparison of lists of Tripura clans History of Khagrachari The Tripura people The Tripuras of Chittagong Researched Hill District, p.46 and their history, p.5 Hill Tracts, p.26 for this report Khali Khali Khali* Khali Naitong Naitong Naitong* Naitong Kewa Kewa Kewa* Kewa Phatong Phatung Fatung* Phatung Kema Kema Kema* Kema Dendak Dendak Dendaok* Dendak Gabing Gabing Gaving* Gabing Aslong Aslong Assalong* Aslong Tongpai Tongpai Tongpai* Tongpai Anok Anok Anok* Anok Usui Usui Utsai* Usoi Riang Riang Riyang* Riang Gorjong Gorjong Garjang* Muiching Moiching Moiching* Mongbai Mongbai Mongbai* Gurpai Gurpai Gurpai Jomatia Jomaitia Jamatia Khakulu Khakulu Khakulu Koloi Koloi Koloi Rukkini Rukkini Rukshini Molsom Moslom Molsom Bongcher Bongcher Bongchor Bong Bong Bong Choroi Choroi Choroi Harbang Harbang (sub-clan of Fatung)* Beri Beri Beri Daspa Despa Daspa Murasing Morasing* Gaigra Gaigara* Hapang Hapang Jantong Jantong Halam Halam Koli Koli Rangkhol Rangkhal Thaithak Thaitak Paithak Paithak Garo/Kachar Garo? Mokchak Mukchak Dampa Makhra Maipala Paigra Kharjong Jangtung Bodo? Hajong? Dimasha? * Reported to be in Bangladesh

Beri, Daspa, and perhaps other clans are known as Debbarma, the most populous sub-tribe of Tripura in Tripura state. Riang is the second largest sub-tribe there, and Jomatia is third (Wikipedia 2007b). Within Bangladesh, however, the Debbarma and Riang populations are fairly small, and that of Jomatia is very small with perhaps only a few Jomatia families living near the Indian border.

In Bangladesh, Usoi is one of the largest Tripura clans, with a population of 22,365 in Bandarban district (Saduram Tripura, personal communication). In Khagrachari district and the surrounding areas Naitong and Dendak are probably the two largest clans (Monindra Lal Tripura and Dhana Tripura, personal communications). While it seems increasingly common for a Tripura from one clan to marry a Tripura from another clan, especially among those of the less-populous clans, the Tripura seldom marry outside of the Tripura community.

Traditionally, each Tripura dopha has its own clothes and jewelry. Necklaces made of beads and shells are common, and most women of the older generation wear large rings in their ears which, over time, have made a sizeable hole in the earlobe. Especially the older generation of Usoi women also wears dozens of beaded necklaces.

Women wear a wraparound skirt called a “rignai,” and the patterns of the rignai are said to be particular to each clan. Though there is some mixing of patterns or borrowing of designs these days, an informed person can still generally know which clan a Tripura woman is from by noticing the pattern on her rignai. Tradition has it that Subrai Raja, “the most famous and legendary King of Tripura,” married women who were able to make a new rignai design. His 250 wives made 250 rignai designs (Wikipedia 2007f). Today many of these designs are lost, but the various clans’ designs remain distinct.

Tripura women used to wear a piece of cloth called a “risa” to cover their chest and another cloth called a “rikutu” to cover the whole upper body. These days, however, many Tripura women wear a blouse. Men in village settings often wear a tube-like wraparound skirt called a “lungi” in Bangla, and many in town settings wear western clothes.

Most Tripura in Bangladesh live in hilly village settings, and their houses are generally made of bamboo and/or mud. In Bandarban and some of the more rural areas of Khagrachari, their houses are built up on stilts and have large open porches on the front where one can enjoy a nice breeze even on a hot day.

The Boishak festival marks the new year for the Tripura and is the most important social festival of the year. “The festival lasts for three days starting from the second-last day of the Bangla calendar. The first, second, and final day of the festival are called Hari Boishuk, Boishukma, and Bisikatal respectively” (Rafi et al. 2001:17). Dance and music are also traditionally important parts of Tripura culture (Baren Tripura 1978:35).

Most Tripura follow the Sonaton religion. This has some Hindu elements in it, but it is distinct in a number of ways. For example, they worship the god Shiva and the goddess Khali, along with 14 other gods and goddesses, but they do not believe in the caste system (Rafi 2001:16). There are also elements of animism in their beliefs. Today, the Usoi in Bangladesh are primarily Christian, and there is a small number of Christians among some of the other clans as well.

Finally, a note is in order about a famous Tripura person from what is now Bangladesh. Sachin Dev Burman, also known as Burman da or S.D. Burman, was born in Comilla in 1906,

the grandson of Tripura Raja Ishanachandra Dev Burman. As a composer and musician, “his early work for radio was based on East Bengali and Tripuri folk-music.” Even as he went on to become “one of the most famous Bollywood music composers and an all time great Bengalee singer and composer” his compositions were influenced by music traditions of the Tripura kingdom. His son, Rahul Dev Burman, became a success in Bollywood as a music director (Wikipedia 2007d). 1.4. Purposes and goals The primary purpose of this sociolinguistic survey was to gather information that could assist in the planning of a language development program for the Tripura people in Bangladesh. We wanted to know which of the 36 reported Kok Borok language varieties are actually spoken in Bangladesh and what the linguistic relationship among these varieties is. We also wanted to know which of these varieties would be most suitable for development based on linguistic centrality, population figures, attitudes towards the numerous varieties, and, of course, existing literature development efforts both in Bangladesh and India. To meet these purposes, the following goals were established:

1. To investigate linguistic variation among the Kok Borok language varieties in Bangladesh and to compare these to the Kok Borok Debbarma variety in India 2. To better understand speakers’ attitudes towards their own and other languages 3. To become more aware of current language and community development efforts among the Tripura 4. To determine which Kok Borok language varieties are the most probable candidates for extensive literature development 5. To measure intelligibility in these select varieties by speakers of other Kok Borok varieties 6. To assess Tripura speakers’ bilingual abilities in Bangla, Chakma, and Marma.

To accomplish these goals, this sociolinguistic survey of the Tripura in Bangladesh was carried out in three interrelated parts: 1) research into past and current language development efforts, 2) a linguistic study of the Kok Borok language varieties in Bangladesh, and 3) a language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study. Table 2 gives a summary of the sociolinguistic methods used in this survey.

Table 2. Overview of methods Study Method Brief description Focus Sample size Semi-formal • Language and conversations with community Leader Tripura development efforts • • 25 meetings Research of interviews community and Opinions about language political leaders script and language and authors development development decision-making efforts structures Perusal of relevant • Numerous Background • Language variety literature and books and research and population websites websites information • 10 lists from • Khagrachari Lexical variation district within each group of Lexical • 5 Usoi lists wordlists similarity 306-item wordlist • 3 Debbarma • Lexical similarity comparison wordlists across groups of • 1 Mukchak wordlists wordlist • 1 Riang list • 186 subjects Study of the from 18 A 13-item language villages questionnaire varieties • 2 Riang • Perceived similarity speakers Comprehension and differences Intelligibility test of recorded among language study stories in Naitong varieties • 59 subjects and Debbarma • Intelligibility across from 6 Kok Borok language varieties villages 3-5 questions

about each storyteller’s speech

• Language • 186 subjects preferences from 18 Sociolinguistic A 25-item • Attitudes toward villages Language questionnaire questionnaire language varieties • 2 Riang attitudes, • Domains of language speakers vitality, and use bilingualism • Long-term viability study of language varieties • Perceived ability in Community A 32-item any second language Information • 21 villages questionnaire • Education patterns Questionnaire

1.4.1. Research of language development efforts To date a number of people have been involved in Kok Borok literature development. Numerous Tripura community leaders and political leaders also have important ideas about developing their language. Semi-formal interviews were conducted with some of these people in an effort to learn about the work that has already taken place, to better understand plans for future language development work, and to see trends in opinions about language development issues such as which script to use and which varieties to develop. Leaders were also asked about the linguistic relationships among Kok Borok varieties and what the relative populations are among speakers of the numerous varieties. Websites, books, and magazines were also researched for useful information about Kok Borok language-development efforts.

1.4.2. Study of the language varieties Lexical Similarity Comparison A primary method, or tool, used in the study of the Kok Borok language varieties was a 306- item wordlist taken from a total of 20 villages: ten villages in Khagrachari district, five Usoi villages, three Debbarma villages, one Mukchak village, and one Riang village. Each of the villages visited in Khagrachari district is of a different clan and has a different clan name. The villages were chosen in an effort to visit as many different clans’ villages as possible and also to get a range in regards to remoteness of village location. The five Usoi villages, the three Debbarma villages, and the Mukchak village were chosen based primarily on location so as to get a fairly wide geographical distribution. Because Riang speakers in Bangladesh live in very remote areas and because their population is small, only one Riang wordlist was elicited. In addition, three Garo wordlists and a standard Bangla wordlist were used for comparison. All of these wordlists were compared with each other in order to determine the lexical similarity among all varieties studied. The results of the comparison were also used to decide which varieties to use for intelligibility testing. See appendix A.1 for standard procedures for counting lexical similarity.

Intelligibility Study The mother-tongue speakers of a language often have a good feel for how similar or different their own language is compared to the language varieties of their acquaintances. Thus, to get a basic understanding of the linguistic situation among the Tripura of Bangladesh, several questions were included as part of a larger sociolinguistic questionnaire. These questions asked about Kok Borok language differences in general. They also asked specifically about Debbarma Kok Borok and about Kau Brung (Usoi) because some significant literature has been published in each of these languages. These questions are in appendix D.1, question numbers 7, 8, and 9.

The final tool used to study language varieties was Recorded Text Tests (RTTs). RTTs were used primarily to determine how widely intelligible Debbarma Kok Borok and Naitong are among the Tripura living in Khagrachari district. A secondary use of the RTTs was to test how well the Tripura in Barbakpur understand each of these varieties as this could indicate how vital any variety of Tripura is among them. In order to meet these purposes, seven stories were recorded: one each for Debbarma and Naitong to be used for comprehension testing in selected villages and one each for Khali, Aslong, Anok, Phatung, and the Mukchak of Barbakpur. These latter five texts were used only as a practice and screening tool for the ensuing Naitong and Debbarma tests.

1.4.3. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study A sociolinguistic questionnaire was the primary tool used to better understand the Tripuras’ attitudes towards their own and other languages, the long-term vitality of each language variety studied, and the community’s bilingual abilities in regional or national languages such as Chakma, Marma, and Bangla. Post-RTT and post-hometown test (HTT) questionnaires were used to shed further light on attitudes towards Tripura language varieties. This information gives an indication as to whether the various language communities would accept and use materials translated into their own language variety or into another language variety which is highly intelligible with their own. In addition, a Community Information Questionnaire (CIQ) was used to gather information about language vitality and the depth and breadth of bilingualism. These questionnaires are all given in appendix D. 1.5. Geography The Tripura of Bangladesh live in villages that cover a wide geographic area, almost exclusively in the eastern side of the country. There are Usoi Tripura villages as far south as Naikhongchari subdistrict in Bandarban district, Chittagong division, and there are Debbarma Tripura villages as far north as Srimangal subdistrict in Moulvi Bazar district, Sylhet division. In between are many Tripura villages, with the Usoi Tripura concentrated in Bandarban district and Riang speakers in northern Rangamati district. Tripura of many related clans such as Naitong, Dendak, Gabing, Khali, and Phatung are concentrated in Khagrachari district, but there are also significant populations of some of these clans in Fatikchari subdistrict of Chittagong district. The relatively small population of Debbarma speakers in Bangladesh is more scattered, though there is a small cluster of Debbarma villages in Habiganj district of Sylhet division. Overall, however, the vast majority of Tripura people who live in Bangladesh live in Chittagong division, and among those who live in Chittagong division, most are in the three Chittagong Hill Tracts. These areas are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. The six divisions of Bangladesh and the three Chittagong Hill districts

The Chittagong Hill Tracts made up a single district of Bangladesh until 1984, at which time the area was divided into the three separate districts of Khagrachari, Rangamati, and Bandarban (Wikipedia 2007a). Covering an area of about 13,180 square kilometers, these

three districts make up less than one-tenth of the total area of Bangladesh. This area is the primary hilly area of the country and is home to Bangladesh’s highest peaks. Situated along the Myanmar border, Mowdok Mual is the highest point in Bangladesh and reaches 1,003 meters (Chowdhury).

The hills of the three Chittagong Hill districts make travel relatively more challenging than it is in most other parts of the country. Local bus and jeep travel is slow and in some areas is limited to giving access to the subdistrict headquarter towns only. Thus, in Bandarban district we walked to most villages from these more accessible towns, and in Khagrachari district we rented jeeps on a few occasions to take us as far as possible before we again had to walk the final distance to a chosen village. The few villages we visited outside of the Hill Tracts were completely accessible by road. See figure 2 for the location of each village within Bangladesh visited on the survey. Also, see the community information in appendix G for details on the district and subdistrict of each village and possible transportation to each.

Figure 2. Location of villages surveyed in Bangladesh (other than Barbakpur)

2. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 2.1. Research of language development efforts Some exciting efforts have been made to develop Kok Borok in India and Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, a Kok Borok radio program is being broadcast from Chittagong City, and several pieces of literature have been produced. This literature includes an annual magazine, a poetic song book, two glossaries, and some early-children’s educational materials. There is undoubtedly even more available.

The same script is not being used consistently to produce this literature. Most Kok Borok literature in India is produced using Roman script, but it seems Bangla script is more commonly used to write Kok Borok in Bangladesh. Most people involved in Kok Borok language development in Bangladesh, however, expressed a desire to see Roman script used to write their language.

In regard to language variation, information gathered through Tripura background research and personal interviews indicated fairly wide agreement among those in Khagrachari that the Naitong language variety is a good candidate for further language development. These opinions are based on leaders’ perceptions of how extensively Naitong is understood by non- Naitong Tripura people and on how developed Naitong is as a spoken language. Usoi leaders indicated that the Usoi spoken throughout Bandarban district is the same in all locations, other than in Rawangchari. Further information on this topic is in section 3. 2.2. Study of the language varieties

2.2.1. Lexical similarity study To gain a better understanding of language variation, wordlists were elicited from speakers from five Usoi villages. Lexical similarity results from these wordlists indicate there is relatively little variation in the ways Usoi is spoken in Bangladesh. Similarly, among the three Debbarma wordlists collected for this survey, there is relatively high lexical similarity. It is quite likely that Debbarma speakers from Bangladesh would be able to understand much of the Debbarma literature produced in India.

Each of the 10 wordlists collected in Khagrachari district represents a different Tripura clan’s language variety. None of these language varieties stand out as being central to the cluster of Kok Borok varieties spoken in Khagrachari district. Rather, eight of the ten clans’ language varieties have an average lexical similarity of between 73 percent and 76 percent. Only the Phatung and Aslong varieties have somewhat lower lexical similarity percentage averages with the other nine Khagrachari varieties studied. These averages are 69 percent and 63 percent, respectively. These two varieties could therefore be considered more peripheral to the cluster of Kok Borok varieties found in Khagrachari district.

Comparing the wordlists from Khagrachari with other Kok Borok wordlists indicates immediately that the Usoi Tripura speak a language that is different from each of those spoken by the Tripura in Khagrachari district. Similarly, with the possible exception of Kewa, the Khagrachari varieties are distinct from Riang. They are also most likely distinct from Mukchak. With lexical similarity percentages ranging from 60–74 percent, there is a stronger relationship between the Khagrachari Kok Borok varieties and Debbarma Kok Borok.

The Usoi Tripura speak a language that is different not only from each of those spoken in Khagrachari district but also from the language varieties spoken by the Debbarma and the Mukchak. Only with Riang is there a possibility that Usoi may be a dialect of the same language, but even this is doubtful given lexical similarity percentages ranging from only 59– 67 percent.

The lexical similarity study also shows that the variety of Tripura spoken in Barbakpur, referred to in this report as Mukchak, is more similar to Debbarma than to any of the other varieties studied.

Finally, comparing select Garo wordlists with the Kok Borok wordlists results in low lexical similarity percentages with each of the 20 Kok Borok varieties studied. These results do not lend any support to the suggestion that Garo is a Tripura clan. While Garo and Kok Borok are linguistically related, they are nowhere close to being dialects of the same language; instead, they are separate languages of the same language family.

2.2.2. Intelligibility study Responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire indicate there is limited interaction among the Tripura living in different Bangladesh districts. For example, the Debbarma of Sylhet division have little interaction with other Tripura people in Bangladesh, and the Mukchak of Rajbari seem to have extremely limited communication with other Tripura. Possibly because they are a larger group, the Usoi may have slightly more interaction with other Tripura people. Reported comprehension abilities in Usoi by other Tripura groups and the language they use to communicate with the Usoi, however, indicate it is especially difficult for non-Usoi Tripura people to understand Usoi.

Presumably because of their close geographical proximity to each other, speakers of most any given Kok Borok variety located in Khagrachari district do have considerable interaction with speakers of other Khagrachari varieties. They also seem to have a good amount of awareness of varieties other than their own. Exactly one-half of the Khagrachari subjects said the Naitong variety is the easiest to understand. Dendak and Khali were mentioned second- and third-most often as the easiest to understand.

Anok, Aslong, Khali, and Phatung subjects who took a Naitong comprehension test scored an average of 85 percent. This indicates that many non-Naitong Tripura in Khagrachari district should be able to use Naitong language materials well. An accompanying high standard deviation of 13.6, however, is a good caution that not all Khagrachari Tripura will be able to do so. This is because Naitong is learned, rather than being naturally comprehensible due to linguistic closeness, by many Khagrachari Tripura who speak other varieties as their mother tongue. Thus, in speculating how well the speakers of a Khagrachari Tripura variety can understand Naitong, perhaps the most important factor to consider is remoteness of the speakers’ village, for a person’s understanding of Naitong is dependent upon the amount of exposure the person has had to Naitong.

The average score on an Indian Debbarma comprehension test was 63 percent, considerably lower than that for Naitong. With the possible exception of the Anok, it is doubtful that any of the groups in Khagrachari or the Mukchak in Rajbari could use Debbarma literature well. This is also true for the Usoi, as was earlier established by low lexical similarity percentages. A much more detailed discussion on language varieties is presented in section 4.

2.3. Language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism study Responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire show that most of the Tripura of Khagrachari and most of the Usoi Tripura use their mother tongue whenever possible. The Debbarma also seem to use their mother tongue most of the time in their village but not in other domains. In contrast, most of the Mukchak use Bangla a majority of the time in all domains. The Riang live in a multilingual situation and use a variety of minority languages.

Many Bangladeshi Tripura appear to have a fair amount of pride in their language, but they also understandably acknowledge a need for Bangla and have a desire for their children to learn Bangla well. At the same time, nearly all sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects expressed a desire to send their children to multilingual education (MLE) classes in which children would learn first in their mother tongue and then build on that knowledge to learn in Bangla. To some extent the reasons people gave for wanting their children to participate in such classes reflect the vitality of their respective language varieties. For example, the most common reason given by Usoi and Khagrachari subjects was that they wanted the children to learn to read and write their mother tongue. The Debbarma, Mukchak, and Riang subjects, on the other hand, were much more likely to say they would send their children simply so that they could know their mother tongue better.

Without a doubt Usoi, numerous Khagrachari Kok Borok language varieties, and even Debbarma in Bangladesh will remain vital into the next generation. Among the Mukchak, however, rapid language shift is taking place, and already most Mukchak in Bangladesh speak Bangla better than any other language. The long-term viability of Riang in Bangladesh also seems threatened in that Riang children do not consistently learn Riang as their first language. The threat to Riang comes not so much from Bangla but rather from a mix of regional minority languages.

Part of the reason Usoi and numerous Khagrachari language varieties are so vital is that many of their speakers possess only limited fluency in any other language. Although some can speak languages such as Chakma, Marma, and/or Murung, Bangla is the most common second language in each of these two groups, but even in Bangla there is low overall community bilingualism. Also, these people generally begin to acquire Bangla several years after the age at which they would start school. As people from these groups become more educated in Bangla-medium schools, community bilingualism in Bangla will increase, but the rate at which this will take place will very likely be slow.

Compared with the Usoi and the Tripura of Khagrachari, the Debbarma of Sylhet division are considerably more fluent in Bangla. They have more exposure to Bangla in general and more opportunities for Bangla-medium education. Thus, this community will become increasingly bilingual in Bangla at a much faster rate than the Usoi and the Khagrachari Tripura. Section 5 of this report gives more detail on language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism.

3. RESEARCH OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS 3.1. Procedures The procedures used to research Kok Borok language development efforts were very simple. They essentially consisted of conducting interviews in person and doing background research through available literature and websites. These things should be done for any sociolinguistic survey, but for many language varieties, very little has been done in the realm of language development. Thus, little research can be done about such activities. For Kok Borok, however, relatively much effort has been given to language development, both in terms of the actual production of literature and in terms of thought given to issues such as script. For this particular survey, therefore, a separate section is being dedicated to these efforts. 3.2. Discussion of sample In total we researchers met with roughly 25 individuals and groups to discuss their experience with and ideas about Kok Borok language and community development. Several of those we met with were Tripura political leaders; others were Tripura people with non-government organization (NGO) experience in Tripura research and/or development. Some were members of a Tripura Language Development Committee; others were Tripura students interested in the development of the Tripura people in general. Some lived in cities, some in towns, some in Bangladesh, and some in India. 3.3. Results Because the language variety situation among the Tripura is complex, one topic that was addressed in nearly all conversations with leaders and others interested in Tripura development was that of language variation and the presence and location of various Tripura clans. This question was especially pertinent for the situation in Khagrachari district, where Tripura people of many clans live.

Haripadma Tripura, former Tripura Student Forum president, has himself done research of the various Tripura clans in Bangladesh. He was able to shed light on some gray areas with regards to the names, location, and presence (or lack thereof) of certain clans in Bangladesh (see table 1, section 1.3, for three other researchers’ listings of Tripura clans). For example, he said there are no Jomatia in Bangladesh expect perhaps a few families that live along the Indian border. He also shared that there are Mongbai Tripura in Bangladesh but that their population is small and scattered. There are a few Mongbai families in one area, a couple others in another area, and so on. He said pure Mongbai is no longer spoken in Bangladesh because the Mongbai people’s language has become mixed with that of their Tripura neighbors. Also according to Mr. Haripadma, Harbang is not a clan in and of itself but is instead a subclan under Naitong and Phatung. Based on this information, we chose not to collect data from the Jomatia, the Mongbai, or the Harbang (H. Tripura, personal communication).

Other interviewees from the Khagrachari area had opinions about which language variety might be best used for language development. For example, Mr. Monindra Lal Tripura, Hill District Council chairman, said Naitong should be developed because it is more widely intelligible than other language varieties and also because it is more developed as a spoken language (Monindra Lal Tripura, personal communication). Mr. Prabhangshu Tripura, Chief Producer (rural) for Bangladesh Betar Chittagong, seems to agree. Even though he himself is

Khali, he said he does his radio programs in “middle” Tripura, and he thinks Naitong is closest to this. Naitong is the clearest and the “sweetest,” he shared (Prabhangshu Tripura, personal communication). A Dendak woman who married a Gabing man and moved to his village seven years ago said, other than Dendak, Naitong is the easiest form of Kok Borok for the Dendak to understand (Suchitra Tripura, personal communication). The four Riang men shared that, for Riang speakers in Bangladesh, Naitong and Dendak are easier than other Kok Borok varieties for them to understand (Riang, et al., personal communication).

With regards to language variation among the Usoi, Jagat Chandra Tripura, an Usoi man from southeastern Bandarban, shared that the Tripura living in Rawangchari, Bandarban and in Rajasthali, Rangamati are Usoi but that their variety of speech is somewhat different. Furthermore, he said those in Rawangchari call themselves “Khaingshak.” Mr. Jagat Chandra Tripura himself lived in Rawangchari for several years (personal communication). Also with regards to the Usoi, Shakti Pada Tripura, Khagrachari District Headman Association chairperson, shared that there is one Usoi village in Khagrachari. It is 4.5 kilometers from Khagrachari city, and people there speak a mixed form of Kok Borok (Shakti Pada Tripura, personal communication).

The language situation among the Riang in Bangladesh is an interesting one. There are many Riang people in Rangamati, but only about 500 of them still speak Riang (Riang, et. al, personal communication). Most of the other Riang now speak a form of Chakma as their mother tongue. The same is apparently true for the Harbang of Rangamati. While these Tripura people speak Chakma as their first language, it is still uncommon for Tripura and Chakma to marry each other, indicating that there is still significant distinction between the two groups (Dhiman Tripura, personal communication).

Especially in regard to standard Kok Borok, some language development efforts were mentioned in section 1.1 on Language. This present section will cover more local efforts. For example, several people mentioned a twice-weekly radio program that is produced in Chittagong City. Suchitra Tripura said it is broadcast on Wednesdays and Saturdays at 4:00 in the afternoon and that it is in Naitong. Naitong speakers from Lombapara, however, said it is not always in Naitong. A Dhaka University student, for example, may record a program in his own Kok Borok variety. It is likely that these people are referring to the radio programs that Prabhangshu Tripura produces in “middle Tripura,” which he thinks is closest to Naitong. These programs are broadcast on medium wave 343.64 with 1,098 kilowatt (Prabhangshu Tripura, personal communication).

Other Kok Borok language-development efforts include an annual magazine, ৈবs (Boishu), which is published by the Tripura Students’ Forum, Bangladesh (Jagadish Tripura, personal communication). The Bangladesh Tripura Kalyan Sangsad has produced a Tripura song and poetry book using Bangla script (Proshanto Kumar Tripura 2005). Boren Tripura and Surendro Lal Tripura have produced a book with a glossary, some grammar rules, and short stories through the Tribal Cultural Institute in Rangamati (1995). This is also in Bangla script. A Kokborok-English-Bangla “Kokborok Word Bank” has been produced in Roman script (Mathura Tripura, 2002). Also, Mathura and his colleagues at the Zabarang Kalyan Samity have begun to develop young children’s educational materials in some of the varieties of Kok Borok found in Khagrachari district, also in Roman script (Dhana Tripura, personal communication). Among the Usoi in Bangladesh, too, some children’s educational materials are being developed (Olson Tripura, personal communication). Also, a Tripura New

Testament has been published by the Bangladesh Bible Society in the Usoi language variety using Bangla script (1996).

Because choosing and developing a script is an important step in the language-development process, most interviewees were asked for their opinions and general information about this issue. A couple of leaders said Bangla script would be better because more people could readily use it, but most leaders shared that Roman script should be used. For example, Milton Tripura, a Usoi mother-tongue speaker, shared that information has come from Agartala that Tripura people should use Roman script and that Mathura Tripura of Khagrachari has been given the responsibility to carry this work forward (personal communication). Monindra Lal Tripura from Khagrachari said leaders from both Bangladesh and India have decided to use Roman script (personal communication). Ruhi Debbarma of Tripura state said that the educated tend to want Roman script to be used, while the uneducated and those who are politically on the side of Bengali, want Bangla script (personal communication). Section 5.3.2 of this report discusses the opinions about script given by the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects. Prabhangshu Tripura, who has authored numerous books about the Tripura people and their language, said those in Agartala who are involved in language development are flexible about both script and dialect (personal communication).

Along with language-development efforts, several important community development efforts are taking place by and among the Tripura of Bangladesh. The Tripura Students’ Forum, for example, is especially involved in education motivation (Promud Bikash Tripura, personal communication). Monindra Lal Tripura and his associates recently facilitated a workshop about including mother-tongue education at the primary school level (personal communication). United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), on the other hand, has started a preschool program in which a Tripura teacher teaches the children Bangla so they’ll be more prepared for government, Bangla-medium primary education (Suchitra Tripura, personal communication). A main work of the Tripura Kalyan Shangshod is to preserve Tripura culture (Jotindralal Tripura, personal communication), and the Khagrachari District Headman Association seeks to strengthen and empower the local village chiefs (karbaris) and to ensure their people’s rights (Shakti Pada Tripura, personal communication).

One can see that much is happening among the Tripura. It is our hope that the sociolinguistic information in the following sections and the discussions that will hopefully take place because of this information will lead to good coordination of this development work.

4. STUDY OF THE LANGUAGE VARIETIES 4.1 Lexical similarity study

4.1.1. Procedures Comparing the vocabulary of language varieties is one way to measure the lexical similarity among them. During this survey of Kok Borok language varieties, lexical similarities were calculated as a percentage of words from a 306-item list which resemble each other in sound (Blair 1990:28-29). For each location, a wordlist was gathered from one person, but – with the exceptions of Choto Madhuk and Boro Pharangsia – there were always others around the primary wordlist giver who could confirm or correct the word given. Thus, a separate wordlist from a second person was not needed. In cases where two different but valid words were given by two people, both were accepted. The researchers transcribed the wordlists using the International Phonetic Alphabet. They then compared the wordlists by following the established procedures outlined in appendices A.1. and A.2. The WordSurv© computer program designed by SIL (Wimbish 1989) was used to do the final lexical similarity calculations.

4.1.2. Discussion of sample Wordlists were collected from a total of 20 Tripura villages representing 14 clans. Also used in this study were wordlists from three Garo villages visited on a previous sociolinguistic survey by some of the same researchers (Ahmad 2005). These villages, their location by subdistrict and district, and the clan from which a wordlist was taken are shown in table 3.

Table 3. Wordlist sites Village Clan Subdistrict and District Katchaptali Usoi (Panji) Rawangchari, Bandarban Robertpara Usoi (Joloi) Thanchi, Bandarban Bethanipara Usoi (Panji) Ruma, Bandarban Choto Madhuk Usoi Thanchi, Bandarban Boro Pharangsia Usoi Lama, Bandarban Lombapara Naitong Khagrachari, Khagrachari Noimail Gutchagram Dendak Dighinala, Khagrachari Dolchari/Sapmara Gabing Matiranga, Khagrachari Tongpaipara Tongpai Matiranga, Khagrachari Beltolipara Khali Khagrachari, Khagrachari Laiphu Karbaripara Anok Matiranga, Khagrachari Krishna Dayalpara Kewa Matiranga, Khagrachari Pakkhipara Kema Khagrachari, Khagrachari Jarichandrapara Phatung Matiranga, Khagrachari Mildhanpara Aslong Panchari, Khagrachari Oldlankar Riang Baghaichari, Rangamati Satchari Debbarma (Dona/Beri) Chunarughat, Habiganj Doluchara Debbarma (Daspa) Srimangal, Moulvi Bazar Khumulung Debbarma Tripura state, India Barbakpur Mukchak Rajbari, Rajbari Gajni Abeng (Garo) Jhinaigati, Sherpur Nagar Sontosh Chibok (Garo) Haluaghat, Mymensingh Nalchapra A’tong (Garo) Kalmakanda, Netrokona

Because the Usoi live in a fairly large and remote geographical area, five Usoi villages were chosen as wordlist sites. These five were chosen in an effort to have a good representation of the various areas in which the Usoi live.

The ten Khagrachari Tripura wordlist sites were primarily chosen so as to get a wordlist from as many clans as possible. Secondarily, the sites were chosen to represent various degrees of remoteness – which almost necessarily also represents various degrees of mixing with other clans – and so as to have a wide geographic representation of villages within Khagrachari district.

Riang speakers in Bangladesh live in remote areas, and these areas were not accessible to the researchers during their fieldwork times. Instead, four Riang men traveled to Khagrachari to meet with the researchers. The two from Oldlankar gave a Riang wordlist while the two from Thalchara gave input on the few words that were different.

The three Debbarma wordlists were chosen for various reasons. As was shown in table 1, Debbarma is not the name of a Tripura clan. Rather, it is the family name of a large percentage of Tripura people and also the name of a Kok Borok language variety. While Debbarma is not a clan, there are clans made up of Debbarma people. In Bangladesh the Daspa, Beri, and Dona are all reported to be Debbarma, and their main population center is in the Moulvi Bazar/Habiganj area. A Debbarma wordlist was elicited in Doluchara village of Moulvi Bazar district, where most of the people are Daspa. Another Debbarma wordlist was taken in Satchari village of Habiganj district, where most of the people come from the Beri

and/or Dona clans. People from both of these clans speak Debbarma and seem to have mixed freely with each other in this area. Now the clan distinctions seem to be very slight, and many people from the younger generation even seemed unaware of these clan names.

As mentioned in section 1.1, Debbarma is considered one of the more prominent Kok Borok varieties in India, and the Debbarma spoken in and around Agartala, India, has started to be thought of as the standard. Thus, a Debbarma wordlist from Khumulung, near Agartala, India, was also taken.

Lastly, a wordlist was taken in Barbakpur of Rajbari district, an area quite removed from other areas where Tripura people live. Most of the people there simply call their language “Tripura,” but a couple of people referred to it as Mukchak. Since there are no other Mukchak villages in Bangladesh, it was not possible to verify this. For this report, “Mukchak” is the name that will be used for the Tripura people of Barbakpur, but it should be kept in mind that their speech variety is undoubtedly very different from pure Mukchak.

Several authors have suggested that Garo might be a Tripura clan (for example, see table 1). The ancient histories of each of these groups are too vague to support this idea, and the present-day geographic areas and cultures seem sufficiently different so as to be able to call the Garo a separate group. It is true, however, that there are linguistic similarities between Garo language varieties and the language varieties spoken by the Tripura. The Kok Borok varieties are classified as Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Konyak- Bodo-Garo, Bodo-Garo, Bodo. The Garo varieties are classified as Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto- Burman, Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo, Konyak-Bodo-Garo, Bodo-Garo, Garo (Gordon, ed. 2005:362, 368 [emphasis mine]). That is, only at the most specific level of classification is there a difference. Thus, out of curiosity as linguists and because a couple Tripura leaders expressed interest in knowing how closely related Kok Borok and Garo are linguistically, three Garo wordlists were compared with the above-mentioned Kok Borok wordlists. These wordlists were elicited during previous fieldwork done among the Garo by some of the same researchers (Ahmad et al. 2005). Three different Garo language varieties were chosen for comparison: Abeng, which is the most common variety spoken in Bangladesh, Chibok, and A’tong.

4.1.3. Results Table 4 shows the results from comparing the 20 Kok Borok wordlists with the three Garo wordlists and a standard Bangla wordlist. The letter in parentheses is that village’s code letter for the wordlists given in appendix A.3.

Table 4. Lexical similarity chart Katchaptali (l) 89 Robertpara (j) 92 88 Bethanipara (k) Usoi Tripura (Kau Brung) 90 85 91 Choto Madhuk (b) 86 89 86 83 Boro Pharangsia (a)

50 46 47 46 42 Naitong (d) 56 51 53 52 47 74 Dendak (h) 56 52 54 54 48 73 85 Gabing (c) 59 52 56 54 50 77 83 81 Tongpai (f) Khagrachari Tripura (Kok Borok) 53 47 50 48 44 80 71 75 75 Khali (i) 51 46 48 46 44 79 74 70 75 84 Anok (m) 59 53 55 54 50 74 75 74 78 74 77 Kewa (n) 49 45 47 46 42 79 72 74 75 81 81 70 Kema (e) 44 39 42 40 37 70 68 70 70 73 74 67 70 Phatung (o) 59 54 56 55 51 62 65 66 70 61 62 67 62 56 Aslong (g)

67 63 64 64 59 58 59 58 61 62 57 65 56 53 62 Riang (t) Riang (Kau Bru)

58 52 55 53 49 70 66 63 68 70 71 67 67 62 63 65 Satchari (q) 56 50 54 52 48 69 64 60 68 67 69 68 65 61 63 63 87 Doluchara (p) Debbarma (Kok Borok) 58 51 53 51 47 72 66 63 68 74 73 69 67 63 63 66 88 85 Khumulung, India (r)

47 41 44 44 40 63 61 61 62 64 64 64 61 59 56 57 70 71 72 Mukchak (s)

15 13 13 13 11 18 16 16 17 19 19 17 15 17 15 16 18 18 19 18 Abeng (u) 12 10 10 9 8 19 15 14 16 18 19 13 15 18 13 15 17 17 18 18 77 Chibok (v) Garo 12 11 11 12 11 17 14 15 16 16 17 14 15 17 13 15 17 17 16 18 41 41 A’tong (w)

3 3 2 3 3 7 7 6 6 5 6 6 5 8 5 5 7 8 8 15 7 13 10 Bangla (0)

Usoi Tripura (Kau Brung) Lexical similarity among the five Usoi (Kau Brung) wordlist sites ranges from 83–91 percent. These percentages in general demonstrate relatively little variation in the Usoi spoken in Bangladesh. The variation seems even less significant when one considers that many Usoi villages are remote and that Usoi speakers from one village probably do not have regular communication with Usoi speakers from more-distant villages. For example, the lexical similarity between Katchaptali in northern Bandarban district and Choto Madhuk in southern Bandarban district is 90 percent. It is likely that people from these places have only infrequent contact with each other, yet their languages are very similar.

Compared to the other Usoi similarity percentages, the 83 percent similarity between Choto Madhuk and Boro Pharangsia is a bit low. As was alluded to in section 4.1.1, for each of these two locations, only a single person gave a wordlist from his respective village. This is because the wordlists were collected outside the village, and only one person was available from each. If others had been around to add to or correct elicitations, it is likely the similarity percentage between these two villages would be slightly higher, bringing it in line with the other lexical similarity percentages among the Usoi.

Particularly noteworthy are the lexical similarity percentages with Katchaptali in Rawangchari. As mentioned in section 3.3, Usoi leaders reported the Usoi varieties used in Rawangchari and Rajasthali to be a little different from the varieties used throughout the rest of Bandarban district. At least lexically, however, this does not seem to be the case.

It should also be noted that the highest lexical similarity among the Usoi studied (92%) is between Katchaptali and Bethanipara, both of which are of the Panji “subclan.” When asked, the Usoi in Robertpara said they are of the Joloi subclan. The informants from Choto Madhuk and Boro Pharangsia were not asked and did not think to mention their subclan. While these subclan distinctions may have been important in the past, they do not seem to be so now. The wordlists offer a hint of evidence, however, that there is more linguistic similarity within a subclan than between subclans.

In comparing the Usoi (Kau Brung) wordlists with those of other Tripura clans, it becomes clear immediately that there are significant language differences. Blair writes that “if wordlists are less than 60 percent similar, then the speech varieties are referred to as ‘different languages’” (Blair 1990:24). The consensus recommendation coming from the 1989 International Language Assessment Conference is a higher percentage threshold. This recommendation is that when wordlists “indicate a lexical similarity between two speech forms of less than about 70 percent, this generally indicates that these are different languages” (Kindell 1991). None of the Usoi wordlists are 70 percent or more lexically similar with any of the non-Usoi wordlists. Only with the Riang are any of the Usoi wordlists greater than Blair’s 60 percent similarity threshold, and these percentages range from 59–67 percent. Thus, it can be concluded that the Usoi Tripura speak a language that is different from the varieties spoken by other Tripura in Bangladesh, with the possible, although unlikely, exception of Riang. Intelligibility testing would have to be done to further clarify the possibility that Riang (Kau Bru) and Usoi (Kau Brung) are similar dialects.

Khagrachari Tripura (Kok Borok) Each of the ten wordlists collected in Khagrachari district was taken from a different clan or “dopha.” In table 4, these dopha names, rather than the village names, are given. Table 3 gives the village name and location from where each dopha’s wordlist was collected.

Among these ten wordlists, the lexical similarity ranges from 56–85 percent, a fairly wide and difficult range to analyze. Between some of these dophas (such as Phatung and Aslong) the languages seem quite distinct with only 56 percent lexical similarity. Between other pairs of dophas (such as Khali and Anok at 84% lexical similarity) there’s a good possibility that the language varieties are very similar dialects. No language varieties, however, stand out as being central to the cluster of Kok Borok varieties spoken in Khagrachari district. That is, based on lexical similarity alone, no variety or varieties are the obvious choice to explore for language development. Rather, eight of the ten dophas have an average lexical similarity of between 73 and 76 percent. Looking only at lexical similarity, any of these could be decent candidates for language development.

Of course, there are other factors to consider besides lexical similarity. For example, Tongpai and Anok have the highest and second-highest average lexical similarity percentages among the ten Khagrachari sites. Tongpaipara, however, has not only Tongpai families but also a significant number of Naitong families. Similarly, Laiphu Karbaripara, where the Anok wordlist was elicited, is a large Tripura village where there are not only Anok but also Naitong, Dendak, Khali, and possibly some other dophas. It’s very possible, therefore, that these wordlists are not actually pure Tongpai or pure Anok but rather have a few Naitong and/or Dendak and/or Khali words mixed in. For this reason they may have higher similarity.

Phatung and Aslong are the only two language varieties with considerably lower lexical similarity percentage averages. Phatung has an average similarity of 69 percent with the other nine dophas, and Aslong has an average similarity of only 63 percent. These two varieties could therefore be considered more peripheral to the cluster of Kok Borok varieties found in Khagrachari district.

It has already been established that each of the Khagrachari language varieties studied is distinct from Usoi (Kau Brung). Now comparing the Khagrachari varieties with Riang, one can see that, with the possible exception of Kewa, the Khagrachari varieties are also distinct from Riang. There is clearly some linguistic resemblance but not enough to call them dialects of the same language.

There is a stronger relationship between the Khagrachari Kok Borok varieties and Debbarma Kok Borok. The lexical similarity percentages among the ten Kok Borok varieties from Khagrachari and the three Debbarma Kok Borok varieties range from 60–74 percent. These are again in that range in which intelligibility testing is needed to determine whether any or all of these can be considered similar dialects.

Riang (Kau Bru) There is not much to be said here about the Riang as only one Riang wordlist was elicited from the small population of Riang speakers in Bangladesh. This limited data indicates that Riang may be slightly more similar to Usoi (Kau Brung) at 59–67 percent and to Debbarma (Kok Borok) at 63–66 percent than it is to the Khagrachari Kok Borok varieties (53–65%). This data is far from conclusive, however, and it is unlikely that Riang could be called a dialect similar to any of the other language varieties studied here.

Debbarma (Kok Borok) Among the three Debbarma wordlists collected for this survey, there is relatively high lexical similarity. The percentages range from 85–88 percent. It is quite likely that Debbarma speakers from Bangladesh would be able to understand Debbarma literature produced in

India. Though there would undoubtedly be some words and constructions that the Debbarma of Bangladesh are unfamiliar with, many should be able to adapt to these differences and make good use of the increasing body of Debbarma literature that is available in India. For discussions on comparisons between Debbarma and the Usoi language varieties, Debbarma and the Khagrachari language varieties, and Debbarma and Riang, please refer to those respective sections above.

Mukchak The lexical similarity percentage matrix shows that the wordlist of the Tripura from Barbakpur – referred to here as Mukchak – is more similar to Debbarma than to any of the other varieties studied. At 70–72 percent similar, however, it is very uncertain as to whether these people could use Debbarma literature. This will be explored further in the Intelligibility Study section (4.2.3).

It is important to note that the Mukchak wordlist has 15 percent lexical similarity with Bangla. This shows that it is no longer a pure form of Kok Borok. Because the Tripura in Barbakpur are small in population and are surrounded by Bengalis, Bangla words have been borrowed at a greater rate than is the case among other Tripura speakers’ language varieties. Thus, Kok Borok language vitality among this pocket of Tripura people should be a consideration for language program developers.

Abeng, Chibok, and A’tong (Garo language varieties) Comparing select Garo wordlists with the 20 Kok Borok wordlists results in low lexical similarity percentages across the board. Again, the lowest similarity is with the Usoi wordlists, but even among the wordlists from Khagrachari, the Debbarma wordlists, and the Mukchak wordlist, the highest lexical similarity is 19 percent. This is very low and does not lend any support to the suggestion that Garo is a Tripura dopha. While these language varieties are related, they are nowhere close to being dialects of the same language. Instead, we can simply say that they are separate languages of the same language family. 4.2. Intelligibility study

4.2.1. Procedures Sociolinguistic questionnaire procedures A sociolinguistic questionnaire was used to gather information about perceived language variation among the Tripura in Bangladesh. These are given as questions 7a-e, 8a-d, and 9a-d in the sociolinguistic questionnaire in appendix D.1. In the same questionnaire there are questions concerning language attitudes, language vitality, and bilingualism, the results of which are discussed in section 5.

If a given subject was fluent in Bangla, the sociolinguistic questionnaire questions were asked in Bangla. More often, however, they were asked in Kok Borok by one of several Tripura people who accompanied the researchers to villages.

HTT and RTT procedures During a second round of research, recorded text tests (RTTs) were used to assess how well speakers of one language variety are able to comprehend another. The Debbarma Kok Borok variety has been more developed than any other Kok Borok variety. Thus, one objective of using RTTs in this study was to assess how well the speakers of other Kok Borok varieties

understand Debbarma Kok Borok. Also, because written Debbarma is reportedly somewhat different than spoken Debbarma, we wanted to specifically test how well the Tripura in Bangladesh might be able to use Debbarma literature. Thus, a Debbarma Kok Borok hometown test (HTT) was developed in Agartala, India. The main source for this HTT was “Yamroksa Rwsam-Romo Hwima,” a story from the book Yamroksa compiled by Binoy Debbarma (2002a:24).

This Debbarma Kok Borok story was adapted and orally recorded, and then comprehension questions were inserted into the text. The story and questions were validated by testing 10 Kok Borok mother-tongue speakers who lived in or near Agartala. The purpose of this testing was to ensure that the story and questions made sense and produced the expected answers. Based on the outcome of this testing, the best 10 questions were selected for use in testing other Tripura people’s comprehension of Debbarma. This Debbarma Kok Borok story and questions are given in appendix B.2.1. The answers and scores from the validation process are in appendix C.1.1.

It was mentioned in section 4.1.3 that, based on lexical similarity alone, no one language variety stands out as being central to the cluster of Kok Borok varieties spoken in Khagrachari district. Thus, other factors must be heavily considered in determining how to do intelligibility testing. Because doing intelligibility testing through RTTs is a somewhat long process, it was not feasible to test the intelligibility of multiple varieties. In reviewing Tripura leaders’ opinions (see section 3.3) and peoples’ reported understanding of different Kok Borok varieties (see section 4.2.3, sociolinguistic questionnaire results), it became clear that Naitong is one preferred variety for development. Thus, an original story in Naitong was elicited and recorded, and comprehension questions were developed and inserted into the text. The story and questions were validated through 10 mother tongue Naitong speakers from Lombapara, and then the best 10 questions were selected for testing among speakers of other Kok Borok varieties. The Naitong story and questions are given in appendix B.2.2. The answers and scores from the validation process are in appendix C.1.8.

After the Debbarma and Naitong texts were ready for testing among speakers of other language varieties, HTTs were developed in each of the other five villages where this testing took place. The method for developing these stories, however, was different. Rather than eliciting an original story in each village, the researchers worked with educated people in each location to translate a short story from Bangla into the local language. Predetermined questions were also translated and then inserted into the text. This more-efficient method of developing a text with comprehension questions was used because these texts were not used for testing in any other villages. Thus, naturalness of speech was not of utmost importance. Instead, the importance of these stories is that they served as control tests to familiarize subjects with the testing procedures and to alert the researchers to subjects who did not appear to understand the testing process well and should therefore not go on to take the Naitong and Debbarma tests. If a subject scored less than 75 percent on the story from his own village, the Naitong and Debbarma tests were not administered to him. One exception, however, was made. This was with a man in Mildhanpara who scored 63 percent on the Aslong story, but it seemed that he did clearly understand the testing process. Because Mildhanpara has a small population and because most people there did not seem to understand the testing process sufficiently well to take the Naitong and Debbarma tests, it was decided to continue testing with this man. He went on to score 80 percent on the Naitong text and 70 percent on the Debbarma text, which shows that he did, in fact, understand the

testing process. The texts of these HTTs are in appendices B.2.3 through B.2.7. The answers and scores are in appendices C.1.14-C.1.18.

After each HTT and each RTT was administered, the subject was asked a set of post-test questions. Data from these questions was used to gather further information about perceived intelligibility and about people’s opinions on the quality of the storytellers’ speech. Post-HTT and post-RTT questionnaires are in appendices D.2 and D.3, respectively, and responses to these questions are in appendix C.2.

The lexical similarity percentages presented in section 4.1.3. indicate that much more intelligibility testing could have been done among the Tripura because many of the percentages fell in the “gray area” above 60 percent. For example, intelligibility testing could have been done to test the possibility that Usoi and Riang are sufficiently similar dialects to be able to use common literature. This wasn’t done, however, because the Riang were difficult to access during fieldwork time, and the possibility that Usoi and Riang are similar dialects seemed too remote to go through the difficulty of doing intelligibility testing between them.

4.2.2. Discussion of sample Sociolinguistic questionnaire sample The sociolinguistic questionnaire was administered to a total of 188 Tripura people. Of these 41 were Usoi Tripura, 113 were Tripura of various clans from Khagrachari district, 21 were Debbarma Tripura, 11 were Tripura (presumably all Mukchak) from Barbakpur, Rajbari, and two were Riang. In each of 18 villages we tried to administer the questionnaire to at least 10 people of varying ages and educational standards and to both men and women. Because an actual Riang village was not visited, we were able to do the questionnaire with only two Riang speakers.

The sociolinguistic questionnaire was used primarily for understanding language attitudes, vitality, and bilingualism. Thus, the specifics of these 188 subjects are discussed further in section 5.2. Their biodata is given in appendix F.3.

HTT and RTT sample It was previously explained (section 4.2.1, HTT and RTT procedures) that Naitong was chosen for RTT testing because it is a preferred variety for language development. Once this decision to test Naitong was made, we needed to decide where and with which clans to do the testing. According to the lexical similarity percentages, any of the other nine Khagrachari district groups from which wordlists were collected would have been good candidates for intelligibility testing, for the lexical similarity percentages ranged from 62–80 percent. Because of time constraints with monsoon season approaching, it was not feasible to test Naitong among speakers from each of these nine clans. Thus, based on the two factors of lexical similarity with Naitong and remoteness of the village, the following four clans and villages were chosen for testing: (1) Khali in Beltolipara (relatively high lexical similarity at 80% and less remote), (2) Anok in Laiphu Karbaripara (relatively high lexical similarity at 79% and more remote), (3) Phatung in Jarichandrapara (relatively low lexical similarity at 70% and less remote), and (4) Aslong in Mildhanpara (relatively low lexical similarity at 62% and more remote). It was thought that of all the Tripura in Khagrachari district, the Khali would have the best chance of understanding Naitong well and the Aslong would have the most difficulty. This hypothesis is explored in section 4.2.3.

Although Naitong is 69–72 percent lexically similar to Debbarma Kok Borok, Naitong was not tested among Debbarma speakers because there is already a significant amount of language development work going on in Debbarma. Thus, it is very unlikely the Debbarma would use Naitong materials. The Naitong text was, however, tested in Barbakpur, Rajbari, where most people simply refer to their language as “Tripura.” This was done because, if Naitong does become more developed, it may be helpful to know if the Tripura people living in Rajbari may be able to use Naitong materials.

The Debbarma story from Agartala was also tested in each of these five villages. In addition, it was tested in Lombapara with the same subjects who validated the Naitong text.

When validating a hometown test, it is not necessary to sample subjects based on factors such as age, sex, or education. This is because the story is subjects’ mother tongue, so they should all understand it equally well. When testing people’s comprehension on a language variety other than their mother tongue, however, it is important to sample a diverse group of subjects. This is done in an effort to understand when intelligibility is inherent (because the two varieties are very similar) and when it is acquired (that is, learned).

In Agartala only an HTT was administered to the subjects. No RTTs were tested with these subjects. Still, we tried to get a somewhat diverse sample. The breakdown of the 10 Agartala subjects’ demographic data is shown in table 5. Table 5 also gives the demographic breakdown of the 59 RTT subjects.

Table 5. Breakdown of HTT and RTT subjects’ demographic data Place Sex Age Education (clan name) Male Female Younger Older Educated Uneducated Agartala 6 4 3 7 7 3 (Debbarma) Lombapara 5 5 5 5 5 5 (Naitong) Beltolipara 5 6 5 6 6 5 (Khali) Jarichandrapara 7 5 5 7 7 5 (Phatung) Mildhanpara 6 1 3 4 0 7 (Aslong) Laiphu Karbaripara 4 4 4 4 1 7 (Anok) Barbakpur 5 6 6 5 6 5 (Mukchak) 38 31 31 38 32 37 TOTALS (55%) (45%) (45%) (55%) (46%) (54%)

For this and all other data a subject was considered “younger” if his age was less then 35 years old. Those 35 years old or older are categorized as “older.” Similarly, “educated” was defined as having passed at least class 8. Those who had not passed class 8 were categorized as “uneducated” for purposes of this survey.

Other than in Agartala, subjects from each of the other villages given in table 5 took not only an HTT but also at least one RTT. Thus, it was important to try to get a sample of at least five

people in each of the six categories (male, female, younger, older, educated, uneducated). This was accomplished in Lombapara, Beltolipara, Jarichandrapara, and Barbakpur. Unfortunately, this was not possible in Mildhanpara or in Laiphu Karbaripara. In Mildhanpara there were perhaps 15 people with whom we tried unsuccessfully to do testing, but in each case these people’s responses to the HTT indicated they did not understand the testing procedure. Mildhanpara is a fairly small village, so there was not a vast group of people to try to do testing with. Also, because Mildhanpara is remote and isolated, few people have had the opportunity to attend much school. In the end we were able to test only seven people in Mildhanpara. None of these had passed class 8, so all were classified as uneducated.

The sample from Laiphu Karbaripara is smaller than desirable largely because of researcher error. Each of two groups of researchers did testing with five people in this village, so the sample size should have been 10. It was only after leaving the village that we realized that, in one case, each group had tested the same woman. Thus, this women’s responses from the first time she was tested were kept, but those from the second time were not used. Also, one research team incorrectly figured the HTT score of one subject. They thought he had done sufficiently well to then take the Naitong and Debbarma tests, but upon further examination, his HTT score was too low, and testing should not have continued. Thus, this man’s scores were also not used. As a result, a total of only eight Anok subjects’ data is used in the following analysis. The biodata for all of these HTT and RTT subjects is in appendix F.2.

4.2.3. Results Sociolinguistic questionnaire results Usoi Tripura When the 41 Usoi Tripura sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were asked if any Tripura people speak differently than they do, 11 (27%) of them said “yes,” and 30 (73%) said “no.” The 11 subjects who gave an affirmative answer were then asked what these people call their language, what language they use to speak with these people, and how much of these people’s speech they understand. The most common answer was that these different-speaking Tripura speak Riang. Six of the Usoi subjects gave this answer while two each mentioned Debbarma and Jomatia. Joloi, Panji, Koloi, Morasing, Aslong, Gurpai, Kata, Khakulu, Kewa, and Dendak were mentioned just once. Many of these names were given by two older gentleman who seemed to be much more aware than average of the various Tripura clans. Also, four people said they knew there are Tripura people who speak differently, but they didn’t know the name of these people’s language.

Interestingly, each of these subjects who gave the name of a different language said they speak Usoi (Kau Brung) with these people. This could be because the languages are similar enough that Usoi is understood by the others. It is more likely, however, that these people do not share a language that they are fluent in and that they do not have deep conversations. This becomes clear through the answers given to the question about how much of these people’s speech they understand. Of the six people who said Riang is different, one subject said he understood none, three said they understood little, one said he understood most, and one said he understood all Riang. Of all the other languages listed, “half” was the most common answer given to the question about how much was understood. It was the two older men mentioned above who tended to say they understood a greater-than-average amount of these languages.

Question 8 of the sociolinguistic questionnaire asked subjects about Debbarma. Two of the 41 Usoi subjects had previously mentioned Debbarma as a language spoken by some Tripura who speak differently than the Usoi. Of the other 39 subjects only five (12% of the total) said they know any Debbarma speakers, and three of these five said they could understand “little.”

All of this data indicates that the Usoi Tripura in Bangladesh do not have much interaction with other Tripura and that their language variety is quite different from other Tripura Kok Borok varieties. This will be explored further in the following sections, for the non-Usoi sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were asked specifically about their interaction with the Usoi.

Khagrachari Tripura Unlike in Bandarban district, where the Usoi are the primary Tripura clan, there are Tripura from many clans living in Khagrachari district. Thus, a Tripura person from Khagrachari is very likely to have had interaction with Tripura from other clans. Of the 113 Khagrachari Tripura sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects, 109 (96%) said there are Tripura people who speak differently than they do. Most subjects then gave the names of several language varieties that they perceived to be different from theirs. A summary of their responses to this question1 is shown in table 6.

Table 6. Khagrachari district subjects’ responses about the language names of Tripura people who speak differently and which is easiest to understand2 Language variety name Question Naitong Dendak Phatung Khali Gabing Tongpai Usoi Other 7b. Name of 86 66 61 55 45 19 13 71 language (84%) (66%) (60%) (54%) (47%) (18%) (12%) (66%) 7e. Easiest to 51 30 11 22 8 4 1 10 understand (50%) (30%) (11%) (22%) (8%) (4%) (1%) (9%)

As table 6 shows, the Khagrachari sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects most frequently gave “Naitong” as the language name of Tripura who speak differently. Dendak, Phatung, Khali, and Gabing were also common responses. That more subjects were aware of and have interacted with people from these five clans is probably because these clans are more populous than the other Tripura clans in Khagrachari and because their villages dot the district. In other words, Naitong was not mentioned most often because it is most different but, rather, because more people are aware of it. The “other” column for question 7b includes varieties such as Anok (11 subjects), Kewa (11 subjects), Riang (nine subjects), Kema (eight subjects), Debbarma (six subjects), and Harbang (six subjects).

When subjects were asked which of the language varieties they had mentioned was easiest to understand, exactly half (51 of the non-Naitong subjects) said Naitong is easiest to understand. Another 30 percent said Dendak is easiest to understand, and 22 percent said Khali is easiest. Phatung was mentioned by only 11 percent, which is not surprising since the lexical similarity of Phatung with these people’s mother tongue is relatively low (see section

1 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 7b. “[If there are people who speak differently than you] what do these people call their language?” 2 The percentages in table 6 are based on a denominator specific to each language variety. For example, of the 113 subjects, 11 were Naitong. Thus, the percentage of subjects who named Naitong as the name of Tripura who speak differently is 86/(113-11) = 84%. There were 13 Dendak subjects, however, so the percentage of subjects who named Dendak as the name of Tripura who speak differently is calculated as 66/(113-13) = 66%.

4.1.3). Fewer people also mentioned Gabing, sometimes adding that Gabing is spoken a bit roughly, making it more difficult to understand. A number of subjects mentioned two or more language varieties as being equally easy to understand, making the sum of the percentages greater than 100 percent.

Subjects were also asked what language they use to speak with these people of different language varieties. Seventy-four (65%) said they use their own language all the time, and 22 subjects (19%) said they use their own language most of the time but sometimes mix this with words from the language variety of the person they happen to be talking with. Specifically, 17 subjects said they use Naitong some or all of the time to speak with a Naitong person, 10 subjects said this about Dendak, seven subjects said this about each of Khali and Gabing, and six subjects said this about Phatung. Finally, three subjects – two of whom live in Khagrapur – said they use “mixed Tripura” to communicate, indicating the language varieties in that area have become blended.

Among the 13 Khagrachari subjects who named Usoi as a different Tripura language variety, most said they use their mother tongue to speak with them, but four said they use Bangla or Bangla mixed with their mother tongue. Other than one subject who said he uses Bangla with Jomatia people, one who said he uses his mother tongue and Bangla with Riang people, and one young, educated man from Khagrapur who said he mixes Tripura and Bangla most of the time, no other subjects mentioned using Bangla with other Tripura people.

This is in line with people’s responses to the question about how much they understand of the varieties they had mentioned. Sixty percent of the subjects who mentioned Naitong and 64 percent of the subjects who mentioned Dendak said they are able to understand most or all of these people’s speech, but only 43 percent of the subjects who mentioned Debbarma, 23 percent of those who mentioned Usoi, and 11 percent of those who mentioned Riang said they understand most or all. It is likely that this latter set of percentages is much higher than the population average because few Khagrachari subjects initially named Usoi, Riang, or Debbarma (see table 6).

This was explored further by asking two sets of follow-up questions specifically about Debbarma and Usoi (sociolinguistic questionnaire questions 8a-d and 9a-d). Follow-up questions were asked about these two specific varieties because significant language development has already taken place in them.

When the Khagrachari district subjects were asked if they know anybody who speaks Debbarma, 26 (23%) said they do, and 80 (71%) said they do not. This question was not asked of the six subjects (5%) who had mentioned Debbarma in question 7, but it is appropriate to state that 32 (28%) of the Khagrachari subjects know somebody who speaks Debbarma. Of these 32 subjects, 26 said they use their mother tongue (one clarifying by saying he speaks his mother tongue slowly), three said they use Bangla, and two said they use their mother tongue and Bangla mixed to speak with Debbarma Tripura people. One Kewa subject said she uses Dendak to speak with Debbarma people.

Similarly, when the Khagrachari district subjects were asked if they know anybody who speaks Usoi, 23 (20%) said they do, and 77 (68%) said they do not. This question was not asked of the 13 subjects (12%) who had mentioned Usoi in question 7, but again it is appropriate to state that 36 (32%) of the Khagrachari subjects know somebody who speaks Usoi. Of these 36 subjects, 18 said they use their mother tongue, eleven said they use Bangla, and five said they use their mother tongue and Bangla mixed to speak with Usoi Tripura

people. Only one woman said she herself speaks Usoi with the Usoi, and one man who had lived in Ruma and Alikhadam for six years said he speaks Usoi mixed with his mother tongue. Thus, there seems to be greater usage of Bangla with the Usoi than with the Debbarma, presumably because Usoi is sufficiently different enough that using a Khagrachari Kok Borok language variety is not as effective.

The Khagrachari subjects were also asked how much of Debbarma and how much of Usoi they understand. These questions were not applicable for those who had said they did not know anybody who speaks these languages. A summary of their answers is in table 7. The numbers for Naitong and Dendak are also given in table 7 for comparison purposes.

Table 7. Summary of Khagrachari subjects’ responses about how much of certain Kok Borok varieties they can understand NA = not applicable Kok Borok Response variety None Little Half Most All NA 3 19 2 6 3 80 Debbarma (2%) (17%) (2%) (5%) (3%) (71%) 9 20 4 1 2 77 Usoi (8%) (18%) (4%) (1%) (2%) (68%) 1 13 20 19 33 16 Naitong (1%) (13%) (20%) (19%) (32%) (16%) 12 12 16 26 34 Dendak -- (12%) (12%) (16%) (26%) (34%)

The numbers in table 7 show that few people say they understand Debbarma well. Self- reported comprehension of Usoi is even lower with only 3 percent of the subjects saying they understand most or all of Usoi. This is a strong indication that intelligibility among the Tripura within Khagrachari is much higher than intelligibility between varieties within Khagrachari and those outside of Khagrachari. This is not surprising given the wordlist data and the proximity with which speakers of these varieties live to each other.

Because lexical similarity with Usoi is quite low and because reported comprehension of Usoi by Tripura living in Khagrachari district is very low, intelligibility of Usoi was not researched further. The results of intelligibility testing of Debbarma and Naitong – the procedures of which are described in section 4.2.1 above – will be discussed momentarily.

Debbarma Of the 21 Debbarma Tripura sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects, 13 (62%) said there are Tripura people who speak differently than they do. The other eight subjects said they do not know of such people. When asked the language names of these different-speaking Tripura, however, the Debbarma were not able to give specific names other than Beri, Dona, Daspa, and Suri. All of these are reportedly the clan names of Debbarma speakers, and all the subjects said they use either their mother tongue or their mother tongue mixed with the language of the person they’re speaking with when communicating with these people. Also, all subjects said they understand all or most of each of these language varieties.

Beyond this, the Debbarma subjects simply gave answers such as “the Kok Borok spoken in Khagrachari” or “the Kok Borok from Bandarban” is different. There were four subjects who mentioned Khagrachari, and two said they use their mother tongue to speak with these people,

while two others said they use both their mother tongue and Bangla. All four said they understand about half of the speech of these Khagrachari speakers. Only one subject mentioned Bandarban, and she said she speaks Bangla with Tripura people from there and understands little of their speech. One other subject mentioned the Tripura from Rangamati speak differently. She said she understands most of their language and speaks her mother tongue mixed with Bangla with them.

The Debbarma subjects were also asked specifically about the Usoi. Probably because of the great distance between Usoi villages and these Debbarma villages, only two of the 21 Debbarma subjects said they know anybody who speaks Usoi. They said they speak with them in their mother tongue or their mother tongue mixed with Bangla, and they said they understand half or less than half of the Usoi’s speech. Both of these two were, however, able to identify the Usoi as living in Bandarban. All of these answers show that at least the Debbarma of Sylhet division have little interaction with other Tripura people in Bangladesh.

Mukchak The Tripura living in the Barbakpur, Rajbari seem to have even less interaction with other Tripura. This is not surprising given their location away from Tripura population centers. When the 11 subjects from Barbakpur were asked if there are Tripura who speak differently than they do, only three (27%) said there are. The other eight said there are not or at least that they are not aware of such people. One person said the Harbang speak differently but that she could understand all of their speech and that she speaks her mother tongue with them. Another person simply said “Kok Borok” is different, that he understands most of this language variety, and that he speaks his mother tongue with them. The other subject who said there are Tripura people who speak differently said he doesn’t know the name of their language but that he understands most of the speech and speaks to them in his mother tongue mixed with Bangla.

Asking the 11 Barbakpur subjects specifically about the Debbarma and the Usoi revealed little further information. One older man said he does know people who speak Debbarma, that they live in Khagrachari, and that he understands little of their speech and speaks Bangla with them. The other 10 subjects from Barbakpur said they do not know any Debbarma speakers. None of the 11 subjects said they know any Usoi speakers.

Riang Finally, not too much weight can be given to Riang responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire because it was asked of only two Riang speakers. These two speakers did, however, seem to have relatively more interaction with Tripura of other clans. Both said they know of Gabing, Naitong, and Dendak speakers, and the two subjects independently said they speak Gabing with Gabing speakers, Naitong with Naitong speakers, and Dendak with Dendak speakers. Their fluency in these languages is probably due to people of these clans’ living in or near the same villages where the Riang live.

Neither of the two Riang subjects knew of any Debbarma speakers, but one said he knew of the Usoi. He said he himself speaks Usoi with the Usoi and understands about half of their language. Perhaps because the population of Riang speakers in Bangladesh is so small, they are more likely to learn other Kok Borok language varieties. No clear conclusions, however, can be drawn from this data because of the very small sample size.

HTT and RTT results Based on background research and interviews about Kok Borok language development efforts (section 3.3), lexical similarity results (section 4.1.3), and people’s responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire questions about Kok Borok language varieties (section 4.2.3, sociolinguistic questionnaire results), it was decided to do further intelligibility study with both Debbarma and Naitong. This further research was done through recorded text tests.

When evaluating RTT results for a community, the standard deviation is just as important of an indicator as the average score. This is especially true in cases such as the ones being tested among the Tripura, where the lexical similarity percentages are high enough that the two language varieties being compared cannot immediately be called separate languages but are low enough that the existence of inherent intelligibility is questionable. Table 8 shows the meaning of the four possible combinations of results for the average score and standard deviation (Blair 1990:25).

Table 8. Relationship between standard deviation and average score on RTTs Standard Deviation Average Score High (>12) Low (<10) Situation 1 Situation 2 Many people understand the story Most people understand the story High (>80%) well, but some have difficulty; well; suggests high inherent suggests high acquired intelligibility intelligibility Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand the Few people are able to understand Low (<60%) story, but a few are able to answer the story; suggests low inherent correctly; suggests low acquired intelligibility. intelligibility

Between closely related dialects, we would expect RTT results to fit situation 2. For non- dialects, we would expect RTT results to fit situation 1, 3, or 4, depending on the subjects’ exposure to the test language. Table 9 shows the actual test results of both the Debbarma and the Naitong RTTs.

Table 9. Summary of intelligibility testing results x = average score (%) s = standard deviation n = number of subjects NA = not applicable Kok TOTAL Borok Naitong Khali Phatung Aslong Anok Mukchak RTT (Agartala) subjects subjects subjects subjects subjects subjects subjects subjects Naitong (HTT) x = 89 x = 88 x = 84 x = 78 x = 67 x = 81 Kok Borok x = 98 NA s = 13.1 s = 12.9 s = 8.5 s = 17.5 s = 12.7 s = 15.2 (Thieves s = 4.2 n = 11 n = 12 n = 7 n = 8 n = 11 n = 49 story) n = 10 Debbarma (HTT) x = 70 x = 61 x = 53 x = 70 x = 76 x = 52 x = 63 Kok Borok x = 92 s = 11.5 s = 12.2 s = 14.2 s = 8.2 s = 11.9 s = 17.7 s = 15.5 (Ranjit s = 8.8 n = 10 n = 11 n = 12 n = 7 n =8 n =11 n = 59 story) n = 10

The Naitong RTT results show the Khali subjects and the Phatung subjects had almost identical average scores and standard deviations. Their high scores and high accompanying standard deviations place both communities in situation 1 of table 8, indicating Khali and Phatung speakers have high acquired intelligibility in Naitong. In other words, many Khali and Phatung people have learned to understand Naitong well, but there are some who still have difficulty understanding Naitong. The individual scores support this finding with most people scoring 90 or 100 percent, but with one Khali person scoring 65 percent and one Phatung person scoring only 60 percent.

The Aslong subjects also scored quite high on the Naitong text, but their standard deviation is lower, indicating more inherent intelligibility. Given the lexical similarity of only 62 percent between Naitong and Aslong and the make-up of the Aslong sample of subjects, however, this is doubtful. It is more likely the lower standard deviation is because of the particular sample used. Because finding Aslong subjects who understood the testing process was very difficult, the sample is not representative of the Aslong population as a whole. Rather, it is likely that those who were able to understand the testing process are the same people who have had more exposure to life outside of their village, and, therefore, to Naitong. This is supported by the fact that Aslong men tend to go to the market much more frequently than Aslong woman and that only one Aslong woman was tested. If a more representative sample of the Aslong had taken the test, it is quite likely that their average score would have been lower and their standard deviation higher. Still, it seems that some Aslong do have a fair grasp of Naitong and that more Aslong could understand Naitong if they were more exposed to it.

The Anok and especially the Mukchak scored lower on the Naitong text. This is not surprising about the Mukchak since they live a long ways from any Naitong community. For the Anok, however, no clear explanation is evident. What does seem clear is that there is not a strong correlation between lexical similarity and intelligibility among the Kok Borok varieties in Khagrachari. Rather, it is very likely that the remoteness of a village correlates more closely with intelligibility. It was noted in section 4.2.2 that the RTT test sites were chosen based on lexical similarity with Naitong and on remoteness of the village. Both the Khali and the Phatung test sites were less remote, and the average Naitong RTT scores from

both of these villages are quite high. This is the case in spite of their different lexical similarities with Naitong (80% for Khali but only 70% for Phatung). On the other hand, both the Aslong and the Anok test sites were more remote, and the average Naitong RTT scores from both of these villages are lower (and, if the Aslong sample were representative of the population, its average would undoubtedly be still lower). This is the case in spite of the fact that the Anok wordlist had a higher lexical similarity with Naitong (79%) than did most of the other wordlists.

It seems very likely, then, that Naitong is acquired by Khagrachari Tripura people who speak other varieties as their mother tongues, and this is supported by the high standard deviations among nearly all sets of RTT subjects. Though Naitong is more similar to some Kok Borok varieties than others, the extent to which a Tripura person will understand Naitong is apparently not dependent on this similarity but rather on the amount of exposure the person has had to Naitong. This is an important finding for people planning a language-development program. They should be aware that Tripura people living in more remote areas are less likely to be able to understand materials developed in a language variety other than their own.

Finally, a note about the total numbers is in order. The average for all 49 subjects who took the Naitong RTT was 81 with a standard deviation of 15.2. Excluding the 11 Mukchak subjects from Rajbari leaves 38 subjects, all from Khagrachari district. These 38 Khagrachari subjects scored an average of 85 percent on the Naitong RTT with a standard deviation of 13.6. This fairly high overall average is another affirmation that many non-Naitong Tripura in Khagrachari should be able to use Naitong language materials well, but the accompanying high standard deviation is a good caution that not all will be able to do so.

Table 9 shows the average scores for the Debbarma Kok Borok RTT were considerably lower than those for Naitong. An exception to this is the Anok, who scored an average of only two percentage points lower on the Debbarma Kok Borok text than on the Naitong text (76% vs. 78%). The Aslong also scored relatively high on the Debbarma text with an average score of 70 percent, but their Naitong score of 84 percent was much higher. It’s likely that the Aslong subjects scored this well on the Debbarma Kok Borok text because all but two of them had lived in Tripura state, India, for at least eight years.3 They were undoubtedly exposed to the Debbarma Kok Borok variety there. Many Anok from Laiphu Karbaripara have also spent a number of years in India, which is likely why their score is high compared to the others.

With an average score of 70 percent, the Naitong subjects scored as well on the Debbarma Kok Borok test as the Aslong did, but their standard deviation was somewhat higher. The Khali, Phatung, and Mukchak all scored considerably lower with averages of 61 percent, 53 percent, and 53 percent, respectively. These three groups’ standard deviations were also high, placing them in situation 3 in figure 10. In other words, some people from among these groups are able to understand Debbarma Kok Borok with some accuracy, but many are not. Thus, with the possible exception of the Anok, it is doubtful that any of the groups tested could use Debbarma Kok Borok literature well. This is very likely true for the other Tripura clans in Khagrachari, too, and for the Usoi, as was earlier established by low lexical similarity percentages.

We end this section with a note of interest about the Mukchak. On the Naitong text, the five older subjects scored an average of 74 percent, but the six younger subjects scored an average

3 The researchers were told that in 1986–1987 nearly all the people of Mildhanpara went to India because of problems with Bengali settlers. They stayed there for 8–12 years and then returned to Bangladesh.

of only 62 percent. Similarly, on the Debbarma Kok Borok RTT, the older subjects averaged a score of 60 percent, but the younger subjects averaged a score of only 46 percent. These lower scores on the part of the younger generation could be because they have had less exposure to speakers of other Kok Borok varieties than their parents and grandparents have had. It could also be that the younger generation is less fluent in Mukchak than the older generation because of the strong influence of Bangla in their lives. In actuality, both of these factors are probably at play among the Mukchak of Rajbari. Their language vitality, and that of all the Tripura studied, is examined in section 5.3.4.

Post-HTT and Post-RTT questionnaire results The post-HTT questions, asked only after subjects heard a story in their own language variety, produced fairly uniform responses. Among the 69 HTT subjects (including 10 for the Debbarma Kok Borok text developed in Agartala), only five said the storyteller’s language was not pure, and three of these five were Mukchak speakers from Barbakpur, where the language has become significantly more mixed with Bangla. Furthermore, all subjects who were asked said they had understood most or all of the story. This is to be expected since the story was in each subject’s mother tongue.

Because the Debbarma Kok Borok text developed in Agartala was based on a story from a book, two additional post-HTT questions were asked of the 10 subjects who validated that test. First, they were asked what language the storyteller spoke in. All simply replied that he spoke “Kok Borok.” They were also asked how similar the storyteller’s speech was to the way the subject speaks. This was asked because “literature language” can be different from how the language is commonly spoken. Nine of the 10 Debbarma subjects, however, said there was no difference, and one said there was a little difference.

Answers to the post-RTT questions are more varied and noteworthy. Of the 49 people who listened to the Naitong story as an RTT, 27 (55%) correctly identified the storyteller’s speech as Naitong. Each of the Mukchak subjects, however, simply said the storyteller’s language was “Tripura.” Among the 38 subjects from Khagrachari, then, 71 percent said the story was in Naitong. Four subjects (11%) thought the story was in Dendak, and quite interestingly, four of the Aslong subjects said the story was in Aslong. At any rate, there seems to be fairly good recognition of Naitong among the Tripura of Khagrachari district.

Subjects had a much more difficult time correctly naming the language variety of the Debbarma Kok Borok story. Among the 59 people who listened to the Debbarma Kok Borok story as an RTT, only 13 (22%) said the storyteller spoke Debbarma. Again, all the Mukchak simply said he spoke “Tripura,” but even after excluding them, only 27 percent of the Khagrachari subjects were able to identify the speech as being in Debbarma. Seven subjects (12%) thought the story had been told in Jomatia, and six subjects (10%) thought the story was in Riang. Both of these are the language variety of a large Tripura clan in India. Another seven thought the storyteller’s language was Aslong. Several of these subjects went on to comment that they guessed it was Aslong because, among the Kok Borok varieties in Khagrachari, Aslong is the most different (the most difficult to understand), and this story was difficult to understand.

RTT subjects were also asked how much of each of the stories they understood. A summary of their responses is in table 10.

Table 10. Summary of self-reported RTT comprehension Response Little Half Most All Naitong 3 7 13 26 Kok Borok story (6%) (14%) (27%) (53%) Debbarma 21 17 14 7 Kok Borok story (36%) (29%) (24%) (12%)

Subjects’ actual scores on the two RTTs were generally higher for Naitong than for Debbarma (see table 9). Thus, it is to be expected that they would report less understanding of Debbarma Kok Borok. Their responses as shown in table 10 are somewhat surprising, however, in that they reported considerably less understanding in Debbarma Kok Borok. Only 3 (6%) of the subjects – and two of these from Barbakpur – said they understood “little” of the Naitong story, but 21 subjects (36%) said they understood only “little” of the Debbarma Kok Borok story. On the other side of the scale, more than half of the subjects said they understood “all” of the Naitong story, and this percentage jumps to 63 percent if the Mukchak are excluded. Only 12 percent said they understood all of the Debbarma Kok Borok story.

Answers by the Anok in particular should be noted. For the Naitong one subject said she understood “little,” one subject said “half,” three said “most,” and three said “all.” For the Debbarma Kok Borok story none of the subjects said they understood “little,” three said “half,” three said “most,” and two said “all.” In other words as an aggregate they report understanding Debbarma Kok Borok nearly as well as Naitong. This is in line with their actual RTT scores (78% on Naitong and 76% on Debbarma).

All of these numbers add support to what was stated above, namely that, with the possible exception of the Anok, it is doubtful that any of these groups could use Debbarma Kok Borok literature well.

While 80 percent of the RTT subjects said they understood all or most of the Naitong story, 37 percent did say there is “much difference” between the storyteller’s speech and their own speech.4 In other words, many of the subjects seemed to imply that, even though they understood all or most of the story, the storyteller’s language is different from their own. This supports the preceding RTT data analysis in that it implies they have learned Naitong to some extent. That is, Naitong intelligibility is partly acquired, rather than simply inherent.

Finally, after hearing all the stories, each subject was asked which story was easiest to understand and which story was most difficult. Not surprisingly, most people (52 subjects; 88%) said the story in their own language, their HTT, was easiest. Almost as many (49 subjects; 83%) said the Debbarma Kok Borok story was the most difficult to understand. These replies are to be expected and simply serve to underline what has previously been said.

4 Post-RTT questionnaire question 3: How similar was the storyteller’s speech to the way you speak? (no difference, a little difference, much difference)

5. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES, VITALITY, AND BILINGUALISM STUDY 5.1. Procedures A study of language attitudes is generally carried out in an effort to ascertain people’s perceptions of the different speech varieties with which they have contact. By studying how various languages are perceived, it is possible to get an idea of how positive or negative people are toward both their own language and other language varieties, and of how accepting they may be of literature in a language variety other than their own. A sociolinguistic questionnaire was the main tool used to study language attitudes. There were eight questions (questions 16, 17, 18a-b, 19a-b, and 20a-b) on this questionnaire which were specific to language attitudes.

A language vitality study is designed to assess the probability of whether a language will be used by mother-tongue speakers in the future. This is done by asking subjects which language(s) they use in various domains, everyday situations in which one language variety is considered more appropriate than another (Fasold 1992:183). Studying language vitality is also done by comparing language use across generations and studying children’s language abilities. Such an assessment is an important part of the recommendations of a sociolinguistic report because any recommendations regarding language and literature development are dependent upon the projected long-term vitality of the language. Seven questions on the sociolinguistic questionnaire (questions 10, 11a-b, 12, 13, 14, and 15) were designed to address language vitality.

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or an entire speech community to handle communication in a language other than the mother tongue. Bilingualism can be studied in several ways. During this survey, it was studied through observation, through personal Bangla-language interaction with Tripura speakers, and by asking people a series of six questions about their ability in various languages. These six questions were part of the sociolinguistic questionnaire (questions 2a-b, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

This sociolinguistic questionnaire was often asked in a Kok Borok language variety by one of several Tripura people who accompanied the researchers to Tripura villages. If a given subject was sufficiently fluent in Bangla, the questions were asked directly in Bangla by the researchers themselves. The questionnaire is in appendix D.1, and subject responses are in appendix E. 5.2. Discussion of sample The sociolinguistic questionnaire was administered in each of the 20 villages from which a wordlist was elicited with three exceptions: the Riang and the two Usoi villages of Choto Madhuk and Boro Pharangsia. Each of these three wordlists was elicited outside of their respective villages, so it was not possible to do the sociolinguistic questionnaire among their people. The questionnaire was, however, administered to two of the Riang men who traveled from their villages to meet the researchers. It was also administered in two places where a wordlist was not taken: Sinaipara in Naikhongchari subdistrict (an Usoi village) and Khagrapur in Khagrachari town. The former was chosen as an additional Usoi test site so as to get a wider geographical sample and also to get the opinions of Usoi Tripura who had moved in this generation from main Usoi areas (primarily Thanchi and Ruma) to a more isolated living situation. The Khagrapur site was chosen to get the opinions of more educated

Tripura people who are surrounded by a mix of Kok Borok language varieties. Neither of these sites was considered suitable for wordlist elicitation because the language varieties spoken by these people are influenced by the multiple locations from which they have moved.

In total, then, the sociolinguistic questionnaire was elicited in a total of 18 villages to 188 Tripura, including the two Riang men who were outside their villages. These villages are displayed on the map in figure 2.

Subjects were chosen based on age, sex, and education levels so as to get a wide variety of subjects. In each of the 18 villages, the researchers sought to ask the questions of at least five older and five younger people, five men and five women, and five people who were more educated and five who were less educated. A subject was considered “younger” if his age was less then 35 years old and “older” if his age was 35 or older. Similarly, “educated” was defined as having passed at least class 8. Those who had not passed class 8 were categorized as “uneducated” for purposes of this survey. The specifics for the 188 sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects are given in table 11. Information on their religion is also included, though sampling was not based on this factor.

Table 11. Breakdown of sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects’ demographic data Sex Age Education Religion Edu- Uned- Male Female Younger Older Sonaton Christian Other cated ucated Usoi 20 21 21 20 11 30 -- 39 2 Tripura Khagra- chari 58 55 59 54 36 77 104 9 -- Tripura Debbarma 10 11 11 10 10 11 21 -- -- Tripura Mukchak 6 5 6 5 5 6 6 4 1 Tripura Riang 2 -- -- 2 -- 2 1 1 -- 96 92 97 91 62 126 132 53 3 TOTALS (51%) (49%) (52%) (48%) (33%) (67%) (70%) (28%) (2%)

In some villages, it was not possible to find five educated people, as is evident from the fact that only 33 percent of the subjects were categorized as educated. In those cases, the questionnaire had to be administered to more uneducated people so as to be able to have sufficient sample sizes in the age and sex categories. It should also be noted that the “other” religions are Buddhist (the two Usoi) and Hindu (the one Mukchak). Biographical data for each sociolinguistic questionnaire subject is given in appendix F.3. 5.3. Results Depending on how varied the responses are, data for the sociolinguistic questionnaire will sometimes be presented for all five groups of language varieties combined. At other times it will be presented for each of the five groups separately, and at still other times it will be shared for some groups combined and for other groups separately. In addition, when responses are notably different according to a particular demographic factor, that will be mentioned.

5.3.1. Language use To do a study of language attitudes, language vitality, and bilingualism, it is useful to first be aware of people’s language use patterns. The sociolinguistic questionnaire contained four questions that asked subjects which language they speak most of the time in a given situation.

Khagrachari Tripura and Usoi Tripura The results for the 41 Usoi subjects and the 113 subjects from Khagrachari are quite similar. Thus, they have been combined and are shown in table 12. Results are given as a percentage of subjects who responded with the answer for each category. Because some subjects said they use more than one language “most of the time” in certain situations, the sum of percentages for some questions is greater than 100 percent.

Table 12. Language use among the Khagrachari and Usoi Tripura Response Key: MT = mother tongue NA = not applicable Question Response What language do you Chitta- “mixed ges- MT Bangla Chakma Marma NA use most of the time… gonian Tripura” tures …at home? 98% ------2% -- -- …with your MT friends? 98% ------2% -- -- …at church/temple? 94% 8% ------2% -- 1% …with shopkeepers in 23% 72% 8% 6% 3% -- 1% 5% the market?

Table 12 shows that both the Usoi Tripura and the Tripura of various clans living in Khagrachari district use their mother tongue most of the time at home, with friends who have the same mother tongue, and in their place of worship. For each of these first three questions, there were three subjects, all from Khagrapur in Khagrachari, who said they no longer speak a particular clan’s speech variety but rather “mixed Tripura” in these situations. This is likely because people from numerous Tripura clans have moved to Khagrapur from their respective villages, so the variety of Kok Borok spoken in Khagrapur has become mixed.

Among the 8 percent (12 subjects) who said they speak Bangla most of time at church/temple, seven were Usoi, including four who said they speak Usoi and Bangla equally at church. This accounts for 17 percent of the Usoi subjects, which is notable given that there was a church in each Usoi village visited. This question was not applicable for two subjects, one Sonaton and one Buddhist, who said they don’t go to a place of worship.

Not surprisingly, the responses about what language subjects use with shopkeepers in the market are more varied. The majority said they speak Bangla, presumably not because that is their preferred language but because that is the only language they have in common with many shopkeepers. Twelve of the subjects (8% said they speak Chittagonian in this situation. In actuality, many of those who said they speak Bangla with shopkeepers are probably speaking a language closer in form to Chittagonian. Also, it is important to note that several of those who said they speak Bangla or Chittagonian with shopkeepers qualified their answer and said they speak only a little Bangla/Chittagonian because their abilities in these language are limited. The fact that two subjects actually said they use gestures with shopkeepers shows that they don’t always have a spoken language in common.

Among people who said they speak their mother tongue with shopkeepers, a vast majority were from among the Khagrachari subjects. Thirty-four (30%) of the 113 Khagrachari Tripura subjects said they use their mother tongue with shopkeepers, but only two (5%) of the 41 Usoi subjects said this, probably because there are more Tripura shopkeepers in Khagrachari district than in Bandarban district where the Usoi live. Also, at least 14 of the Khagrachari subjects said they speak a form of Kok Borok with Tripura shopkeepers and other languages (such as Chakma and Bangla) with other shopkeepers. They reportedly could not say which language they used most with shopkeepers, so their mother tongue plus another two or three languages were recorded for them. Thus, the percentage who speak their mother tongue most of the time in the market is undoubtedly inflated. Finally, it should be noted that this question about language use with shopkeepers was not applicable for eight subjects (5%) who said they do not go to the market.

The responses to these four questions as a whole indicate that the Tripura of Khagrachari and the Usoi Tripura use their mother tongue in most situations. Generally only when the person they are talking with does not know Kok Borok will they switch to another language. This is an early indication that Kok Borok is vital in Bangladesh. It may also indicate something about their bilingual abilities. These indications will be explored further in sections 5.3.4 and 5.3.5 on language vitality and bilingualism, respectively.

Debbarma Each of the 21 Debbarma sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects said they speak their mother tongue most of the time at home and with their Debbarma friends. At their place of worship, however, they seem to speak a mix of languages. Eight subjects (38%) said they speak both Debbarma and Bangla equally at the temple. Another two said they speak Bangla most of the time, and nine said they speak Debbarma most of the time. This question was not applicable for two subjects who said they do not go to a place of worship.

With shopkeepers in the market nearly all Debbarma apparently speak Bangla most of the time, for 90 percent of the subjects answered in this way. Only one subject said she speaks her mother tongue with shopkeepers most of the time. Two others said they do not go to the market, so this question was not applicable to them.

Consequently, it seems the Debbarma still speak their mother tongue most of the time in their village areas, but outside of this setting, where there may be people of other ethnicities, they usually speak Bangla. Because the Debbarma population in Bangladesh is quite small, this pattern could affect the vitality of Debbarma on this side of the border. It also undoubtedly affects Debbarma speakers’ fluency in Bangla.

Mukchak The vitality of the Kok Borok variety spoken in Barbakpur, Rajbari is definitely in question. This is clear even through these four simple language-use questions, for each of the 11 Mukchak subjects said they use Bangla most of the time in each of the four domains in question. Because the Tripura population is very small in Rajbari, it would be expected that they would use Bangla or another “second” language both with shopkeepers and in their places of worship. That they use Bangla most of the time with their Tripura friends and even at home, however, is a strong indicator that Bangla is replacing Mukchak as their mother tongue. Many subjects did say they currently use both Bangla and Tripura in their homes and with their Tripura friends, but, when asked specifically which they use more, all replied that

they use Bangla more. The questions that are specific to language vitality will shed further light on this issue.

Riang Not much can be said about Riang language use based on the sample size of two. It does seem, however, that the Riang live in a multilingual situation. Between the two subjects, not only Riang but also Gabing, Bangla, and Pangkhua were mentioned as languages used most of the time in at least one of the four language-use domains in question.

5.3.2. Language attitudes – regarding language use There were questions on the sociolinguistic questionnaire not only about what language people do use in various situations but also about what language subjects think should be used in two different situations. First they were asked what language a mother should speak with her children.5 Not surprisingly, a large majority of subjects said mothers should speak their own language – their “mother” tongue – with their children. One hundred percent of the Debbarma subjects, 98 percent of the Khagrachari subjects, 85 percent of the Usoi subjects, and 82 percent of the Mukchak subjects gave this type of answer.

Other subjects said mothers should speak Bangla with their children, some adding that their children could do better in school and with getting good jobs if they knew Bangla well. There were four Khagrachari subjects and two Usoi subjects who said mothers should use both their mother tongue and Bangla with their children. Among those who said mothers should speak Bangla, a couple of subjects commented that, while this would be good, it is generally not possible because the mothers themselves do not know (much) Bangla.

Subjects were also asked what language should be used to teach primary school.6 A summary of their responses is in table 13. Again, totals of some of the percentages are greater than 100 because some people said more than one language should be used.

Table 13. Summary of answers about what language should be used in primary school Response

Mother tongue Bangla Do not know Khagrachari Tripura 60% 49% 4% Usoi Tripura 32% 76% 2% Debbarma Tripura 29% 76% -- Mukchak Tripura 27% 82% -- Riang 50% 100% -- TOTALS 48% 60% 3%

As the numbers in table 13 show, only the Khagrachari Tripura subjects favored their mother tongue over Bangla as the primary school medium of education. Among them 68 subjects (60%) said their mother tongue – whether this be Naitong, Gabing, Kema, etc. – should be used, and 55 subjects (49%) said Bangla should be used. These numbers include one subject who said Tripura, Bangla, and Chakma should all be used as primary school education

5 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 16: “What language do you think a mother in your language group should speak with her children?” 6 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 17: “What language should be used as the medium of education in primary school?”

mediums because Tripura, Bengali, and Chakma children are all in school together. Two other subjects said Bangla should be used because there are Chakma and/or Bengali students in the same classes as the Tripura.

Several others also volunteered reasons for their answers. For example, among those who said their mother tongue should be used, two said this would be much easier for their children. Another said her children know no language other than their mother tongue (Aslong), so this is the medium they have to be taught in. Of those who said Bangla should be used in primary school, six gave the reasoning that their children need to learn Bangla because it’s the national language or because they need it to live successfully in Bangladesh.

Among the Usoi, the Debbarma, and the Mukchak, fewer than one-third of the subjects said their mother tongue should be used to teach at the primary level. Especially among the Usoi, this is slightly surprising given their lack of fluency in Bangla (see section 5.3.5). This lack of Bangla fluency, however, could be what’s driving their interest for Bangla-medium education, for several Usoi also mentioned it would be good for their children to know Bangla since they live in Bangladesh.

Possibly for the same reasons, both of the Riang subjects said Bangla should be the medium of education in primary school, though one said both Bangla and Riang should be used. Because the Riang in Bangladesh are so small in number, it could be difficult for them to imagine that Riang would be an education medium.

Subjects’ responses to these two questions indicate that they do have pride in their mother tongue in that most think mothers should use their mother tongue with their children. Many, however, also acknowledge a need for Bangla and seem to have a desire for their children to learn Bangla well, an opportunity many of the Usoi and Khagrachari Tripura subjects themselves have not had. These attitudes will be examined further in section 5.3.3 about language attitudes towards language classes.

With regards to language attitudes, subjects were also asked two questions related to literacy and literature. First, they were asked if they can read and write letters and notices in any language. A summary of their responses is in table 14.

Table 14. Summary of responses to the question, “Are you able to read and write letters and notices in any language?” Response

Yes No Khagrachari Tripura 52% 48% Usoi Tripura 41% 59% Debbarma Tripura 67% 33% Mukchak Tripura 64% 36% Riang -- 100% TOTALS 52% 48%

Table 14 shows that just over one half of the 188 subjects said they can read and write letters and notices. The percentage is higher among the Debbarma and Mukchak and lower among the Usoi and Riang. It is important to note that these are not community literacy rates. In each village visited, educated people were sought out in order to get opinions from a wide range of people. As was mentioned in the discussion of the sociolinguistic questionnaire sample, in

some villages it was not possible to administer the questionnaire to the desired number of five people educated through at least class 8 because such people simply did not exist. Thus, the questionnaire sample is much more educated than the Bangladesh Tripura population as a whole, and the percentage of subjects who said they can read and write is much higher than it would be for the whole population.

The 97 subjects who said they are able to read and write were then asked for their opinion on which script should be used to write their mother tongue. A summary of their responses is in table 15.

Table 15. Summary of answers about which script to use for subjects’ mother tongues Responses Bangla Roman Do not know Usoi Tripura 10 (59%) 7 (41%) -- Khagrachari Tripura 33 (56%) 19 (32%) 7 (12%) Debbarma Tripura 6 (43%) 7 (50%) 1 (7%) Mukchak Tripura 6 (86%) 1 (14%) -- TOTALS 55 (57%) 34 (35%) 8 (8%) Educated – all groups 29 (47%) 28 (45%) 5 (8%) Uneducated – all groups 26 (74%) 6 (17%) 3 (9%)

Well over half of the 97 subjects who said they can read and write went on to say that their mother tongue should be written using Bangla script. Another 35 percent said Roman script should be used. Eight of the 97 said they did not know enough about the issue to say one way or the other. Only among the Debbarma did more people say Roman script should be used. This could be because they are aware that Debbarma has already been developed in India primarily in Roman script.

The last two lines of table 15 are important to note. There were 62 educated subjects in the entire sociolinguistic questionnaire sample. All of these subjects said they can read and write. When these educated subjects were asked about script, 29 said Bangla script should be used, and 28 said Roman script should be used. That is, their opinion is split almost equally. Among the 35 uneducated subjects who said they can read and write, however, 26 subjects (74%) said Bangla script should be used and only six (17%) said Roman script should be used. One of these commented that Bangla script must be used because that’s what more people know how to use. One of the educated subjects who said he didn’t know which script should be used commented that Roman script is better for the Tripura’s economic situation but that Bangla script is better for the average Tripura person. Therefore, he did not feel he could say which one should be used.

As was noted in section 3.3, several Tripura leaders shared with the researchers about the issue of which script to use to write Kok Borok. Some seemed confident that the decision had been made to use Roman script. Others thought a final decision had not yet been made and that there was room to use either Roman or Bangla script. These sociolinguistic questionnaire responses can serve as a reminder to leaders and language developers, who are in positions to influence the decision about script, that this is a weighty decision that will affect many individuals, as well as the Tripura community as a whole. The needs of the community as a whole, the opinions of leaders both in Bangladesh and India, and the needs and opinions of the average Tripura villager in Bangladesh must all be taken into consideration.

5.3.3. Language attitudes – towards language classes Finally, with regard to language attitudes, subjects were asked one of two possible sets of questions related to mother-tongue literacy classes. In three of the villages visited, children’s literacy classes had already been started. Subjects in these villages were asked a set of two questions about these classes.7

Two of the villages where there are currently Kok Borok literacy classes running are Noimail Gutchagram and Beltolipara, both in Khagrachari district. Of the 22 subjects from these two villages, 17 said they do know children who attend these classes. Most of these 17 then said the classes are going well. One woman from Beltolipara (a Khali village) pointed out that the materials are in Naitong. Two commented that the class is good for children’s understanding and that the class will enable the students to do better in government school. One young man from Noimail said the children should have their own classroom because there are disruptions in the school building in which they are now meeting. One young man from Beltolipara said he’s happy with the class but that the parents should support it by giving it more attention.

There is an Usoi mother-tongue literacy program in Sinaipara in Bandarban district. Five of the sociolinguistic subjects from there were asked about this program. (One of the researchers was not aware of this class and so did not ask this question of the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects but, instead, asked questions 20a and 20b.) Of these five Sinaipara subjects, all said they knew children who go to these classes, and all said the classes are “good” or “very good.” No further comments were made with regard to these classes.

Consequently, a total of 27 subjects were asked about currently running literacy classes. The other 161 sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were asked a separate set of two questions about the possibility of children’s literacy classes.8 Nearly all subjects (155 of 161 subjects; 96%) said they would send their children (or, as appropriate, their grandchildren or neighbor children) to literacy classes in which children were taught literacy skills, first in Kok Borok, and then in Bangla. Three people said they would not send their children to such a class and three others said they did not know if they would send them.

Subjects were then asked why they would or would not send their children to such literacy classes. Two of the three subjects who said they would not send their children reasoned that their children need to learn Bangla. The third “no” responder did not mention children’s specific need for Bangla but, instead, said his children need to learn national and international languages instead of Kok Borok, which he referred to as a local language.

There were numerous and diverse reasons given for why subjects would send their children to such a literacy class. Their responses are summarized in table 16.

7 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 19a: “I have been told there is a mother tongue literacy program here. Do you know any children who go to these classes?” and sociolinguistic questionnaire question 19b: “If yes, how successful do you think these classes are?” 8 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 20a: “If your community leaders set up a class to teach young children first how to read and write Kok Borok and then how to read and write Bangla, would you send your children?” and sociolinguistic questionnaire question 20b: “Why or why not?”

Table 16. Reasons for sending children to Kok Borok-cum-Bangla literacy classes9 MT = mother tongue n = sample size Response Rate Khagrachari Usoi Debbarma Mukchak Reason Riang Tripura Tripura Tripura Tripura n = 2 n = 86 n = 35 n = 21 n = 11 To learn their MT better 17% 6% 52% 73% 50% To learn to read & write their MT 20% 34% 10% 9% -- To preserve their MT 10% 6% -- 27% 50% For their good development 17% 6% 19% -- -- To learn/for education -- 29% ------To learn both their MT and Bangla 6% 3% 14% 18% -- To learn in their MT, which is easier 13% -- 5% -- -- for them than Bangla This is important./It would be good. 3% 6% 14% -- -- To develop their MT 6% 3% ------“Do not know” 1% 11% ------Other 10% ------

Among the subjects from Khagrachari and the Usoi subjects, the most common reason given for wanting to send children to a literacy class is so that the children would learn to read and write their mother tongue. In addition, 15 (17%) of the Khagrachari subjects said they would want their children to attend these classes to learn their mother tongue better, and another 15 said these classes would be good for their children’s development. Many of those who gave this latter answer live in villages with no school in or near the village and, therefore, seemed eager to have most any type of education for their children.

Eleven of the subjects from Khagrachari (13%) reflected the heart of the reason behind multilingual education (MLE) programs when they said they would send their children to these classes because it would be easier for them to learn in their mother tongue than in Bangla. Finally, among those who gave an answer which is counted as “other,” three said they would want their children to learn more about Tripura culture through these classes, and six said they would send their children to learn Kok Borok better, some indicating they were referring to the variety of Kok Borok that has become developed in India.

Among the Debbarma, Mukchak, and Riang subjects, there appears to be a much greater interest in children’s literacy classes as a means of helping their children learn their mother tongue better. This could be an indication of the vitality of these language varieties in the areas where these subjects live, for each of these groups is smaller and more isolated from other Tripura than are the Usoi Tripura and the Tripura in Khagrachari. Language vitality of all of these varieties is subsequently explored.

Looking at all of this language attitudes data (regarding language use and towards language classes) together allows us to draw some conclusions. Among all the groups studied those in Khagrachari seem to hold the most positive attitude toward their own language varieties. In

9 Percentages in table 16 are based on the number of subjects who said they would send their children to the classes in question.

general, subjects’ answers reflect pride in their language and a desire to see their language strengthened.

The Usoi Tripura also seem to have a fairly positive attitude toward their language, but many of their answers also reflect practical thinking, especially with regard to Bangla. They were positive about mother-tongue literacy classes for their children but, at the same time, they acknowledge the need for Bangla, which the majority of respondents said should be the medium of education in primary school. The fact that 17 percent of the Usoi subjects even thought Usoi mothers should speak Bangla with their children shows a real desire for their children to have more opportunities to learn Bangla.

A strong majority of the Debbarma and Mukchak subjects also said Bangla should be the primary school medium of education. At the same time, all subjects said they would send their children to mother-tongue literacy classes. In other words, it seems they want their children to be bilingual. The linguistic environments in which these two groups live in Bangladesh is quite different from those of the Usoi and Khagrachari Tripura in that the Debbarma and Mukchak have much greater interaction with Bangla. Their answers to the language-attitudes question indicate that they have sufficient pride in their language varieties that they do not want them to go out of use in their villages.

5.3.4. Language vitality The vitality of a language is often best gauged by the language situation among children. Thus, the sociolinguistic questionnaire questions aimed at understanding vitality dealt with the languages that children speak and their abilities in these languages.

For example, subjects were asked if children in their village speak their language well.10 The percentage of affirmative answers ranged from 100 percent among the Usoi and Riang subjects, 99 percent among the Khagrachari Tripura subjects, 90 percent among the Debbarma subjects, to only 18 percent among the Mukchak. This is an early indication that Mukchak in Bangladesh is under serious threat but that the other language varieties may be quite strong.

Subjects were also asked if, before starting school, many children in their village speak any language besides their first language. Nineteen (17%) of the Khagrachari Tripura subjects said they do, and they mentioned Bangla (14 subjects), Naitong (four subjects), Chakma (three subjects), and Khali and Dendak (one subject each) as the languages they are learning. It should be noted that six of these 19 subjects are from Khagrapur, where there is a much greater mixing of languages than in other Tripura areas in Khagrachari.

Among the Usoi, only three subjects (7%) said many children in their village speak a language besides Usoi before starting school, and each of these three people said that language is Bangla. Also, each of these three subjects was from Katchaptali, an area in Bandarban where there are relatively few Usoi living. Thus, it seems that only in this one area do Usoi children regularly speak any language other than Usoi before they begin school.

Almost one half of the Debbarma subjects (10 subjects; 48%) said many children in their village speak a language besides their Kok Borok mother tongue before starting school. Each

10 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 13: “Do young people (age 10) in your village speak [their Kok Borok variety] well, the way it ought to be spoken?”

of these 10 subjects said these children speak Bangla. Compared to the Usoi and the Khagrachari Tripura, the Debbarma appear to have much more exposure to Bangla at an early age. In the long run, this could affect the vitality of Debbarma in Bangladesh.

A large majority of the Mukchak subjects (nine subjects; 82%) said many children in their village do speak another language before starting school. As shown in table 18, all of the Mukchak said children in their village speak Bangla as their first language. Of the nine subjects who said children speak a second language before starting school, all said they speak “Tripura” as their second language.

In response to another three of the language-vitality questions, the Usoi, the Debbarma, and the Khagrachari Tripura subjects gave very similar responses. A summary of their responses to these three questions is presented together in table 17.

Table 17. Summary of Usoi, Debbarma, and Khagrachari subjects’ responses to three language vitality questions Question Key: Kids speak first = “What language do children in your village speak first?” Kids’ best language = “What language do young people (age 10) in your village speak best?” Kids with each other = “What language do Tripura children (age 10) in your village speak with each other?”

Response Question Mother tongue Bangla Naitong Kids speak first 100% -- -- Kids’ best language 98% 3% 1% Kids with each other 99% 3% --

The responses displayed in table 17 show that Usoi, Debbarma, and Khagrachari Tripura children use their mother tongue first, best, and with each other. This shows strong vitality of these language varieties and is a clear indication that these language varieties will continue to be spoken for at least the next two generations. It is likely, however, that the varieties will become less pure in at least one of two ways. For one, they may become more mixed with Bangla. Of the five subjects (3%) who said young people in their village speak Bangla best, each is young in age. These young people themselves may speak Bangla well and use it with their Bangla-speaking friends. They might also mix it in with their mother tongue when speaking and use this form of speech with some young people in their villages. Children also apparently use Bangla with each other, though infrequently.

The other way in which some of these language varieties will likely become less pure is through a mixing of Kok Borok varieties, especially among the varieties in Khagrachari district. Among the 10 subjects from Khagrapur, seven said young people speak “Tripura” or “mixed Tripura” as their best language. That is, they did not give the name of a specific Kok Borok variety but rather said the children speak a mixture of several varieties. Also, one subject from Tongpaipara said young children speak both Tongpai and Naitong as their “best” language. This is because there are both Tongpai and Naitong families living in his village. As communication services improve and as more Tripura move to urban places such as Khagrapur, many of the Kok Borok varieties in Khagrachari district will undoubtedly become increasingly mixed with each other.

In spite of this anticipated mixing of languages, the preceding analysis that the Usoi, Debbarma, and numerous Khagrachari language varieties are vital remains true. Even in the next generation, most children from each of these varieties will undoubtedly speak one of these Kok Borok varieties with each other as their first and their best language.

The Mukchak subjects’ responses to these same three questions paints a very different picture for the future of their language. A summary of their responses is in table 18.

Table 18. Summary of Mukchak subjects’ responses to three language vitality questions Question Key: Kids speak first = “What language do children in your village speak first?” Kids’ best language = “What language do young people (age 10) in your village speak best?” Kids with each other = “What language do Tripura children (age 10) in your village speak with each other?”

Response Question Tripura Bangla Kids speak first -- 100% Kids’ best language 18% 91% Kids with each other 27% 82%

Each of the 11 Mukchak subjects from Barbakpur, Rajbari said children in their village speak Bangla as their first language. Nearly all also said young people in their village speak Bangla as their best language and with each other. This is a very clear sign that Mukchak in Bangladesh is being lost. Though some Barbakpur children do speak a form of Tripura, it is clear that most speak Bangla better. Because they are more comfortable using Bangla, they will almost inevitably use this with their own children, who will in turn know and understand even less Tripura.

A specific question about what language the next generation of children will speak was asked of each of the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects.11 A summary of their answers is in table 19.

Table 19. Summary of responses regarding future language use among the Tripura Response

Mother tongue Bangla Chakma Dendak Do not know Khagrachari Tripura 96% 9% 2% -- 1% Debbarma Tripura 86% 19% ------Usoi Tripura 76% 27% -- -- 2% Mukchak Tripura 9% 91% ------Riang 50% -- -- 50% --

As a whole, the 113 sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects from Khagrachari feel quite strongly that their respective mother tongues will continue to be used by the next generation’s children, although 10 subjects (9%) said these children will use Bangla. This includes six

11 Sociolinguistic questionnaire question 15: “In about 30 years, when the children in this village grow up and have children of their own, what language do you think those children will speak?”

subjects who said these children will use both their mother tongue and Bangla. A large majority of the Debbarma subjects also said the next generation of children in their village will speak Debbarma, but 19 percent (four subjects) said they’ll speak Bangla. This may show a little less certainty on their part of the vitality of Debbarma in Bangladesh, at least in its pure form.

Given that all but one of the Usoi subjects earlier said Usoi children today speak Usoi as their first and best language, it is surprising that only 76 percent (31 subjects) said Usoi children 30 years from now will speak Usoi. Eleven subjects (27%) said in 30 years Usoi children will speak Bangla, including two who said they’ll speak both Bangla and Usoi. It could be that the Usoi in some areas are presently experiencing language shift and that some Usoi anticipate in the next generation Usoi will be replaced by Bangla. This seems to be especially true in certain areas such as Katchaptali, where five of the 10 subjects said the next generation of children in their village will speak Bangla (including two who said they’ll speak both Bangla and Usoi). People in places such as Katchaptali are relatively far apart from other Usoi villages. Thus, they may use Bangla more and observe their language shifting to Bangla more quickly. For the Usoi in general, however, two factors should be kept in mind: (1) at present large segments of the Usoi population lack fluency in Bangla and (2), in general, there are fairly low levels of Bangla-medium education among the Usoi. Thus, Usoi may be shifting at a rate faster than ever before, but it is doubtful that it is being lost to Bangla so quickly that many Usoi children will be speaking Bangla as their primary language in only 30 years.

Among the Mukchak, on the other hand, language shift is well underway. Only one subject (9% of the sample) said in 30 years children in his village will speak Tripura. All other subjects said they will speak Bangla. This is plausible given that all subjects said that even today children in their village learn to speak Bangla as their first language. This is compatible with what we observed during our two days in Barbakpur, where Tripura parents spoke Bangla with their children.

The Riang data regarding vitality is inadequate to support much analysis. The population of Riang speakers in Bangladesh is very small because a large majority of Bangladeshi Riang now speak a unique form of Chakma as their mother tongue. Even where Riang is still spoken, it appears that the Riang children in these areas grow up being exposed to several languages and do not consistently learn Riang as their first language. Thus, the vitality of Riang in Bangladesh seems threatened.

5.3.5. Bilingualism There were six questions on the sociolinguistic questionnaire related to each subject’s perceived bilingual abilities. From these individual responses, some generalizations can be made about community-wide bilingualism. Consequently, the responses are examined for each general community discussed in this study.

Khagrachari Tripura The most basic question about perceived bilingual ability simply asked subjects what languages they speak in addition to their mother tongue. Among the 113 Tripura subjects from Khagrachari district, 88 (78%) said they speak Bangla. This was the most common second language given. Additionally, there were 10 subjects who said they speak a “little Bangla.” The second-most common language mentioned was Chakma, which 49 subjects said they speak, including 13 who said they speak a little Chakma.

Among the various Kok Borok varieties spoken in Khagrachari, some subjects mentioned they can speak Naitong (15%), Dendak (9%), Khali (8%), Phatung (5%), Gabing (4%), Tongpai (1%), and/or Kewa (1%). Many more subjects are undoubtedly able to speak one or more of these language varieties with at least a fair amount of fluency, but they did not mention this because they do not consider these varieties as languages separate from their mother tongue.

As for the other Kok Borok languages covered in this study (that is, those primarily outside of Khagrachari), very few subjects mentioned any other language they are able to speak. Three Khagrachari subjects said they can speak a little Usoi. No one mentioned being able to speak Debbarma, Mukchak, or Riang. This reinforces the premise that there is little communication across these groups, presumably because of their geographical distance and linguistic disparity from each other.

Finally, with regard to the question of perceived bilingual ability, it is important to note that 12 subjects (11%) said they speak no language other than their mother tongue.

This question was followed up with a question that asked subjects at what age they began to learn each language. Among the subjects who said they speak at least a little Bangla, the average age at which they started to learn was 8.7 years old. That is, on average, they started learning Bangla several years after the age at which Bangladeshi children typically start school. This points to the need for mother-language education for many Tripura children living in Khagrachari.

With regard to bilingualism, subjects were also asked what language they use the most, what language they speak best, and what language they speak second-best. The Khagrachari subjects’ responses are shown in table 20.

Table 20. Summary of Khagrachari subjects’ responses to three bilingualism questions Question Key: Language used most = “In a typical week, which language do you use most?” Best language = “What language do you speak best?” Second-best language = “What language do you speak second best?” Answer Key: NA = not applicable Response Question Mother tongue Bangla Chakma Other NA Language used most 90% 9% -- 1% -- Best language 99% 7% 1% -- -- Second-best language 1% 64% 11% 15% 17%

Education and age played a significant role in how Khagrachari subjects responded to these bilingualism questions. For example, among the 10 subjects (9%) who said they use Bangla most of the time, nine were educated through at least class 8, and all 10 were categorized as “younger.” As the Tripura slowly become more educated in Bangla-medium schools and as the younger generation grows older, it is likely that an increasing percentage of them will use Bangla more. This change, however, is likely to be slow.

Location also played a role in how some people answered these questions. For example, one subject said he speaks Naitong (listed as “Other” in table 20) most of the time. This is because he lives in Tongpaipara, where there are not only many Tongpai but also many Naitong mother-tongue speakers. Another clear influence of location on bilingualism is the case of Khagrapur, a section of Khagrachari city. Of the eight people (7%) who said Bangla is their best language, five were from Khagrapur. That is, only three of the other 103 Khagrachari subjects named Bangla as their best language. Furthermore, each of these three from outside Khagrapur said they speak both their mother tongue and Bangla as their “best” language.

“Other” second-best languages that people mentioned were Naitong (5%), Dendak (5%), Khali (3%), Phatung (3%), and Chittagonian (1%). There are probably more who speak one or more of these Kok Borok language varieties better than the language they gave as their second best, but, because many Tripura do not think of these varieties as different languages, they did not think to mention them. This question was not applicable to the 12 subjects who said they speak no language other than their mother tongue or to the seven subjects who named more than one language as their “best” language.

All but the 12 subjects who speak no second language were then asked if they can always say what they want to say in their second-best language. Those who had named more than one best language were asked about each of these. Fifty-three of these 101 subjects (52%) said they can, and 48 subjects (48%) said they cannot always say what they want to in their second-best language. Of those who said Bangla is either their best or second-best language, only 32 subjects said they can always say what they want to say in Bangla. This represents only 28 percent of all Khagrachari subjects, indicating low community bilingualism in Bangla.12

It is clear from these responses that the mother tongue is still dominant among the Tripura in Khagrachari and that Bangla is the most common second language in use. Even in Bangla, however, low community bilingualism and the age at which people begin to acquire Bangla points to the need for materials and education in Kok Borok.

Usoi Tripura In comparison to the Khagrachari Tripura, the Usoi Tripura seem to be influenced by more non-Kok Borok languages. For example, not only did 30 Usoi subjects (73%) say they speak some Bangla, but also 66 percent said they speak some Marma, 27 percent said they speak some Chittagonian, 12 percent said they speak Bawm, and 10 percent said they speak Murung. Chakma, English, and Lushai were also mentioned by subjects as languages they could speak. This indicates that the Usoi may live in a multilingual environment. The average age at which they reportedly started to learn these languages, however, suggests they do not have ready exposure to these other languages but rather that they come into contact with them as they start to grow toward adulthood. The average reported age at which subjects started to learn Bangla was 11.5 years. They started to learn Marma at an average age of 14.9 years and Chittagonian at an average age of 15.4 years. This probably means that many Usoi Tripura are exposed to a number of languages but that they start to learn the languages at an age when it is too late for many to learn any language other then their mother tongue well enough to

12 The form of Bangla mentioned by both Khagrachari and Usoi subjects is not necessarily “standard” Bangla but is undoubtedly often closer in form to Chittagonian, the mother tongue of many Bengalis in Chittagong division.

become fluent in that second language. This was explored further by the bilingualism questions represented in table 21.

Table 21. Summary of Usoi Tripura subjects’ responses to three bilingualism questions Question Key: Language used most = “In a typical week, which language do you use most?” Best language = “What language do you speak best?” Second-best language = “What language do you speak second best?” Answer Key: NA = not applicable Response Question Usoi Bangla Marma Chittagonian NA Language used most 93% 7% ------Best language 98% 2% ------Second-best language 2% 54% 29% 10% 10%

As is the case with the Khagrachari Tripura, mother tongue is clearly the dominant language among the Usoi Tripura. Also, as is the case with the Khagrachari Tripura, education and age are key factors in whether a subject might say Bangla is his best language or the language he uses most: all three subjects (7%) who said they use Bangla most of the time were categorized as “younger” and “educated” for sampling purposes, and the one subject (2%) who said Bangla is her best language was also “younger” and “educated.”

Because Bangla is the language that most Usoi speak as their second-best, it is important to better understand how fluent they as a community are in Bangla. In total, 13 Usoi subjects (32%) said they can always say what they want to say in Bangla. Again, a large majority of these subjects were younger and educated. This suggests that if the Usoi become more educated in Bangla-medium schools and as the younger generation replaces the older generation, it is likely that an increasing percentage of Usoi will use Bangla more and possibly as their best language. This change, however, will probably take place at an even slower rate than it will among the Khagrachari Tripura, for the Usoi seem to have even fewer opportunities for exposure to Bangla, including through Bangla-medium education.

Among those who said they speak Marma as their second-best language, eight subjects (20% of all Usoi subjects) said they can always say what they want to say in Marma. Interestingly, each of these eight subjects is “older” and “uneducated.” It seems that Marma may have been a more dominant second language among the Usoi a generation ago, when there were fewer Bengalis living in Bandarban district and when there was less access to Bangla-medium education. Today, it appears that Usoi community bilingualism in Marma is decreasing and that only some in the older generation of Usoi may be able to make good use of written or – more likely – oral materials in Marma. These, however, would serve only a small portion of the community well.

It is worth noting that none of the Usoi subjects mentioned any other form of Kok Borok as a language they can speak. This lends more support to the notion that there is little contact between the Usoi Tripura and other Tripura living in Bangladesh.

As was the case with the Khagrachari Tripura, all of these responses again point to insufficient community bilingualism in any language. From the perspective of bilingualism, only materials in Usoi will meet the linguistic needs of the Usoi Tripura in Bangladesh.

Debbarma Tripura The bilingual situation among the Debbarma in Sylhet division seems quite different from that of the Usoi and the Khagrachari Tripura. For example, when asked what languages they can speak in addition to their mother tongue, all 21 (100%) of the Debbarma subjects said they speak Bangla. Not even one subject qualified this answer by saying he could speak only a “little Bangla.” This was by far the most common second-language named. Both English and Hindi were named by three subjects as languages they can speak to at least some extent. A few other languages, such as Santali and Mandi, were mentioned by only one subject each.

Not only do a much greater percentage of Debbarma people know Bangla, but they also start to learn Bangla at a much younger age than do the Usoi and Khagrachari Tripura. The average reported age at which the 21 Debbarma subjects started to learn Bangla was 5.2 years. This coincides quite clearly with the age at which a number of them would have started school, in which Bangla would have been the medium of instruction and where they would have interacted with Bengali students.

Given that the Debbarma start to learn Bangla earlier than do the Usoi and the Khagrachari Tripura, it is also likely that they learn it better. This is explored in table 22 through the same series of questions that were asked of the other sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects.

Table 22. Summary of Debbarma subjects’ responses to three bilingualism questions Question Key: Language used most = “In a typical week, which language do you use most?” Best language = “What language do you speak best?” Second-best language = “What language do you speak second best?” Answer Key: NA = not applicable Response Question Mother tongue Bangla NA Language used most 71% 29% -- Best language 100% 5% -- Second-best language -- 95% 5%

From the responses shown in table 22, it is very clear that the Debbarma in Sylhet division live in a bilingual but not a multilingual environment. This is different from the multilingual situations in which the Usoi and the Khagrachari Tripura live, where not only their mother tongue and Bangla but also Chakma, Marma, Chittagonian, and several other language varieties are present. Among the Debbarma in Sylhet division, it seems that only Kok Borok and Bangla are vying for their attention. This, coupled with the fact that the Debbarma simply have more exposure to Bangla, has enabled more Debbarma Tripura to become fluent in Bangla. That 29 percent of the subjects said they use Bangla more than any other language indicates they feel quite comfortable and confident in using it and also that they often find themselves in situations in which they can – and possibly must – use Bangla.

Even though the Debbarma have more opportunities to learn Bangla, it seems clear that they still speak their mother tongue as their best language. All the subjects said their mother tongue is their best language, although one young, educated subject said she speaks both Kok Borok and Bangla as her “best” language. All the other subjects said they speak Bangla as their second-best language. Unlike the Usoi and Khagrachari Tripura subjects, no Debbarma subjects said they speak only Kok Borok and no other language.

Subjects were then asked if they can always say what they want to say in Bangla. Eighteen of them (86%) said they can always say what they want in Bangla. The other three (14%) said they cannot. Each of these three subjects was categorized as “older” and “uneducated.” Furthermore, five of the six subjects who said they use Bangla most of the time were “younger.” This again suggests that the Debbarma Tripura are becoming increasingly fluent in Bangla and that, as the younger generation starts to replace the older generation, the Debbarma community as a whole will be quite bilingual in Bangla. This is already starting to happen and will continue to happen at a much faster rate than among the Usoi and Khagrachari Tripura.

Mukchak Tripura From the analysis presented on language vitality (section 5.3.4), it is clear that the bilingual situation among the Mukchak is unique among the Tripura, for nearly all Mukchak Tripura children from the Barbakpur area today apparently speak Bangla as their first and best language. Thus, it is to be expected that Mukchak subjects’ responses to the bilingualism questions would be considerably different from other subjects’ responses to the same questions. A clear example of some of these differences is shown through the summary of responses to three bilingualism questions in table 23.

Table 23. Summary of Mukchak subjects’ responses to three bilingualism questions Question Key: Language used most = “In a typical week, which language do you use most?” Best language = “What language do you speak best?” Second-best language = “What language do you speak second best?” Answer Key: NA = not applicable Response Question “Tripura” Bangla NA Language used most -- 100% -- Best language 27% 100% -- Second-best language 73% -- 27%

All of the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects from Barbakpur said they use Bangla most of the time and speak Bangla as their best language. Subjects said this regardless of their age, education, or gender. Also, the average age at which subjects reportedly started to learn Bangla was 4.3 years, which is before most would have started school.

There were three subjects who said they speak both Tripura and Bangla equally well, and all the other subjects said they speak Tripura as their second-best language. Only one subject said he speaks any language other than Bangla and Tripura, so the fact that all named Tripura as their best or second-best language does not indicate that they speak it well. In fact, when they were asked if they can always say what they want to say in Tripura, more than half

(6 subjects; 55%) said they cannot. All of these responses clearly indicate that the Tripura people of Rajbari are better served by materials in Bangla than they would be by materials in Kok Borok.

Riang It seems the Riang speakers of Bangladesh live in a multilingual environment. The two Riang sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects said they speak a total of six languages: Bangla, Chakma, Gabing, Naitong, Pangkhua, and Riang, although they started to learn most of these when they were slightly older. For example, the average age at which they said they started to learn Bangla and Chakma was 14 years old and 12 years old, respectively. One Riang subject said he speaks Gabing most of the time and that this is also his best language. Riang is reportedly his second-best language, but he cannot always say what he wants to say in Riang. The other subject said he speaks both Riang and Pangkhua equally well as his “best” language but uses Pangkhua more.

From this limited data, we can simply hypothesize that those in Bangladesh who speak Riang also speak other languages and that they may be better served by materials in a language other than Riang. It is very doubtful, however, that Bangla or Chakma materials would serve them well. It is also possible that the Riang from one village may be better served by materials in one language (such as Pangkhua) and that the Riang in another village may be better serves by materials in another language (such as Naitong).

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

The language situation among the Tripura ethnic group (in which languages known as Kok Borok are spoken) is a complex one. There are numerous Kok Borok language varieties, large differences in the population sizes of speakers of these varieties, issues of the vitality of some varieties, and differing degrees of community bilingualism in languages of wider communication. Given this complex situation, one single program with only one set of materials will not meet the language-development needs of the Tripura in Bangladesh. Furthermore, there is no “one size fits all” program that can be used to develop each of several language varieties. Rather, each of the Khagrachari Tripura, the Usoi Tripura, the Debbarma Tripura, the Mukchak Tripura, and the Riang face different language-development challenges and opportunities. Thus, they need slightly different language-development programs that will best serve them in their unique situations.

The Tripura as a people, however, share an ethnicity, a history, and many aspects of their cultures. Thus, while the specifics of language development differ among them, it is important that they work together as a people. They should share ideas and resources, coordinate language-development training, work through issues such as script and funding, and encourage one another in their efforts.

Our organization’s experience in similar situations has led us to believe this kind of multi- layered program would be best managed by several language-development committees, one for each Kok Borok variety being developed. These committees should meet separately to deal with issues of local language-development program management, and they should meet together to deal with issues which are best addressed at a united level across the entire Tripura community.

One positive way in which the Tripura communities can work together is to coordinate their efforts in choosing and adapting a script. Writing in any script, of course, is better for speakers of Kok Borok languages than not writing at all. However, the sooner Tripura authors and linguists develop and start using a standardized script, the better it will be for their readers and the more easily they will be able to share materials for adaptation across Kok Borok speech forms. A phonological study of each language variety to be developed will be needed for this effort to be successful because differences among the sounds that exist in the different Kok Borok varieties need to be reflected accurately in their writing systems. Also, for this process of developing a united script to be successful, representatives from each language variety will need to meet together in person to make the decisions necessary in the process of standardizing a script.

Another way in which those involved in Kok Borok language development should work together is in sharing resources about and getting training in developing multilingual education (MLE) programs. Nearly all Tripura children in Bangladesh would benefit from participating in an education program in which they first learn in their mother tongue and then, at the appropriate time, begin to learn in other languages, such as Bangla. We recommend this because a child who first learns literacy skills in his mother tongue has a stronger foundation for learning additional languages and developing literacy skills in those additional languages. These skills can be transferred to other languages, and the child has a more solid educational base on which to build other learning experiences.

MLE programs would benefit not just Tripura children but also the Bangladeshi Tripura community as a whole. This is because an effective MLE program would include culturally

based themes, and it would make use of songs and literature familiar to the children. Also, adults from the community would be involved in developing both literature and other materials for the program and in teaching. Thus, the program would contribute to Tripura language and culture preservation. The more that individuals and communities work together on this, the more effective these preservation and development efforts should be.

Collaborating on script standardization, MLE program development, and other aspects of language development will obviously take extra time and effort, but we believe these efforts will pay off with a stronger, more unified, and better educated Tripura community. Members of the various language-development committees – whether in existence or in the idea stage – should make this one of their priorities.

Khagrachari Tripura Much of the language variation present among the Tripura of Bangladesh exists in Khagrachari district, where at least 10 Kok Borok varieties exist. In spite of some language differences, these people generally see themselves as one group and often are able to communicate across groups, each using their own mother tongue. The Tripura community in Khagrachari should use this unity to their advantage and work as one unit in both community and language-development efforts. To do this effectively, it seems wise for them to decide early on which language variety to focus on developing first, especially for a single MLE program.

Currently, literature is being produced in at least two varieties: Naitong and Dendak. It is likely that at least Khali and Phatung have also been written. The fact that people are writing in their mother tongues is a great asset to the Tripura community, and we encourage people to continue to be involved in these efforts. Experience from other contexts suggests that people who are learning to read Kok Borok for the first time, however, should be presented with materials in only one language variety. To present people with more than one variety would be confusing for them and may prevent them from getting a good grasp of the orthography.

Information from leader interviews, intelligibility testing, and sociolinguistic questionnaire responses all point to Naitong as the language variety of choice for early development. Dendak could also be considered as the variety for focused development, but there are strong indications that Dendak is not as widely understood as Naitong. Thus, we recommend that those involved in language development in Khagrachari funnel their efforts into developing more and more materials in Naitong at this time. Many of these materials should feed into a Naitong MLE program which preferably would start with preschool-aged children. Ideally, there will also be a Naitong glossary and graded reading materials for adults.

Location of the initial implementation of an MLE program will be important to the success of a language-development program in Khagrachari. Intelligibility testing showed that the remoteness of a village negatively affects how well people from that village can understand Naitong. At this point, we are unable to say whether Naitong materials will serve people such as the Aslong, the Anok, the Kema, or the Kewa well. Thus, a Naitong MLE pilot program should be started in Naitong villages and/or in other Tripura villages that are less remote and, preferably, near Naitong villages. If the classes are successfully implemented in these places, then testing should be done to determine whether the materials and program may be successfully replicated in more remote villages that are farther away from Naitong villages. If it is determined that Naitong materials will not be sufficient for these people, then materials in another Khagrachari Kok Borok variety should also be developed. In summary, after

focused effort has been given to developing Naitong for the Tripura people of Khagrachari, community members should consider developing programs for other Kok Borok varieties, if doing so would be helpful or desirable.

Finally, we recommend that “middle Tripura” or “mixed Tripura” not be artificially developed. While we appreciate the sentiment of unity implied by those who want to develop a form of “mixed Tripura,” language developers should recognize that united varieties of previously diverse speech forms need to be allowed to develop naturally over a significant period of time – not artificially created. This natural development has already started to happen, slowly, over the last generation as inter-marriage among Tripura clans has become more common and as an increasing number of Tripura are moving to towns where people from many clans live and interact. The result is that the lines of distinction between the Kok Borok varieties in Khagrachari are becoming less clear. All indications are that the language will continue to move in this direction over the next generation or two. As this happens, however, only real and living languages that are used in a spoken form should be considered for language development. The creation of an artificial mixed form is very unlikely to yield positive results for language development and education initiatives in the Tripura community.

Usoi Tripura The Usoi Tripura do not face the language variation challenges that the Khagrachari Tripura face, but they do have other issues to consider with regards to developing their language, which they refer to as Kau Brung. Perhaps the most important issue that has become clear through this research is that the Usoi have a strong desire for their children to learn Bangla better. This is true for the Khagrachari Tripura, too, but the desire seems especially strong among the Usoi. A well-structured MLE program would give time and attention to the careful introduction of Bangla. Because most Usoi children do not seem to have an opportunity to learn Bangla outside of the classroom, however, the Bangla component should be added slowly – not suddenly and not before learners have a solid foundation of literacy in their own language. One possible program structure would conduct the first year of preschool education completely in Usoi. Later, in the second year of preschool, Bangla should be introduced orally – but not in written form – alongside written Usoi. Finally, after at least a year of continued Usoi literacy and oral Bangla, Usoi children could be introduced, gradually, to written Bangla. After this, mother-tongue instruction should be continued in primary school for as long as possible alongside instruction in the national language. Such a program, which allows continued emphasis on Usoi Kau Brung alongside Bangla, is much more likely than other education program structures to provide a strong foundation for education in Usoi, Bangla, and other languages as children continue their education.

Even though the Usoi expressed a strong desire for more opportunities to learn Bangla, there is a clear need for Usoi literature development. The results of this study indicate that the Usoi community as a whole is clearly not adequately fluent in any language other than Usoi to be able to use literature well in any other language. Also, Usoi Kau Brung is sufficiently different from other Kok Borok varieties that the Usoi people would not be able to make good use of materials in any other Kok Borok variety without their first being significantly adapted. Thus, a language-development program in Usoi Kau Brung itself seems pertinent to the development of the community as a whole.

Because there seems to be little variation in the ways Usoi is spoken throughout Bandarban district, language developers should not be overly concerned about the geographical location in which a language-development program is centered. An exception might be the

Rawangchari area, where Usoi speakers’ pronunciation and intonation may be noticeably different from the Usoi Kau Brung spoken in other parts of Bandarban. The Usoi of Rawangchari, however, should be able to use Usoi materials developed in other areas.

Debbarma Tripura The Debbarma in Bangladesh have a great advantage in starting a language-development program in that there has been a considerable amount of Debbarma Kok Borok literature developed in Tripura state, India. While there are some differences between the Debbarma of Bangladesh and the Debbarma of India, these materials could at least serve as excellent sources for adaptation into the Bangladeshi form of Debbarma Kok Borok. It is very possible, however, that the materials may be used effectively even without adaptation. Thus, if the Debbarma in Bangladesh are serious about wanting to be involved in mother tongue language development, they should travel to Agartala to collect Kok Borok literature. While there, they should also talk with people such as Binoy Debbarma and Ruhi Debbarma at the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council to learn more about language-development efforts, plans, and experiences in developing Debbarma Kok Borok as a main written language of Tripura state. The Debbarma of Bangladesh should also establish ongoing, open lines of communication with the Debbarma of India so that there is free sharing of ideas and resources.

For the Debbarma of Bangladesh to use mother-tongue materials (either from India or from within Bangladesh) effectively, an MLE program should be established. Because many Debbarma children speak and understand Bangla even before entering primary school, a pre- primary MLE program could introduce oral Bangla into the curriculum more quickly than has been recommended for the Usoi. Although many Debbarma children know some Bangla before starting primary school, they still know Debbarma much better. Thus, a well-planned MLE program with effective materials and teachers will be of benefit to them by providing them with a solid foundation for their future education.

Within Bangladesh there are Debbarma not only in Moulvi Bazar and Habiganj but also in Comilla and possibly other areas. The concentration of Debbarma speakers, however, is in Moulvi Bazar and especially in Habiganj. Also, the vitality of Debbarma among those in Comilla is in question. If there is sufficient interest and commitment, we recommend that a Debbarma language-development program be based out of the Habiganj or possibly the Moulvi Bazar area.

Mukchak Tripura It is clear that the Mukchak community in Bangladesh now uses and understands Bangla to a greater extent than Kok Borok. Therefore, they do not have a great need for education in Kok Borok because they should be well served by literature in Bangla. If, however, there is considerable community motivation and desire for some sort of Kok Borok language development, several options are possible. For one, if the Mukchak are primarily interested in language documentation, they could take part in orthography development. This would provide an important start to documenting and preserving their language and their history. Apart from or in addition to orthography development, they could participate in an oral language-documentation program.

Another option for the Mukchak would be to implement an education project. For this to happen, however, a number of committed adults will need to be involved in curriculum development. If MLE materials are more fully developed in Khagrachari, the Mukchak could

likely adapt these to their situation. Even this, however, will take time and training. Although starting an education program is possible, sustaining such a program in a situation such as that of the Mukchak will be difficult. Only if there is strong community ownership of the work and a dedication of resources to the project would the project have a chance of succeeding.

Riang Most members of the Riang ethnic group living in Bangladesh no longer speak the Riang language. Those who do still speak Riang live in multilingual situations, and even these people do not consistently speak Riang as their best language. On the other hand, most Riang speakers in Bangladesh are not yet sufficiently fluent in Bangla, Chakma, or any other developed language to be able to use that language’s materials well. In fact, limited information indicates that most Riang speakers currently do not have consistent access to education in any language they understand well.

This complex situation, combined with very limited data, allows for only brief recommendations. One is that, if the Riang are interested in language documentation, they, too, should participate in orthography development. Another recommendation is that the Riang should work closely with Tripura language developers in Khagrachari, for many Riang speakers apparently know Naitong, Dendak, and/or Gabing to at least some extent. A final recommendation is that the Riang of Bangladesh should establish good communication with the Riang of India. If the Riang language in India is ever developed further, it is conceivable that Bangladeshi Riang speakers could benefit from access to Indian Riang materials.

SIL Bangladesh is not a funding organization. SIL Bangladesh is a research, training, and consulting organization which seeks to be a helpful partner to community-owned language and development initiatives. Responsibility for taking the first steps of any language and development program, however, lies with the language speakers themselves. First they need to identify appropriate people from their communities to head up any language and development projects they are interested in. The community members must then do further information and materials gathering regarding language development that has already taken place, and they need to try to establish good working relationships among all those involved in language development for their community. Other resources needed for the viability of a project – whether they be human, financial, or logistical – should also be identified. When these initial steps are taken and when there are adequate community vision, organization, and dedication to the work, then SIL as an organization is often able to serve alongside communities such as that of the Tripura. In such cases SIL is usually able to provide basic training and consulting services in language and development matters such as program design, writing system development, education program planning, curriculum, materials development, and teacher training.

BANGLA TRANSLATIONS OF SECTION 1.4, SECTION 2, AND SECTION 6

১.৪. লkয্ o uেdশয্ বাংলােদেশর িtপুরা জনেগাির ভাষা unয়ন কাযর্kেম সাহাযয্ িদেত পাের eমন তথয্ সংgহ করাi িছল ei সামািজক ভাষাতািttক জিরেপর pধান uেdশয্। uিlিখত ৩৬ িট কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtর মেধয্ pকৃতপেk বাংলােদেশ েকান ভাষাৈবিচtয্gেলা বয্বহার কের থােক eবং ei ভাষৈবিচtয্gেলার মেধয্ ভাষাতািttক সmকর্ কী eigেলা আমরা জানেত েচেয়িছ। anাn ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র সােথ ভাষাতািttক সmকর্, জনসংখয্া, aেনকgেলা ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র pিত তােদর মেনাভাব eবং aবশয্i চলমান সািহতয্ unয়ন কাযর্kেমর িভিtেত েকান ভাষাৈবিচtয্িট unয়েনর জn uপযুk হেব তাo আমরা জানেত েচেয়িছ। ei uেdশয্ পূরেণ আমরা িনেmাk লkয্gেলা িনধর্ারণ কেরিছ:

১. বাংলােদেশর কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র মেধয্ ভাষাতািttক িভnতা aেnষণ করা ২. কক বরক ভাষীেদর িনজs দফার ভাষা eবং an দফার ভাষার pিত মেনাভাব আেরা ভােলাকের জানা ৩. িtপুরােদর মেধয্ ভাষা eবং সmpদােয়র unয়েনর চলমান কাযর্kম সmেকর্ জানা ৪. কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র মেধয্ েকানটা বয্াপক সািহতয্ রচনার জn uপযুk হেব তা িনণর্য় করা ৫. কক বরক ভাষাভাষীেদর িনিদর্ ভাষাৈবিচtয্gেলার েবাধগময্তা পিরমাপ করা ৬. বাংলা, চাকমা eবং মারমা ভাষায় িtপুরা ভাষাভাষীেদর িdভাষীতা িনণর্য় করা। eiসব লেkয্ েপৗছার জেn পরsর সmিকর্ত িতনিট ভােগ িবভk কের বাংলােদেশর িtপুরােদর মেধয্ ভাষাতািttক জিরপ কাজিট চালােনা হেয়েছ: ১) ভাষা unয়েনর aতীত o বতর্মােন চলমান পদেkপgেলার পযর্েবkণ, ২) বাংলােদেশর কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র ভাষাতািttক পযর্ােলাচনা, ৩) ভাষার pিত মেনাভাব, sািয়t eবং িdভাষীতা পযর্ােলাচনা করা।

২. pাp তেথয্র সারাংশ

২.১. ভাষা unয়ন কােজর পযর্ােলাচনা

ভারত o বাংলােদেশ কক বরক ভাষা unয়েন িকছু uেlখেযাগয্ পদেkপ েনয়া হেয়েছ। বাংলােদেশর চTgাম শহর েথেক eকিট কক বরক েরিডo anান সmpচার করা হয় eবং কিতপয় সািহতয্ uপsাপন করা হয়। ei সািহেতয্র মেধয্ eকিট বািষর্ক ময্াগািজন, eকিট গীিতকাবয্, dিট েছাট aিভধান eবং িকছু েছাট েছেলেমেয়েদর িশkামূলক uপকরণ anর্ভূk। eেত েকান সেnহ েনi েয, তােদর কােছ আেরা িকছু কক বরক ভাষার uপকরণ আেছ।

কক বরক সািহতয্ uপsাপেন eকi বণর্ বয্বহার করা হয় না। ভারেতর েবিশরভাগ কক বরক সািহতয্ েরামান বণর্ িদেয় uপsািপত হয়, িকnt েবাধ হয় বাংলােদেশ কক বরক ভাষা িলখেত বাংলা বণর্ সবেচেয় েবিশ বয্বহার করা হয়। িকnt বাংলােদেশর কক বরক ভাষার unয়েন যারা জিড়ত রেয়েছন তােদর েবিশরভাগi কক বরক ভাষা িলখেত েরামান বণর্ বয্বহােরর iচ্ছা pকাশ কেরন।

খাগড়াছিড়েত বসবাসরত িtপুরােদর ভাষার িভnতা সmেকর্ তথয্ সংgহ করা হয় eবং বয্িkগত সাkাৎকার েনয়া হয়। eেত তারা নাiতং ভাষা িদেয় তােদর ভাষা unয়েন যেথ সmিত েপাষন কেরন। নাiতং ভাষা an িtপুরা দফার েলােকরা কতটুk েবিশ বুঝেত পাের eবং েমৗিখক ভাষা িহেসেব নাiতং তােদর মেধয্ কতটুk unয়ন কেরেছ তার uপর িভিt কের সmpদােয়র েনতারা ei মতামত িদেয়েছন। েরায়াংছিড় ছাড়া বাnরবান েজলার সব জায়গার uসi েলাকেদর ভাষা eকi রকম বেল uসi েনতারা জানান।

২.২. ভাষার আঞ্চিলক rেপর পযর্েবkণ ২.২.১ আিভধািনক িমল-eর পযর্েবkণ ভাষার িভnতা সmেকর্ আেরা ভােলাভােব বুঝেত পাঁচিট uসi gােমর েলাকেদর কাছ েথেক শb তািলকা েনয়া হয়। ei শb তািলকাgেলার মেধয্ আিভধািনক িমল কের েদখা যায় েয, বাংলােদেশর uসi ভাষীেদর মেধয্ ভাষার িভnতার পাথর্কয্ খুবi কম। eকiভােব, ei জিরেপ িতনিট েদববমর্া শb তািলকার মেধয্ আিভধািনক িমল কের েদখা যায়, তােদর মেধয্ যেথ পিরমােন আিভধািনক িমল রেয়েছ। eটা খুবi সmাবনাময় েয, বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া ভাষীরা ভারেতর aেনক েদববমর্া সািহতয্ বুঝেত পারেব।

খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িtপুরােদর ১০িট দফার মধয্ েথেক শb তািলকা সংgহ কের আিভধািনক িমল যাচাi কের তােদর মেধয্ ভাষার িভnতা পিরলিkত হয়। ei েজলার কক বরক ভাষা েগােtর দফাgেলার মেধয্ েকানিটi মূল দফা িহেসেব পিরলিkত হয়িন। বরং ei ১০িট দফার মেধয্ ৮িট দফার শািbক িমেলর গড় ৭৩%-৭৬% eর মেধয্। শুধুমাt ফাতুং eবং আসলং দফার শািbক িমেলর শতকরা হার যথাkেম ৬৯% eবং ৬৩%, যা anাn দফা েথেক খুবi কম। ei dিট দফা খাগড়াছিড় েজলার কক বরক েকndীয় ভাষাgচ্ছ েথেক eকটু বাiের হoয়ায় তােদর শািbক িমেলর গড় হয়ত কম হেয়েছ।

খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িtপুরােদর সােথ anাn কক বরক ভাষীেদর শb তািলকা তুলনা কের েদখা েগেছ েয, uসi িtপুরা েলােকরা তােদর েথেক আলাদা কথা বেল। anrপভােব, খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরােদর মেধয্ শুধুমাt েকoয়া দফার সােথ eকটু িমল বয্তীত anাn দফাgেলার ভাষা িরয়াং ভাষা েথেক আলাদা eবং anrপভােব মুকচাকেদর ভাষা েথেকo আলাদা। খাগড়াছিড়র কক বরক eবং েদববমর্া কক বরক ভাষার মেধয্ শািbক িমেলর শতকরা হার ৬০-৭৪%, eবং eেত েবাঝা যায় uসi, িরয়াং o মুকচাক ভাষার েচেয় েদববমর্া কক বরক ভাষার সােথ খাগড়াছিড় কক বরক ভাষার িমল তুলনামূলকভােব েবশী। uসi িtপুরােদর ভাষা শুধুমাt খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িtপুরােদর েথেক আলাদা নয়, েদববমর্া eবং মুকচাক িtপুরােদর েথেকo আলাদা। শুধুমাt িরয়াং ভাষার সােথ িকছুটা িমল আেছ িবধায় uসi ভাষােক িরয়াং ভাষার eকিট আঞ্চিলক rপ িহেসেব িবেবচনা করা যায়, িকnt eেতo সেnহ আেছ eiজn েয তােদর শািbক িমেলর শতকরা হার মাt ৫৯-৬৭%।

শািbক িমেলর পযর্ােলাচনায় eটাo pতীয়মান হয় েয, রাজবািড় েজলার বারবাকপুেরর িtপুরােদর (ei িরেপােটর্ তােদর মুকচাক িহেসেব uেlখ করা হেয়েছ) ভাষা anাn দফার েচেয় েদববমর্া িtপুরা ভাষীেদর সােথ আেরা িমল রেয়েছ।

পিরেশেষ, গােরা সmpদােয়র শb তািলকার সােথ কক বরক শb তািলকার তুলনা কের ২০িট কক বরক ভাষা ৈবিচেtর pেতয্েকর সােথ তােদর খুব কম শেbর িমল পাoয়া যায়। e েথেক গােরােক eকিট িtপুরা

দফা িহেসেব েকানভােবi বলা যায় না। যিদo গােরা eবং কক বরক ভাষাতািttকগতভােব সমেগােtর, িকnt তারা eকi ভাষার আঞ্চিলক rপ নয়। তেব, তারা eকi পিরবােরর dিট আলাদা ভাষা।

২.২.২. ভাষার েবাধগময্তা পযর্ােলাচনা সামািজক ভাষাতািttক pোtের বাংলােদেশর িবিভn েজলায় বসবাসকারী িtপুরােদর মেধয্ খুব কম েযাগােযােগর iিঙ্গত পাoয়া যায়। uদাহরণsrপ, িসেলট িবভােগর েদববমর্ােদর সােথ বাংলােদেশর anাn িtপুরােদর কম েযাগােযাগ আেছ, eবং রাজবািড় েজলার মুকচাকেদর সােথ anাn িtপুরােদর েযাগােযাগ েনi বলেলi চেল। িtপুরােদর মেধয্ uসi eকিট বড় দল হoয়ায় সmবত anাn িtপুরােদর সােথ তােদর েযাগােযাগ eকটু েবশী। anাn িtপুরােদর uসi েবাঝার kমতা কতটুk eবং uসiেদর সােথ েযাগােযােগর মাধয্ম িহেসেব েকান ভাষা বয্বহার কের - e ধরেনর pgেলা েথেক েবাঝা যায়, যারা uসi না eমন িtপুরােদর পেk uসi ভাষা েবাঝা েবশ কিঠন।

েভৗগিলক aবsােনর িভিtেত eেক aপেরর কাছাকািছ হoয়ায় খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িবিভn কক বরক আঞ্চিলক ভাষীেদর মেধয্ ভােলা েযাগােযাগ রেয়েছ। তাছাড়া মেন হয় েয, তারা িনজs ভাষা ছাড়া an দফার ভাষার pিত েবশ সেচতন। খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িঠক aেধর্ক pোtরদানকারী বেলেছ তােদর নাiতং ভাষা বুঝেত সবেচেয় সহজ। pেtারদানকারীেদর মেধয্ নাiতং ভাষার পর ২য় পযর্ােয় বেলেছন েদনদাক eবং ৩য় পযর্ােয় বেলেছন খািল ভাষা বুঝেত সবেচেয় সহজ।

আেনাক, আসলং, খািল eবং ফাতুং pোtরদানকারীেদর মেধয্ eকিট নাiতং গl যাচাi কের েদখা যায় তােদর গlিট েবাঝার kমতার গড় িছল ৮৫%। eেত েবাঝা যায় েয, খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িtপুরােদর মেধয্ যারা নাiতং নয় তােদর aেনেকi নাiতং ভাষার uপকরণ ভােলাভােব বয্বহার করেত সkম হেব। িকnt eকিট uচ্চ য্ান্ডাডর্ িডিভেয়শন ১৩.৬ dারা eটাi সতকর্ কের েয, খাগড়াছিড়র সব িtপুরা ভাষীরা নাiতং ভাষার uপকরণ ভােলাভােব বয্বহার করেত পারেব না। eর কারন - খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা েলােকরা িভn িভn দফা েথেক তােদর মাতৃভাষায় কথা বেল, তাi যারা নাiতং নয় তােদর নাiতং ভাষা িশেখ িনেত হয়। তাi খাগড়াছিড় েজলার িtপুরােদর মেধয্ িবিভn দফার েলােকরা নাiতং কতটুk ভােলা বুঝেত পাের তা িনধর্ারণ করেত চাiেল সবেচেয় grtপূণর্ িবষয়িট হল তােদর gামgেলা কতদূের aবিsত তা িবেবচনা করা। কারন তােদর নাiতং বুঝেত পারা িনভর্র কের নাiতং েলাকেদর সােথ তােদর কতটুk েযাগােযাগ আেছ তার uপর।

ভারেতর েদববমর্া গl খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা েলােকরা কতটুk বুঝেত পাের তা যাচাi কের ৬৩% গড় েsার পাoয়া যায় যা নাiতং গl যাচাiেয়র গড় েsার েথেক কম। সmবত আেনাক দফা বয্িতেরেক খাগড়াছিড়র anাn দফার িtপুরা aথবা রাজবািড়র মুকচাক িtপুরা েলােকরা েদববমর্া সািহতয্ ভােলাভােব বুঝেত পারেব িকনা তােত সেnহ আেছ। েযেহতু uসi িtপুরােদর সােথ েদববমর্ােদর শািbক িমেলর শতকরা হার কম, কােজi তােদর েkেto eটা সতয্ েয তারা েদববমর্া সািহতয্ ভােলাভােব বুঝেত পারেব না।

২.৩. ভাষার pিত মেনাভাব, ভাষার sািয়tকাল eবং িdভাষীt পযর্ােলাচনা

সামািজক ভাষাতািttক pোtেরর মাধয্েম েদখা েগেছ খাগড়াছিড় েজলার েবিশরভাগ িtপুরা েলােকরা eবং েবিশরভাগ uসi িtপুরা েলােকরা যখনi সmব তােদর মাতৃভাষা বয্বহার কের। েদববমর্া িtপুরা েলাকেদরo তােদর gােম েবিশরভাগ সময় মাতৃভাষা বয্বহার করেত েদখা যায় িকnt তারা anাn েkেt তােদর মাতৃভাষা বয্বহার কের না। anিদেক মুকচাক িtপুরা েলােকরা েবিশরভাগ সময় সকল েkেt বাংলা ভাষা বয্বহার কের। বাংলােদেশর িরয়াং িtপুরা েলােকরা বhভাষী েলাকেদর মেধয্ বসবাস কের eবং তারা িবিভn সংখয্ালঘু সmpদােয়র ভাষা বয্বহার কের থােক। aেনক বাংলােদশী িtপুরােদর তােদর কক বরক ভাষা িনেয় যেথ গবর্ রেয়েছ, িকnt তারা মেন কের তােদর বাংলায় jান থাকা pেয়াজন eবং তারা তােদর েছেলেমেয়েদর ভােলা বাংলা িশখােত আgহী। eেকi সমেয়, তৎসংলg সকল সামািজক ভাষাতািttক pেtারদানকারীরা তােদর েছেলেমেয়েদর বhভাষী িশkা কাযর্kেম পাঠােনার আgহ pকাশ কেরন যােত েছেলেমেয়রা pথেম তােদর মাতৃভাষা িশখেত পাের eবং পের বাংলায় পারদশর্ী হেয় uঠেত পাের। e ধরেনর kােশ তােদর েছেলেমেয়েদর পাঠােত চাoয়ার কারেণ তােদর িনজs ভাষার sায়ীt pকাশ পায়। uদাহরণsrপ, uসi eবং খাগড়াছিড় িtপুরা pোtরদানকারীরা েবিশরভাগi চান েযন তােদর েছেলেমেয়রা মাতৃভাষায় পড়েত o িলখেত েশেখ। anিদেক েদববমর্া, মুকচাক eবং িরয়াং pোtরদানকারীরা খুেবi আgেহর সােথ বেলেছন েয, তােদর েছেলেমেয়েদর e ধরেনর িশkা কাযর্kেম পাঠােত চান যােত তারা তােদর মাতৃভাষা আেরা ভােলাভােব জানেত পাের। eেত েকান সেnহ েনi েয, uসi ভাষা, খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরােদর ভাষা eবং বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া ভাষার sািয়t পরবতর্ী pজেno িটেক থাকেব। িকnt মুকচাকেদর মাতৃভাষা হািরেয় যােচ্ছ, eবং aিধকাংশ মুকচাক েলােকরা an ভাষার েচেয় বাংলা আেরা ভােলা বলেত পাের। বাংলােদেশর িরয়াং েছেলেমেয়রা তােদর pথম ভাষা িহেসেব িরয়াং ভাষা িনয়িমতভােব বয্বহার কের না। তাi িরয়াং ভাষার sািয়t দীঘর্কাল িটেক থাকাটা hমিকরসmুখীন। িরয়াং ভাষা হািরেয় যাoয়ার সmাবনার েkেt বাংলা ভাষা খুব eকটা দায়ী নয়, িকnt eলাকার kুd সmpদােয়র ভাষার pভােব িরয়াং ভাষা আজ hমিকর মুেখ। uসi eবং সংখয্াগির খাগড়াছিড়র aেনক িtপুরা েলােকরা anাn ভাষা কম বলেত পাের, তাi তােদর ভাষার sায়ীt aেনক েবিশ। যিদo তােদর মেধয্ েকu েকu চাকমা, মারমা/ মুrং বলেত পাের eবং তােদর d'দেলর েবিশরভাগ েলাকেদর িdতীয় ভাষা বাংলা, িকnt বাংলায় সািবর্কভােব সmpদােয়র িdভাষীt যেথ নয়। তারা সাধারণত sুেল যাoয়ার কেয়ক বছর পর েথেক বাংলা িশখেত শুr কের। েযেহতু তােদর েছেলেমেয়রা বাংলা মাধয্ম sুেল পড়ােলখা কের আেরা িশিkত হেচ্ছ, কােজi তােদর সmpদােয়র বাংলায় িdভাষীt বাড়েব। িকnt তােদর e িdভাষীেtর হার সmবত ধীের ধীের বাড়েত থাকেব। uসi eবং খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরােদর সােথ িসেলট িবভােগর েদববমর্ােদর মেধয্ তুলনা কের েদখা েগেছ তারা আেরা ভােলা বাংলা বলেত পাের। তােদর সাধারণ বাংলা চচর্া eবং বাংলা মাধয্ম িশkা বয্বsার আেরা েবশী sেযাগ রেয়েছ। কােজi uসi eবং খাগড়াছিড় িtপুরােদর েচেয় িসেলেটর েদববমর্ােদর বাংলায় িdভাষীতা আেরা drত হাের বৃিd পােচ্ছ।

৬. sপািরশ িtপুরা জনেগাীর ভাষার aবsা (যা কক বরক ভাষা নােম পিরিচত) জিটল। কক বরক ভাষায় aেনকgেলা ৈবিচtয্ আেছ, ei ৈবিচtয্ ভাষাভাষীেদর মেধয্ জনসংখয্ার মেধয্ িবরাট পাথর্কয্, িকছু িকছু ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র িটেক থাকার িবষয় eবং সmpদােয়র সবার সােথ বয্বহার করা যায় eমন ৈবিচেtয্ িdভাষীতার িভnতা iতয্ািদ aেনক জিটলতা রেয়েছ। uিlিখত ei জিটল aবsায় eকিট িনিদর্ uপকরণ eবং eকিট মাt কমর্সূিচ িদেয় বাংলােদেশর িtপুরা ভাষা unয়ন সmব নয়। eমনিক pিতিট ভাষাৈবিচtয্ unয়ন করবার মেতা সব ৈবিচেtয্র জn uপযুk eমন েকান কমর্সূচীo েনi। বরং, খাগড়াছিড়র িবিভn িtপুরা দফা, uসi (িtপুরা), েদববমর্া (িtপুরা), মুকচাক (িtপুরা) eবং িরয়াং (িtপুরা) েলােকরা ভাষা unয়ন কমর্সূচীর িবিভn sিবধা o asিবধার সmুিখন। eiজেn eকটু আলাদা ভাষা unয়ন কমর্সূিচ gহণ করা দরকার যা তােদর িনজs aবsােন েথেক unয়ন করেত সবেচেয় েবশী সহায়তা েদেব।

িকnt িtপুরা েলােকরা eকi জািত িহেসেব মেন কেরন তােদর জািতগত পিরচয়, iিতহাস eবং সংsৃিতo eকi। eiজn যিদ েকান িনিদর্ ভাষা unয়েন তােদর মেধয্ মতেভদ েদখা েদয়, তখন তােদর eকi জনেগাী িহেসেব eকসােথ কাজ করা pেয়াজন। তােদর ধারণা o সmদgেলা ভাগ করা দরকার, ভাষা unয়ন pিশkণ সমnয় করা, বণর্মালা o aথর্ সংkাn িবষেয় eকসােথ কাজ করা eবং পরেরর কােজ পররেক uৎসািহত করা pেয়াজন।

আমােদর সংsার িবেশষjগণ আমােদরেক বেলেছন েয eরকম িবিভn েণীর কাযর্kম, কক বরেকর েয ভাষাৈবিচtয্gেলা unয়ন করা হেচ্ছ েসgেলা ভাষা unয়েনর eকািধক কিমিট dারা পিরচালনা করাi সবেচেয় ভােলা। ei কিমিটgেলা sানীয় বা িনজs দফার ভাষা unয়ন কাযর্kম পিরচালনা করার জn আলাদা ভােব বেস eবং সমg িtপুরা সmpদােয়র েয িবষয়gেলা িনেয় eকসােথ কাজ করা যায় েসgেলার জn eকসােথ বেস আেলাচনা করা uিচত। eকটা uপায় আেছ েয, বণর্মালা বাছাi o মুdেণর েkেt িtপুরা সmpদায় eকসােথ কাজ করেত পাের। eেকবাের না থাকার েচেয় েয েকান বণর্মালা িদেয় িলখা কক বরক ভাষাভাষীেদর জn aবশয্i ভােলা। িকnt যত তাড়াতািড় িtপুরা েলখক o ভাষািবদগণ eকটা বণর্মালা িনবর্াচন কের েসটা বয্বহার করেত শুr করেবন, eটা তােদর পাঠকেদর জn আেরা তত ভােলা হেব eবং কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র িবিভn কথয্rপ িদেয় সংকিলত uপকরণgেলা সহেজi িনেজেদর মেধয্ আদান pদান কের িনেত পারেব। ei pেচা সফল করার জn ধব্িনতািttক গেবষণার pেয়াজন হেত পাের, কারণ তােদর িলখন পdিতর মেধয্ কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র ধব্িনগত পাথর্েকয্র aবশয্i সিঠক pিতফলন হoয়া দরকার। eকটা সিmিলত বণর্মালা ৈতরীর pিkয়াটা সফল করার জno pেতয্ক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র pিতিনিধেদর eকসােথ বেস আেলাচনা কের eকটা uপযুk বণর্মালা িনধর্ারেণর িসdাn িনেত হেব।

আেরকটা িবষয় হেচ্ছ যারা কক বরক ভাষা unয়েনর সােথ জিড়ত আেছন তােদর বhভািষক িশkা (MLE) কমর্সূচী unয়ন সmেকর্ pিশkণ েপেত eবং unয়ন কােজ বয্বhত uপকরণgেলা িবিনমেয় eকসােথ কাজ করা দরকার। েযখােন pথেম েছেল-েমেয়রা তােদর মাতৃভাষায় িশেখ eবং পের an ভাষা (েযমন বাংলা) সিঠক সমেয় শুr করেত পাের eমন eকটা িশkা কমর্সূচীেত aংশgহণ করেল বাংলােদেশর pায় সব িtপুরা েছেল-েমেয়রাi uপকৃত হেত পারেব। আমরা eটা ei জn বলিছ কারণ েয িশশু pথেম তার মােয়র ভাষা িদেয় akর িশেখ, তার an ভাষা eবং akর িশখার eকটা শk িভত গেড় uেঠ। আর ei দkতা an ভাষােতo pেয়াগ করা যায় eবং anাn িবষেয় aিভjতা aজর্ন করেত িশkামূলক eকটা শk িভত গেড় তুেল।

MLE কমর্সূচী dারা শুধু মাt িtপুরা েছেল-েমেয়রাi uপকৃত হেবনা, বরং বাংলােদেশর সমs িtপুরা জনেগাীo uপকৃত হেব। ei কারেণ eকটা কাযর্কর MLE কমর্সূচীেত সাংsৃিতক িবষয়বst anভুর্k করা pেয়াজন, eবং eেত েছেল-েমেয়রা গানgেলা বয্বহার করেব eবং সািহতয্gেলা সmেকর্ জানেত পারেব। তাছাড়া সmpদােয়র বয়s েলােকরাo সািহতয্ o unয়ন কমর্সূচীর pেয়াজনীয় anাn uপকরণ unয়ন eবং পাঠদান uভয় কােজi সmৃk হেত পােরন। ei ভােবi ei কমর্সূচী িtপুরা ভাষা o সংsৃিত রkায় ভুিমকা রাখেব। আর ei ভাষা o সংsৃিত সংরkণ o unয়েনর জn আেরা যতেবশী সবাi িমেল eকসােথ কাজ করেব আেরা ততi সফলতা লাভ করা যােব।

বণর্মালা মানসmত করন, MLE কমর্সূচী pণয়ন eবং ভাষা unয়েন anাn িদক িনেয় eকসােথ কাজ করেল aবশয্i বাড়িত সময় o কােজর pেয়াজন হেত পাের, িকnt আমরা িবশব্াস কির েয ei পদেkপ eকটা আেরা শিkশালী, আেরা েবশী ঐকয্বd o আেরা িশিkত িtপুরা জনেগাী গেড় তুলেব। িবিভn ভাষা unয়ন কিমিটর সদsেদরo ei িবষয়েক pাধাn েদয়া uিচত।

খাগড়াছিড় eলাকার িtপুরা বাংলােদেশর িtপুরা ভাষাৈবিচtয্gেলার মেধয্ aিধকাংশ ৈবিচtয্i খাগড়াছিড় েজলােত িবদয্মান, anত ১০িট কক বরক ৈবিচtয্ িবদয্মান। সামাn িকছু ভাষার পাথর্কয্ থাকেলo সাধারণত তারা িনেজেদরেক eকi েগাীর বেল মেন কের, eবং pায় pেতয্েকi িনজ িনজ মাতৃভাষা িদেয় েগাীর anাn দফার েলাকেদর সােথ েযাগােযাগ করেত পাের। খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা সmpদায় তােদর ভাষা eবং সmpদায় uভেয়র unয়ন কােজ তােদর ei eকতার sেযাগেক কােজ লািগেয় ঐকয্বd ভােব কাজ করা pেয়াজন। ei কােজ সফলতা লাভ করেত হেল pথেম েকান ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র unয়ন করেব িবেশষ কের eকিট eকক MLE কমর্সূচীর জn তার িসdাn েনoয়াi িবচkণতার কাজ হেব বেল মেন কির।

সmpিতকােল anতপেk নাiতং o েদnাক ei dিট ভাষাৈবিচtয্ িদেয় সািহতয্ রচনা করা হেয়েছ। anতপেk খািল o ফাতুং িদেয়o েলখা হেয়েছ বেল মেন হয়। েলােকরা তােদর মাতৃভাষা িদেয় িলখেছ eটা িtপুরা সmpদােয়র eকটা aমূলয্ সmদ, eবং ei কােজ সmৃk হেত আমরা েলাকেদরেক uৎসািহত করিছ। িকnt anাn aিভjতা েথেক বলা যায় েয, যারা ei pথম কক বরক ভাষা পড়েত িশখেছ তােদর জn uপকরণgেলা eকi ভাষাৈবিচtয্ িদেয় uপsাপন করা uিচত। eকািধক ভাষাৈবিচtয্ িদেয় uপsাপন করেল তারা িdধািnত হেত পাের eবং বণর্মালা িশখার সময় pিতবnকতার সmুিখ হেত পাের।

েনতােদর সাkাৎকার gহণ, েবাধগময্তা যাচাi eবং সামািজক ভাষাতািttক pপেtর utর েথেক pাp তথয্ েথেক জানা যায় েয pাথিমক unয়েনর জn নাiতং ভাষাৈবিচtয্েকi তােদর পছn। unয়েনর জn েদnাক ভাষাৈবিচtয্েকo েবেছ েনয়া েযেত পাের িকnt, eেkেt েজাড়ােলা iিঙ্গত পাoয়া িগেয়েছ েয সবাi নাiতং ভাষার মত েদnাক ভাষােক বুঝেত পােরনা। তাi eiিদক িবেবচনায় যারা খাগড়াছিড় eলাকার ভাষা unয়েনর সােথ সmৃk আেছন আমরা তােদরেক নাiতং ভাষা িদেয় েবশী কের uপকরণ unয়েনর পরামশর্ িদিচ্ছ। ei uপকরণgেলার মেধয্ aেনকgেলাi নাiতং MLE কমর্সূচীর pেয়াজনীয় কােজ আসেত পাের, যা pাক িবদয্ালয়গামী েছেল-েমেয়েদরেক িদেয় শুr করা েযেত পাের। বয়sেদর জn পযর্ায়kিমক পাঠয্ পুsক eবং েছাট aিভধানo যিদ থােক তাহেল সবেচেয় ভাল হেব।

খাগড়াছিড় eলাকায় MLE কমর্সূচীর pাথিমক বাsবায়েনর জn sান eকটা grtপূণর্ িবষয়। েবাধগময্তা যাচাi েথেক জানা েগেছ েয eকটা eলাকার দূরt েস eলাকার েলাকেদর নাiতং ভাষা ভােলা কের বুঝেত পারার uপর েনিতবাচক pভাব েফেল। তাi eিদক েথেক নাiতং uপকরণgেলা আসলং, আনক, েকমা aথবা েকoয়া েলাকেদর uপকাের আসেব িক না তা আমরা বলেত পািরনা। আর তাi eকটা পরীkামূলক

নাiতং MLE কমর্সূচী eকটা নাiতং gাম বা পােশর gামgেলােত শুr করা uিচত। যিদ gামgেলােত kাশgেলার সফল বাsবায়ন হয়, তেব uপকরণ eবং কমর্সূচীgেলা নাiতং gামgেলা েথেক aেনক দূেরর gামgেলােতo anrপভােব বাsবায়ন করা যােব িক না eটা িনধর্ারণ করার জn পরীkা কের েদখা uিচত। যিদ eটা িনধর্ারণ করা হেয় থােক েয, নাiতং uপকরণgেলা eiসব েলাকেদর জn যেথ না তেব; খাগড়াছিড়র anাn কক বরক ৈবিচtয্gেলাo unয়ন করা uিচত। পিরেশেষ বলা যায় েয, খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা েলাকেদর জn নাiতং unয়েনর uপর দৃি দােনর পর িtপুরা সmpদােয়র anাn কক বরক ৈবিচtয্ unয়েন কমর্সূচী gহেণর জn িবেবচনা করা uিচত যিদ েসটা তােদর জn uপকারী বা তােদর কািঙ্খত হয়।

পিরেশেষ আমরা “মধয্ম িtপুরা” aথবা “িমণ িtপুরা” ভাষার মনগড়া unয়ন না করার জn sপািরশ করিছ। যিদo আমরা “িমণ িtপুরা” rপ unয়েনর মাধয্েম ঐকয্বd হoয়ার মেনাভােবর কথা বুঝেত পাির, তবুo ভাষা unয়নকারীেদর uপলিb করেত হেব েয িভn িভn কথয্rপgেলার সিmিলতrপেক sাভািবকভােব unয়েনর জn sীকৃত হেত হেব - কৃিtমভােব নয়। iিতমেধয্ ei sাভািবক unয়ন আসেত আসেত শুr হেয়েছ, েযমন: aেনক আেগ েথেকi িtপুরার িবিভn দফার েলাকেদর মেধয্ িবেয় হেচ্ছ, eবং শহর মুিখ েলাকেদর সংখয্াo বৃিd পােচ্ছ, eবং েসখােন িবিভn দফার েলােকরা eকসােথ বসবাস কের eবং চলােফরা কের থােক; eভােব িtপুরার িবিভn দফাgেলা eক হেয় আসেছ। eর ফেল খাগড়াছিড়র কক বরক ৈবিচtয্gেলার মেধয্ পাথর্কয্ কেম আসেছ। আর ei সবিকছুi িনেদর্শ কের েয পরবিতর্ pজেn ভাষার ei পাথর্কয্ আেরা কেম আসেব। েযেহতু eরকম হেচ্ছ, তাi ভাষা unয়েনর জn শুধুমাt pকৃত eবং pচিলত কথয্rপেক েবেছ েনয়াi uিচত। asাভািবক eকটা িমrপ সৃি িtপুরা সmpদােয়র ভাষা unয়ন eবং িশkার pাথিমক পদেkেপ iিতবাচক ফল pদান করেত পারেবনা। uসi িtপুরা খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা েলাকেদর মত uসiেদরo (িtপুরা) ভাষাৈবিচtয্র বাধা বা asিবধাgেলার সmুিখন হেত হয়না, িকnt তােদর ভাষা েযটােক তারা কo brং বেল থােক তার unয়ন সmিকর্ত িকছু িবষয় রেয়েছ। ei জিরপ েথেক জানা েগেছ তােদর সবেচেয় grttপূণর্ িবষয় হেচ্ছ েয েছেল-েমেয়েদর আেরা ভাল বাংলা িশখার pিত তােদর pবল iচ্ছা রেয়েছ। eটা খাগড়াছিড় eলাকার িtপুরােদর েkেto সতয্, তেব ei iচ্ছাটা uসiেদর মেধয্ pবল বেল মেন হয়। eকিট sগিঠত MLE কমর্সূচী যেথ সময় o মনেযাগ িদেয় যtসহকাের আেs আেs বাংলা uপsাপন করেব। েযেহতু েবশীরভাগ uসi (িtপুরা) েছেল-েমেয়েদর েিণ কেkর বাiের বাংলা িশখার sেযাগ নাi বেল মেন হয়, তাi বাংলা বণর্মালা, ছড়া, কিবতা iতয্ািদ ধীের ধীের যুk করা uিচত - হঠাৎ কের নয় eবং িশkাথর্ীেদর িনজs মাতৃভাষার বণর্মালার শk িভত গেড় uঠার আেগ নয়। হয়েতা pাক িবদয্াল িশkা কমর্সূচীর pথম বছরটা পুেরাপুিরভােব uসi িদেয় শুr করা েযেত পাের। eরপর পরবতর্ী বছের িলিখত uসi-eর পাশাপািশ েমৗিখকভােব বাংলা িশখােনা েযেত পাের - িকnt িলিখত আকাের নয়। পিরেশেষ বলেত চাi, anত eক বছর uসi বণর্মালা eবং েমৗিখক বাংলা িশখােনার পর uসi েছেল-েমেয়েদরেক পযর্ায়kেম িলিখত বাংলা িশখােনা েযেত পাের। eরপর জাতীয় ভাষা বাংলার পাশাপািশ pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় যত িদন সmব uসi ভাষা িদেয়o পাঠদান চালু রাখেল ভােলা হেব। ei ধরেণর কমর্সূচী যা বাংলার পাশাপািশ uসi কo brং ভাষায় িশkাদানেক grtt িদেয় থােক, মেন হয় anাn িশkা পdিতর েচেয় uসi, বাংলা eবং anাn ভাষায় তােদর পড়াশুনা চালু রাখেত eকটা শk িভত গড়েত সহায়তা িদেত পাের।

যিদo uসi েলােকরা বাংলা িশখার pিত গভীর আgহ pকাশ কেরেছন, তবুo uসi সািহতয্ unয়েনর যেথ pেয়াজন রেয়েছ। ei গেবষণা েথেক জানা যায় েয, uসi জনেগাী uসi ছাড়া anাn ভাষা eত

ভােলা কের জােনন না েয anাn ভাষার সািহতয্ বয্বহার করেত পারেবন। uসi, anাn কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচtয্ েথেকo eতi আলাদা েয েসgেলা বয্াপক হাের uসi ভাষাi rপাnর করা ছাড়া তারা anাn কক বরক ভাষাৈবিচেtয্র সািহতয্ বয্বহার করেত পারেবনা। sতরাং, সমs uসi সmpদােয়র unয়েনর জn মেন হয় uসi ভাষার unয়ন করা pেয়াজন।

েযেহতু বাnরবন েজলায় uসi কথয্rেপ সামাn িকছু পাথর্কয্ রেয়েছ বেল মেন হয়, তাi েকান eলাকা েথেক ভাষা unয়ন কমর্সূচী শুr করা যােব e িবষেয় ভাষা unয়নকারীেদর েবশী uিdg হoয়ার দরকার েনi। eকমাt েরায়াংছিড় eলাকার uসi ভাষা o বাnরবেনর anাn eলাকার uসi ভাষার মেধয্ uচ্চারণ o কন্ঠsের সামাn পাথর্কয্ থাকেত পাের। িকnt েরায়াংছিড় eলাকার uসi েলােকরা an eলাকার uসi uপকরণgেলা বয্বহার করেত পারেবন।

েদববমর্া িtপুরা বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া েলাকেদর ভাষা unয়ন কমর্সূচী শুr করার িবরাট eকটা sেযাগ রেয়েছ, কারণ ভারেতর িtপুরা রােজয্ যেথ পিরমােণ েদববমর্া কক বরক সািহতয্ রচনা করা হেয়েছ। ভারেতর েদববমর্া o বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া ভাষার মেধয্ িকছুটা পাথর্কয্ থাকেলo েসgেলা বাংলােদশী েদববমর্া ভাষায় rপাnর কের েনবার eক eকটা চমৎকার uৎস িহেসেব কােজ লাগেত পাের। িকnt েকান rপাnর ছাড়াi uপকরণgেলার কাযর্কর বয্বহার করা হয়েতা সmব। আর তাi, বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া েলােকরা মাতৃভাষা unয়েন সmৃk থাকার বয্াপাের যিদ আnিরক হন, তেব েদববমর্া সািহতয্ সংgেহর জn তােদর আগরতলা যাoয়া pেয়াজন বেল মেন করিছ। িtপুরা রােজয্র মূল িলিখত ভাষা েদববমর্া কক বরক ভাষা unয়েনর পদেkপ, পিরকlনা eবং aিভjতা সmেকর্ জানার জn িtপুরা uপজাতীয় sায়tশািষত আঞ্চিলক েজলাপিরষেদ (TAADC) িবনয় েদববমর্া o rহী েদববমর্ার মেতা েলাকেদর সােথ তােদর আেলাচনা করা pেয়াজন বেলo মেন করিছ। ধারণাgেলা eেক oপরেক জানােত eবং ভাষা unয়ন বা সািহতয্ রচনার uপাদানgেলা আদান pদান করার জn ভারেতর েদববমর্া েলাকেদর সােথ তােদর েযাগােযাগ বৃিd করা pেয়াজন।

বাংলােদেশর েদববমর্া েলাকেদর মাতৃভাষার uপকরণgেলা (বাংলােদশ aথবা ভারেতরo হেত পাের) কাযর্করভােব বয্বহার করেত হেল, eকিট MLE কমর্সূচী বাsবায়ন করা uিচত। েযেহতু aেনক েদববমর্া েছেল-েমেয়রা বাংলা বেল eবং বুেঝ, eমনিক pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় যাবার আেগi তারা বাংলা বলেত পাের, তাi eকটা pাক pাথিমক MLE কমর্সূচী েমৗিখক বাংলা িদেয় শুr কের uসiেদর েচেয় তাড়াতািড় সমেয় পাঠয্সূচী বাংলা িদেয় শুr করা েযেত পাের। যিদo aেনক েদববমর্া েছেল-েমেয়রাi pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় যাবার আেগi িকছু বাংলা জােন, তবু তারা eখনo েদববমর্াটাi তার েচেয় ভােলা কের জােন। sতরাং কাযর্কর uপকরণ o িশkক সেমত eকটা sপিরকিlত MLE কমর্সূচী তােদর sফল বেয় আনেব eবং তােদর ভিবষয্ৎ িশkার জn eকটা শk িভত গেড় তুলেত পারেব।

বাংলােদেশ েদববমর্া েলােকরা েমৗলভীবাজার o হিবগঞ্জ ছাড়াo kিমlা o সmবত anাn eলাকােতo রেয়েছ। িকnt েদববমর্া ভাষাভাষী েলােকেদরেক েমৗলভীবাজার o িবেশষ কের হিবগেঞ্জi েদখা যায়। kিমlা eলাকার েদববমর্া েলাকেদর ভাষার sায়ীt িনেয়o p রেয়েছ। sতরাং, েদববমর্া ভাষা unয়েন যিদ যেথ আgহ eবং দৃঢ় aিঙ্গকার থােক তেব েদববমর্া ভাষা unয়ন কমর্সূচী হিবগঞ্জ aথবা েমৗলভীবাজার eলাকায় শুr করা েযেত পাের।

মুকচাক িtপুরা eটা েবশ পিরার েয বতর্মােন বাংলােদেশর মুকচাক সmpদায় কক বরক ভাষার েচেয় েবশী বাংলা বয্বহার কের eবং বুঝেত পাের। তাi কক বরক ভাষায় পড়াশুনা করার তােদর েতমন pেয়াজন েনi কারণ তারা বাংলা সািহতয্ বয্বহার করেত পারেব। িকnt, কক বরক ভাষার েযেকান ধরেণর unয়ন করার জn যিদ সmpদােয়র যেথ আgহ eবং iচ্ছা থােক তেব তার জn কতকgেলা uপায় রেয়েছ। েযমন pথম uপায় হেচ্ছ, যিদ মুকচাক েলােকরা pাথিমকভােব ভাষা িলিপবd করেত আgহী হন, তাহেল তারা বানান পdিত unয়েন aংশgহণ করেত পােরন। eটা তােদর iিতহাস o ভাষা িলিপবdকরণ eবং unয়েনর eকটা শুভ সূচনা eেন িদেত পাের।

মুকচাক েলাকেদর আেরকটা uপায় হেত পাের eকটা িশkা pকl বাsবায়ন করা। িকnt, eটা শুr করেত হেল পাঠয্সূচী unয়েন েবশ কেয়কজন আgহী pবীণ বয্িkেদর সmৃk থাকেত হেব। খাগড়াছিড়েত MLE- র uপকরণgেলা যিদ আেরা ৈতরী হেয় থােক, তেব মুকচাক েলােকরা তােদর aবsা anসাের েসgেলা rপাnর কের িনেত পােরন। িকnt eমনিক eর জno সময় o pিশkেণর pেয়াজন হেব। যিদo eকটা িশkা কমর্সূচী শুr করা সmব, তবুo ei ধরেণর eকটা কমর্সূচী মুকচাক েলাকেদর বতর্মান ei aবsায় িটিকেয় রাখা কিঠন হেব। েকবল মাt pকেlর কােজ sতsুতর্ aংশীদািরt eবং pকেlর pিত গভীর আgহ থাকেল সফলতা লাভ করা যােব।

িরয়াং বাংলােদেশ বসবাসকারী েবশীরভাগ িরয়াং েলােকরাi িরয়াং ভাষায় আর কথা বেলনা। যারা eখনo িরয়াং ভাষায় কথা বেলন তারা বhভাষা বয্বহার কের eমন eকটা পিরেবেশর মেধয্ আেছন, eবং eমনিক তারা তােদর সবেচেয় ভােলা ভাষা িহেসেবo িরয়াং ভাষা ভালভােব বলেত পােরনা। anিদেক বাংলােদেশর িরয়াং ভাষাভাষী েলােকরা বাংলা, চাকমা aথবা সািহতয্ unয়ন করা হেয়েছ eমন ann ভাষােতo দk নন েয তারা েস ভাষাgেলার uপকরণgেলা ভালভােব বয্বহার করেত পারেবন। আসেল সীিমত তথয্ েথেক বলেত পাির েয িরয়াং ভাষাভাষী েলােকরা েযসব ভাষাgেলা ভােলা কের জােনন বতর্মােন েসgেলা িদেয় িশkালােভরo তােদর যেথ sেযাগ েনi। ei সীিমত তথয্ িবেষণ কের শুধু সামাn পরামশর্ েদয়া েযেত পাের। eকটা িদক হেচ্ছ, িরয়াং েলােকরাo যিদ ভাষা িলিপবdকরেণ আgহী হন, তেব তারাo বানান পdিত unয়েন aংশgহণ করেত পােরন। েযেহতু aেনক িরয়াং ভাষাভাষী েলােকরাi নাiতং, েদnাক ভাষা জােনন বেল মেন হয়, eবং/aথবা anত কম কের হেলo গািবং ভাষা জােনন তাi আেরকটা পরামশর্ হেচ্ছ েয, খাগড়াছিড়র িtপুরা ভাষা unয়নকারীেদর সােথ িরয়াং েলাকেদর কাজ করা uিচত। সবর্েশষ পরামশর্ হেচ্ছ েয বাংলােদেশর িরয়াং েলাকেদর uিচত ভারেতর িরয়াং েলাকেদর সােথ েযাগােযাগ sাপন করা। আেদৗ যিদ ভারেত িরয়াং ভাষার unয়ন করা হেয় থােক তেব বাংলােদেশর িরয়াং েলােকরা ভারতীয় িরয়াং uপকরণgেলা বয্বহার কের uপকৃত হেত পােরন বেল ধারণা করা যায়।

SIL Bangladesh eকটা aথর্ সাহাযয্কারী সংsা নয়। SIL Bangladesh হেচ্ছ গেবষণাকারী, pিশkণ pদান eবং পরামশর্ দানকারী eকটা সংsা যা ভাষা unয়েন সmpদায় কতৃর্ক গৃহীত পদেkেপ সহায়তা দােন aংশী হেত চায়। িকnt েযেকান ভাষা বা unয়ন কমর্সূচীর pথম পদেkপ gহণ করাটা ভাষাভাষী েলাকেদর িনজ িনজ দািয়t। pথেম তােদর সmpদায় েথেক সিঠক েলাকেদরেক খুঁেজ েবর করা pেয়াজন যারা েযেকান ভাষা eবং unয়ন pকl পিরচালনা করেত আgহী। তারপর সmpদােয়র েলােকরা aবশয্i ভাষা unয়ন সmিকর্ত আেরা aেনক তথয্ o uপকরণgেলা eকt করেবন যা iিতমেধয্ gহণ করা হেয়েছ, eবং যারা তােদর সmpদােয়র ভাষা unয়েন সmৃk আেছন তােদর মেধয্ কােজর ভাল সmকর্ sাপেনর েচা করা

pেয়াজন। pকlেক িটেকেয় রাখেত anাn সmদgেলার pেয়াজন আেছ - হেত পাের মানিবক, আিথর্ক বা বয্বsাপনা - egেলাo শনাk করা pেয়াজন। যখন ei pাথিমক পদেkপgেলা েনয়া হেব eবং সmpদােয়র পযর্াp দশর্ণ, সংগঠন eবং কােজর pিত uৎসাহ যখন থাকেব, তখন SIL Bangladesh িtপুরা সmpদােয়র পাশাপািশ eকটা সংsা িহেসেব কাজ করেত পারেব। সাধারণত SIL Bangladesh ভাষা unয়ন েযমন কমর্সূচী পিরকlণা করা, িলখন পdিতর unয়ন, িশkা কমর্সূচী pণয়ন, পাঠয্সূচী, uপকরণ unয়ন eবং িশkক pিশkণ iতয্ািদর uপর েমৗিলক pিশkণ eবং পরামশর্ িদেত থােক।

A. WORDLISTS A.1. Standard procedures for counting lexical similarity A standard list of 306 vocabulary items was collected from speakers from 19 representative Tripura villages in Bangladesh and one in India. This list is presented in appendix A.3 along with three Garo wordlists and a standard Bangla wordlist.

In standard procedure for lexical similarity comparison (Blair 1990:26-33), the 306 words are elicited from a person who has grown up in the target locality. The list is then checked with a second speaker, unless the wordlist is elicited from a group of people. Any differences in responses are examined in order to identify (1) incorrect responses due to misunderstanding of the elicitation cue, (2) loan words offered in response to the language of elicitation when indigenous terms are actually still in use, and (3) terms which are simply at different places along the generic-specific lexical scale. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when synonymous terms are apparently in general use or when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist.

The wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and, of the remaining segments, at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two more are rather similar. The criteria applied are as follows:

Category 1 a. Contoid (consonant-like) segments which match exactly. b. Vocoid (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature. c. Phonetically similar segments (often are found as allophones) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words. Category 2 All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words. Category 3 a. Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar. b. A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item.

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar or not, according to the preceding stated criteria, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. The pair-by-pair counting procedure was greatly facilitated by the use of WordSurv©, a computer program written by SIL for this purpose.

The wordlist data and transcribed texts, as included in the subsequent appendices, are field transcriptions and have not undergone thorough phonological and grammatical analysis.

A.2. Wordlist notes A few other comments about wordlist procedures are in order for this survey. Where there is no elicitation for a given entry and a particular village (marked as “no entry”), that means the word was not used because it was judged to be confusing or imprecise to the informants at that location and generally difficult to elicit. For the 20 Kok Borok wordlists, the verbs (items 171–222) were elicited in the familiar present continuous form, but for the three Garo wordlists they were elicited as commands, and the Bangla verbs are given in their verbal noun forms. Therefore, we compared verb roots. Throughout the wordlists, words in parentheses are affixes and were treated as optional for purposes of comparison. Also, the following conventions were used in comparing phones: • Palatal and labial diacritics were ignored when compared with nothing. • Non-syllabic vowels were ignored. • Elongation and unreleased diacritics were ignored. • Nasalization on a vowel was ignored, except when compared with an unnasalized vowel followed by a nasal consonant. In this case, the nasalization feature was separated from the vowel and treated as a Category 2 comparison with the nasal consonant. • A labial diacritic compared to a bilabial approximate was treated as Category 1. • A close front unrounded vowel compared to a velar approximate was treated as Category 2.

Each elicitation is preceded by a number or letter. For each gloss, all elicitations which have the same preceding number/letter are considered to be phonetically similar and are grouped together. Following each elicitation is a list of one or more letters/number in brackets. These letters/number represent the wordlist site of that particular elicitation. The codes for these wordlist sites are as follows:

Code: Wordlist site: Code: Wordlist site: a Boro Pharangsia (Usoi) m Laiphu Karbaripara (Anok) b Choto Madhuk (Usoi) n Krishna Dayalpara (Kewa) c Dolchari (Gabing) o Jarichandrapara (Phatung) d Lombapara (Naitong) p Doluchara (Debbarma) e Pakkhipara (Kema) q Satchari Tripura Basti (Debbarma) f Tongpaipara (Tongpai) r Khumulung (Debbarma) g Mildhanpara (Aslong) s Barbakpur (Mukchak) h Noimail Gutchagram (Dendak) t Oldlankar (Riang) i Beltolipara (Khali) u Gajni (Abeng) j Robertpara (Usoi) v Nagar Sontosh (Chibok) k Bethanipara (Usoi) w Nalchapra (A’tong) l Katchaptali (Usoi) 0 Bangla

A.3. Wordlists 5 cloud h 1 sky 1 mɛg [ 0 ] 1 akaʃ [ 0 ] 2 dʒumoi ̯ [ bl ] 2 nokha [ is ] 2 dʒuŋmoi ̯ [ ajk ] 2 nou̯kha [ abcdefghjklmnopqrt ] 2 tʃoŋmui ̯ [ c ] 3 sɨlga [ u ] 2 tʃʊmʊi ̯ [ efmn ] 4 ʃoga [ v ] 2 tʃumui ̯ [ dhior ] 5 raŋɾa [ w ] 2 tʃuŋmoi ̯ [ t ] 2 tʃuŋmui ̯ [ gq ] 2 sun 3 watui ̯ ɾomkha [ s ] 1 ʃuɹdʒo [ 0 ] 4 gadɨla [ u ] 2 ʂa [ abfghjklmnop ] 4 gadla [ v ] 3 ʂal [ cdeioqrt ] 4 gadʒɨla [ w ] 3 ʃal [ suv ] 5 dʒuŋmoi ̯ [ ajk ] 4 raŋʃan [ w ] 5 tʃoŋmui ̯ [ c ] 5 tʃʊmʊi ̯ [ efmn ]

3 moon 5 tʃumui ̯ [ dhior ] 1 [ 0 ] tʃãd 5 tʃuŋbui ̯ [ p ] 2 [ abcefghjkl ] ta 5 tʃuŋmui ̯ [ gq ] 3 tal [ dimnopqrst ] 4 dʒadʒoŋ [ uv ] 6 rain 5 tʃaŋ ɨi ̯ [ w ] 1 bɾɪʃʈi [ 0 ] 2 jatoi ̯ [ o ]

4 star 2 watəi ̯ [ cefim ] 1 [ 0 ] taɾa 2 watɔi ̯ [ abgjklnpt ] 2 h h [ t ] at ɔkk rɔi ̯ 2 watʊi ̯ [ hr ] 2 h [ s ] at ukguri 2 watui ̯ [ dqs ] 2 h [ qr ] at ukiri 3 mɨk̚kha [ u ] 2 h [ abjkl ] at ukrɔi ̯ 3 muk̚kha [ v ] 2 h [ p ] at ukurui ̯ 4 raŋ [ w ] 3 handoguɾi [ o ] 3 handugiɾi [ dfh ] 3 handukguɾi [ i ] 3 handukhiɾi [ em ] 3 hantukuɾi [ n ] 3 ʂandugiɾi [ c ] 3 ʂantokɪɾi [ g ] 4 aʃki [ u ] 4 askui ̯ [ w ] 5 aʃikhi [ v ] 5 aʃki [ u ] 6 athukguri [ s ] 6 handukguɾi [ i ]

7 rainbow 9 lightning 0 no entry [ v ] 0 no entry [ v ] 1 ɾɔŋdhɔnu [ 0s ] 1 bɪdːut tʃɔmkano [ 0 ] 2 tɔitʃɔŋgli̯ [ abjkl ] 2 nou̯khaphami [ blt ] 3 tʃokləiŋbakləi̯ ŋ̯ [ c ] 2 nou̯khaphãmi [ jk ] 4 tʃɛŋroŋ [ w ] 2 nou̯khaphomi [ a ] 4 tʃɔŋlɛiŋ̯ (tɔinuŋmo)̯ [ t ] 3 nokhapiligu [ s ] 4 tʃokrɛŋ (tʊinuŋgo)̯ [ r ] 3 nou̯kha tʃiliga [ i ] 4 tʃokrɛŋ (tuinuŋgo)̯ [ q ] 3 nou̯khaphiligo [ pqr ] 5 tʃoklipani [ f ] 3 nou̯khapilijo [ mn ] 5 tʃuklipani (tɔinuŋu)̯ [ h ] 3 nou̯khapiplago [ do ] 6 tʃupritɔinɨŋgɨ̯ [ g ] 3 nou̯khaplijo [ f ] 7 totɛkɛlɛŋ [ e ] 4 nou̯khapiplago [ do ] 8 tɔidʒoŋgol̯ [ n ] 4 watəipiplao̯ [ c ] 9 toi ̯ ʈʃuklok [ o ] 4 watɔipiplagʊ̯ [ h ] A doŋgoi ̯ (tuinuŋgɔ)̯ [ p ] 5 watəipiplao̯ [ c ] B tʃɔŋlɛiŋ̯ (tɔinuŋmo)̯ [ t ] 5 watəipipliə̯ [ e ] B tʃoklɛŋ [ dm ] 5 watɔipiplagʊ̯ [ h ] B tʃoklɛŋ (tʊinʊ)̯ [ i ] 6 phlaŋkawə [ g ] B tʃokrɛŋ (tʊinuŋgo)̯ [ r ] 7 mɨk̚kha hɛlapuŋa [ u ] B tʃokrɛŋ (tuinuŋgo)̯ [ q ] 8 raŋ dilɪppa [ w ] C ʃundaɾi [ u ] 9 nokhapiligu [ s ] 9 nou̯khaphiligo [ pqr ] 8 wind 9 nou̯khaphomi [ a ] 1 bataʃ [ 0 ] 2 nəbət [ o ] 2 noba [ f ] 2 nobar [ dimpqr ] 2 nobat̚ [ e ] 2 nogbar [ r ] 2 nokbar [ s ] 2 nou̯ba [ abchjkl ] 2 nou̯g̚ba [ n ] 3 balua ̯ [ uvw ] 4 nobar [ dimpqr ] 4 nogbar [ r ] 4 nokbar [ s ] 4 nou̯kar [ t ] 5 noba [ f ] 5 nou̯ba [ abchjkl ] 5 nowa [ g ]

10 thunder 12 mountain 1 mɛgh gɔɹdʒon [ 0 ] 1 pahar [ s ] 2 nokhagurumu [ s ] 1 pahaɽ [ 0 ] 2 nou̯khagrum [ j ] 2 haphɔŋ [ abjkl ] 2 nou̯khagrumi [ abl ] 2 hapoŋ [ cdegho ] 2 nou̯khagrumu [ d ] 2 hapuŋ [ fi ] 2 nou̯khagruŋwə [ gn ] 3 moin̯ [ n ] 2 nou̯khagrũmi [ k ] 3 muin̯ [ m ] 2 nou̯khagurumə [ m ] 4 boloŋ [ pq ] 2 nou̯khagurumo [ pqr ] 5 hatai ̯ kutʃuk [ r ] 2 nou̯khagurumu [ i ] 6 haduŋma [ t ] 3 watəiguɾumə̯ [ e ] 7 haʔbri [ u ] 3 watɔigruŋmi̯ [ t ] 7 haʔpri [ w ] 3 watɔigruŋwə̯ [ h ] 8 haʔroŋga [ v ] 4 mogrikou̯o [ f ] 4 mugruŋtʃoio̯ [ c ] 13 water 1 [ 0 ] 5 nou̯khagundrijɔ [ o ] pani 2 [ w ] 6 (mɨk̚kha) khɨmplɛʔtoŋa [ u ] tɨi ̯ 2 [ efm ] 6 khumprɛʔta [ v ] təi ̯ 2 [ abcdghjkno ] 7 raŋ kɨɾɨŋwa [ w ] tɔi ̯ 2 [ lt ] 8 nokhagurumu [ s ] toi ̯ 2 [ iqr ] 8 nou̯khagurumə [ m ] tʊi ̯ 2 [ ps ] 8 watəiguɾumə̯ [ e ] tui ̯ 3 h [ uv ] 9 nou̯khagruŋwə [ gn ] tʃ i

9 watɔigruŋwə̯ [ h ]

14 river 1 [ 0p ] 11 sea nodi 2 [ fm ] 0 no entry [ iuv ] təima̯ 2 [ abkl ] 1 ʂagɔ [ a ] tɔibu̯ 2 [ cjn ] 1 ʂagoɾ [ cfhlmnop ] tɔima̯ 2 [ o ] 1 ʃagoɾ / ʃɔmudɾo [ 0stw ] toimia̯ ̯ (gaɾa) 2 [ iqr ] 2 ʂɔmudri [ bj ] tʊima̯ 2 [ s ] 2 ʃagoɾ / ʃɔmudɾo [ 0stw ] tuima̯ 3 [ e ] 3 tɔigodʒa̯ [ e ] təi ̯ 3 [ gh ] 3 tɔigordʒa̯ [ d ] tɔi ̯ 3 [ d ] 4 tɔikɔtɔ̯ [ g ] tɔi ̯ (gɔrdʒa) 3 [ t ] 4 tʊikotor̯ [ qr ] toi ̯ 4 [ fm ] 5 dorija [ k ] təima̯ 4 [ w ] 6 tɔigodʒa̯ [ e ] tei ̯ muŋ 5 [ uv ] 6 tɔikɔtɔ̯ [ g ] gaŋ

15 soil/ground 18 stone 1 maʈi [ 0 ] 1 pathoɾ [ 0 ] 2 ha [ abcdefghijklmnopqrst ] 2 ʂlɔŋ [ abjkl ] 3 haʔ [ vw ] 3 hɔlɔŋ [ dempqrs ] 3 haʔa [ u ] 3 hɔlɔŋ ʈʃa [ n ] 3 hɔlɔu̯ŋ [ g ] 16 mud 3 hɔluŋ [ co ] 1 [ 0 ] kada 3 holoŋ [ i ] 2 [ ab ] hapɛi ̯ 3 holuŋ [ h ] 2 [ i ] haplɛ 3 hulɔŋ [ t ] 2 [ de ] haplɛi ̯ 3 huluŋ [ f ] 2 [ ms ] haplɛk̚ 4 roŋthai ̯ [ vw ] 2 [ cfho ] hapli 4 roŋthi [ u ] 2 harpɛi ̯ [ jklt ] 2 harpɛk [ npqr ] 19 sand 3 hakɨpɔi ̯ [ g ] 1 bali [ 0 ] 4 haʔpɛk [ v ] 1 balu [ s ] 4 haplɛk̚ [ ms ] 2 balu [ s ] 4 harpɛi ̯ [ jklt ] 2 balutʃu [ e ] 4 harpɛk [ npqr ] 3 harphu [ abjl ] 5 haʔapɛk [ u ] 3 harpu [ k ] 5 haʔpɛk [ v ] 4 haiʂiŋ̯ [ d ] 5 haplɛk̚ [ ms ] 4 haiʂkuŋ̯ [ cfh ] 5 harpɛk [ npqr ] 4 haitʃiŋ̯ [ q ] 6 doba [ w ] 4 haʂikuŋ [ i ] 4 haʂiŋ [ p ] 17 dust 4 haʃkuŋ [ t ] 0 [ v ] no entry 4 hatʃɛŋ [ gmn ] 1 h [ 0 ] d ula 5 haitʃiŋ̯ [ q ] 2 [ bkl ] haɪnʂmu 5 hatʃɛŋ [ gmn ] 2 [ aj ] ɪnʂmu 5 hatʃiŋtʈʃa [ r ] 3 [ s ] hadlui ̯ 6 haitʃokrom̯ [ o ] 3 [ cefgh ] hadrui ̯ 7 haiʂiŋ̯ [ d ] 3 [ w ] hadula 7 haitʃiŋ̯ [ q ] 3 [ r ] haduli 7 hanʔtʃɛŋ [ uvw ] 3 [ pqr ] hadului ̯ 7 haʂiŋ [ p ] 3 [ dimn ] haduɾui ̯ 7 hatʃɛŋ [ gmn ] 4 haduguɾi [ o ] 4 haduli [ r ] 4 hadului ̯ [ pqr ] 4 haduɾui ̯ [ dimn ] 5 harpu [ t ] 6 hagundula [ u ]

20 gold 24 tomorrow 1 ʃona [ 0uvw ] 1 agamikal [ 0 ] 2 ɾaŋgiaʔ̯ [ bjk ] 2 khana [ ce ] 2 ɾau̯ŋgiɔ ̯ [ al ] 2 khna [ abfghjklnoqrs ] 3 ɾaŋtʃa [ g ] 2 khna (bo) [ p ] 3 ɾaŋtʃak [ cdefhmnopqr ] 2 khnai ̯ [ t ] 3 ɾaŋdʒag [ t ] 3 khana [ ce ] 3 raŋtʃak [ is ] 3 khanap [ dim ] 4 ɾaŋtʃa [ g ] 4 khna [ abfghjklnoqrs ] 4 ɾau̯ŋgiɔ ̯ [ al ] 4 khna (bo) [ p ] 4 khnai ̯ [ t ] 21 silver 4 khnal [ u ] 1 [ 0uvw ] ɾupa 5 khanap [ dim ] 1 [ ost ] ɾupai ̯ 5 khinapo [ v ] 1 h [ abcdefghijklmnpqr ] ɾup ai ̯ 6 hanɛp [ w ]

6 khanap [ dim ]

22 today 1 [ 0 ] adʒ 25 week 2 [ w ] tani 0 no entry [ u ] 2 [ abcefghijklmnopqrst ] tini 1 ʃɔpta [ 0svw ] 2 [ d ] tunui ̯ 1 ʃɔptaho [ c ] 3 [ uv ] daʔaʃal 2 ʂapta [ fhnt ]

2 ʃɔpta [ 0svw ] 23 yesterday 3 ʂidau̯g̚ba [ a ] 1 gɔtokal / kalke [ 0 ] 3 ʂidau̯ŋbaha [ k ] 2 ɨmdʒa [ l ] 4 nɔkhaʂaʂni [ b ] 2 ɨndʒa [ aj ] 5 ʂalʂini [ m ] 2 mɨndʒa [ k ] 5 ʂaltʃini [ dp ] 3 mɨdʒa (phuɔ) [ b ] 6 ʂalʂini [ m ] 3 mɨndʒa [ k ] 6 ʂaʂni [ gj ] 3 midʒa [ uv ] 7 badʒarkaiʂa̯ [ i ] 4 mia ̯ [ cefghimoqrs ] 7 badʒarkɛha [ e ] 4 mia ̯ (go) [ dn ] 7 badʒarkia ̯ [ o ] 4 mia ̯ (wɔ) [ p ] 8 hatiba [ l ] 5 mɨdʒa (phuɔ) [ b ] 8 hatibar [ r ] 5 mɨja [ w ] 8 hatibarʂa [ q ] 5 [ uv ] midʒa 5 mija [ t ]

26 month 29 morning 1 maʃ [ 0 ] 1 ʃɔkal [ 0 ] 2 ta [ kl ] 2 aidrɔ̯ [ bgjkln ] 2 ta (ha) [ abgj ] 2 haidrɔ̯ [ a ] 2 ta (ʂa) [ cfhn ] 3 phruŋ [ cfh ] 3 tal [ t ] 3 phuɾuŋ [ defimo ] 3 tal (ha) [ em ] 4 phruŋ [ cfh ] 3 tal (ʂa) [ diopqr ] 4 phuŋ [ pqr ] 3 tal (ʃa) [ s ] 5 phuŋ [ pqr ] 4 dʒa [ uvw ] 5 phuŋai ̯ [ s ] 5 ta (ha) [ abgj ] 6 phuruŋwai ̯ [ t ] 5 tal (ha) [ em ] 7 walni [ uvw ] 6 ta (ʂa) [ cfhn ] 8 phuɾuŋ [ defimo ] 6 tal (ʂa) [ diopqr ] 6 tal (ʃa) [ s ] 30 noon 1 dibor [ pqs ] 27 year 1 diphɨr [ mn ] 1 bɔtʃhoɾ [ 0v ] 1 diphɔr [ df ] 1 boʃor [ s ] 1 diphʊr [ ei ] 2 biʂa [ defghpqr ] 1 dipir [ o ] 2 bɔʂi [ bjkl ] 1 dipor [ r ] 2 boha [ a ] 1 dupur [ 0 ] 2 boiʂa̯ [ o ] 2 diphɨr [ mn ] 3 biʂa [ defghpqr ] 2 diphɔr [ df ] 3 biʂi [ cimn ] 2 diphrə [ h ] 3 bɔʂi [ bjkl ] 2 diphʊr [ ei ] 3 boiʂa̯ [ o ] 3 dibo [ abgjkl ] 4 biʂa [ defghpqr ] 3 dibor [ pqs ] 4 bɔʂi [ bjkl ] 3 diphɨr [ mn ] 4 boiʂa̯ [ o ] 3 diphɔr [ df ] 4 borʂa [ t ] 3 diphʊr [ ei ] 5 bilʃi [ uw ] 3 dipor [ r ] 5 biʂi [ cimn ] 4 diphrə [ h ] 4 doip̯ hrou̯ [ c ] 28 day 5 ʂalbakhakatʃar [ i ] 1 [ 0 ] dɪn 6 ʂadʒar [ t ] 2 [ abcefghjklmnp ] ʂa 7 ʃaldʒat̚tʃhi [ u ] 3 [ dioqrt ] ʂal 7 ʃalmadʒi [ v ] 3 [ suv ] ʃal 7 ʃanmadʒi [ w ] 4 ʃal [ suv ] 4 ʃan [ w ]

31 evening 35 cooked rice 1 ʂinda [ cfghn ] 1 bhat [ 0 ] 1 ʂoinda̯ [ o ] 2 mai ̯ [ abcdefghijklmnopqrstvw ] 1 ʃondha [ 0 ] 3 mi [ u ] 2 ʂandʒa [ p ] 2 ʂinda [ cfghn ] 36 wheat 1 [ 0bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw ] 2 ʂoinda̯ [ o ] gɔm 1 [ a ] 3 ʂaɾi [ ei ] gɔ ̃

3 ʂaɾijə [ c ] 37 corn 3 ʂaɾijo [ dm ] 1 bhuʈːa [ 0 ] 3 ʂaɾɔi ̯ [ bjklt ] 2 maik̯ hunda [ aj ] 4 ʂairi̯ [ qr ] 2 maikunda̯ [ bkl ] 4 ʂaɾi [ ei ] 2 mogodam [ pqr ] 4 ʂaɾɔi ̯ [ bjklt ] 2 mokonda [ t ] 5 nɔu̯ʂrɔŋ [ a ] 3 moka [ cefghimnos ] 6 hantham [ uv ] 3 mokam [ d ] 7 gasam [ w ] 4 maik̯ hop [ v ] 8 ʃandʒa [ s ] 4 mikhop [ u ] 8 ʃondha [ 0 ] 5 aboŋ [ w ] 9 ʂandʒa [ p ] 9 ʃandʒa [ s ] 38 potato

1 alu [ 0cdefghimnopqrstuv ] 32 night 2 thablaiti̯ [ a ] 1 ɾat [ 0 ] 3 bɔilatit̯ ha [ b ] 2 ho [ abgjkl ] 3 builatit̯ ha [ jkl ] 3 hɔr [ deimopqrst ] 4 alubhuta [ w ] 3 hɔɾɔ [ cfhn ] 4 wal [ uvw ] 39 cauliflower

1 ɸulkopi [ 0i ] 33 paddy rice 1 phulkɔpi [ acdefghjlnoprstuvw ] 1 dhan [ 0 ] 1 phulkobi [ m ] 2 mai ̯ [ abcdefghijklmnopqstvw ] 2 kɔpiɨmba [ bk ] 3 mai ̯ (tʃalam) [ r ] 2 kopiboba [ h ] 4 mi [ u ] 2 [ q ] kopibubar

34 uncooked rice 40 cabbage 1 tʃal [ 0 ] 1 badakopi [ jp ] 2 maiɾɔŋ̯ [ abcghjklmno ] 1 badhakɔpi [ acq ] 2 maiɾuŋ̯ [ defpqrv ] 1 badhakopi [ 0iuvw ] 2 mairɔŋ̯ [ t ] 1 bandakopi [ defghlmnorst ] 2 mairuŋ̯ [ is ] 2 kɔpiuŋkhuŋ [ b ] 2 maiɾoŋ [ w ] 2 kɔpiuŋkhũ [ k ] 2 miɾoŋ [ u ]

41 eggplant 44 branch 1 baigon̯ [ v ] 1 ɖal [ 0 ] 1 bɛgun [ 0 ] 1 dal [ u ] 2 phaŋtau̯ [ g ] 1 dala [ w ] 2 phanthəu̯k [ t ] 2 ɨmdɛi ̯ [ blt ] 2 phathau̯ [ abjkl ] 2 ɨndɛi ̯ [ aj ] 3 phanau̯k [ o ] 3 bɨɖɔi ̯ [ g ] 3 phandao̯k [ m ] 3 bɨdəi ̯ [ fo ] 3 phanɔk [ d ] 3 bɨdɔi ̯ [ h ] 3 phanthəu̯k [ t ] 3 bɛɖɛi ̯ [ d ] 3 phantok [ pqrs ] 4 bɨɖɔi ̯ [ g ] 3 phɛnau̯k [ efh ] 4 bɨdəi ̯ [ fo ] 3 phɛnəu̯k [ cn ] 4 bɛɖɛi ̯ [ d ] 3 phɛnɔk [ i ] 4 bɛɖɛk [ imnrs ] 4 mantao̯ [ w ] 5 bɨdəi ̯ [ fo ] 4 phaŋtau̯ [ g ] 5 bɨdɔi ̯ [ h ] 5 baɾɨŋ [ u ] 5 bɛɖɛi ̯ [ d ] 6 phaŋtau̯ [ g ] 5 mɪdɛi ̯ [ k ] 6 phandao̯k [ m ] 6 tʃɛkʃi [ v ] 6 phantok [ pqrs ] 7 bɨɖɔi ̯ [ g ] 7 bɨdəi ̯ [ fo ] 42 peanut 7 bɨdɔi ̯ [ h ] 1 [ 0bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw ] badam 7 budoi ̯ [ c ] 1 [ a ] badãu̯ 8 bɨdəi ̯ [ fo ]

8 bɛɖɛi ̯ [ d ] 43 tree 8 bɛɖɛk [ imnrs ] 1 gatʃh [ 0 ] 8 bɛdɛik̯ [ e ] 2 ɨmphaŋ [ bjklt ] 8 bɛdɛk [ pq ] 2 h [ a ] ɨmp ãu̯ 3 h [ cdefghimnop ] bop aŋ 45 leaf 3 h [ qrs ] bup aŋ 1 pata [ 0 ] 4 h [ uvw ] p aŋ 2 ɪmːlai ̯ [ a ]

2 ɪmblai ̯ [ jk ] 3 blai ̯ [ bcfhlnoprt ] 3 ɪmːlai ̯ [ a ] 4 bɨlai ̯ [ g ] 4 balai ̯ [ defim ] 4 blai ̯ [ bcfhlnoprt ] 4 bulai ̯ [ qs ] 5 bidʒak [ uv ] 6 pantʃak [ w ]

46 thorn 49 fruit 1 kanta [ v ] 1 ɸɔl [ 0 ] 1 kaʈa [ 0 ] 1 phol [ n ] 2 ɪmʂu [ ab ] 2 ɨmthai ̯ [ bjt ] 2 ɯnʂɯ [ j ] 2 ɨnthai ̯ [ a ] 3 buʂu [ cdefghimnopqr ] 3 bɨthai ̯ [ hopqr ] 3 buʃu [ su ] 3 bathai ̯ [ defgim ] 3 muʂu [ klt ] 3 bithai ̯ [ v ] 4 asu [ w ] 3 bithi [ u ] 3 bothai ̯ [ c ] 47 root 3 buthai ̯ [ s ] 1 [ 0 ] mul 3 mɨthai ̯ [ kl ] 2 [ b ] dʒaɾɔŋ 4 thai ̯ [ w ] 2 dʒaɾu [ a ] 2 dʒaɾuŋ [ jkl ] 50 jackfruit 3 biaɾɨŋ̯ [ cfo ] 1 kaʈhal [ 0 ] 3 dʒaɾɔŋ [ b ] 2 thaip̯ hloŋ [ jkl ] 3 dʒaɾuŋ [ jkl ] 2 thaipjɔŋ̯ [ t ] 3 jaɾɨŋ [ ghnq ] 2 thaiplɔŋ̯ [ ab ] 4 bɛɾum [ d ] 2 thaipoŋ̯ [ dehmnos ] 4 biaɾɨm̯ [ ef ] 2 thaipuŋ̯ [ cfgipqr ] 4 biaɾɨŋ̯ [ cfo ] 3 thaiʔbɾoŋ̯ [ v ] 5 jaɾɨŋ [ ghnq ] 3 thiʔbɾoŋ [ u ] 5 jarɨm [ mr ] 4 pantʃun [ w ] 5 jarʊm [ i ] 5 thaiʔbɾoŋ̯ [ v ] 5 jaruŋ [ pst ] 5 thaip̯ hloŋ [ jkl ] 6 dʒaɾɔŋ [ b ] 5 thaiplɔŋ̯ [ ab ] 6 dʒaɾuŋ [ jkl ] 6 jaɾɨŋ [ ghnq ] 6 jaruŋ [ pst ] 7 dʒaʔdɨl [ u ] 7 tʃaʔdɨl [ v ] 7 tʃadɨl [ w ]

48 bamboo 1 bãʃ [ 0 ] 2 wa [ abcdefghijklmnpqrstuv ] 3 ja [ o ] 4 wakai ̯ [ w ]

51 coconut (ripe) E narkɛ [ m ] 1 naɾikol [ v ] F narikala [ d ] 1 narikala [ d ] F narikra [ pqr ] 1 narkol [ u ] G naikra̯ [ rs ] 2 nanigra [ ajkl ] G narikra [ pqr ] 2 naniŋgra [ bt ] G naɾikɛl [ 0w ] 2 narigja [ n ] 3 naikia̯ ̯ [ c ] 52 banana 1 [ 0 ] 3 naɾɪkia ̯ [ fh ] kɔla 2 h [ abgjklot ] 3 naɾkia ̯ [ c ] t aili̯ 2 h [ enpqrs ] 3 narkɛ [ m ] t ailik̯ 2 h [ cfhi ] 3 narkɔ [ e ] t ali 2 h [ mr ] 3 narku [ i ] t alik 2 h [ d ] 4 narga [ g ] t aloi ̯ 3 h [ v ] 4 narkɛ [ m ] t aiʔiɾik̯ 3 h [ u ] 4 narkɛn [ o ] t iʔɾɨk 4 h [ w ] 4 narkɔ [ e ] rɛk̚t ai ̯ 5 h [ enpqrs ] 4 narku [ i ] t ailik̯ 5 h [ mr ] 5 naɾɪkia ̯ [ fh ] t alik 5 h [ u ] 5 naɾikɛl [ 0w ] t iʔɾɨk

5 naɾikol [ v ] 53 mango 5 narikra [ pqr ] 1 am [ 0 ] 6 naɾɪkia ̯ [ fh ] 2 thaitʃɔu̯ ̯k̚ [ ghot ] 6 naɾikɛl [ 0w ] 2 thaitʃu̯ [ abjkl ] 6 naɾkia ̯ [ c ] 2 thaitʃuk̯̚ [ cdefimnpqrs ] 7 naɾɪkia ̯ [ fh ] 3 thaiʔgatʃu̯ [ v ] 7 naɾikɛl [ 0w ] 3 thɛʔgatʃu [ u ] 7 narikala [ d ] 4 botʃot [ w ] 8 [ 0w ] naɾikɛl 8 narigja [ n ] 54 flower 9 [ 0w ] naɾikɛl 1 ɸul [ 0 ] 9 [ o ] h narkɛn 1 p ul [ w ] A [ c ] naɾkia ̯ 2 khuŋba [ k ] A [ m ] h narkɛ 2 k uŋbua ̯ [ g ] A [ o ] h narkɛn 2 k ũba [ aj ] A [ e ] narkɔ 3 boba [ h ] A [ u ] h narkol 3 k ũba [ aj ] A [ i ] h narku 4 k um [ deimnopqrst ] B [ c ] naikia̯ ̯ 4 khuŋ [ bcf ] B [ o ] narkɛn 4 khũ [ l ] C [ c ] naikia̯ ̯ 5 bibal [ uv ] C naikra̯ [ rs ] D narga [ g ] D narigja [ n ] E narikala [ d ]

55 seed 57 betelnut 1 bidʒ [ 0 ] 1 ʃupaɾi [ 0 ] 2 ɨmtʃlɔi ̯ [ t ] 2 kothai ̯ [ d ] 2 ɨnʂlɔi ̯ [ a ] 2 kuaiŋt̯ hai ̯ [ jk ] 2 ɨntʃoloi ̯ [ jl ] 2 kuait̯ hai ̯ [ g ] 3 bɨtʃlɨi ̯ [ hqr ] 2 kũait̯ hai ̯ [ abl ] 3 bɨtʃloi ̯ [ o ] 3 gawai ̯ [ w ] 3 bɪtʃli [ e ] 3 guwa [ u ] 3 bitʃɨlɨi ̯ [ m ] 3 guwai ̯ [ v ] 3 bɔtʃlɔi ̯ [ g ] 3 koai ̯ [ i ] 3 botʃɔləi ̯ [ c ] 3 kuai ̯ [ cefhmnopqrst ] 3 bʊtʃʊlʊi ̯ [ ef ] 4 guwa [ u ] 3 butʃələi ̯ [ i ] 4 guwai ̯ [ v ] 3 butʃlɔi ̯ [ n ] 4 koai ̯ [ i ] 3 butʃlui ̯ [ s ] 4 kothai ̯ [ d ] 3 butʃuləi ̯ [ d ] 4 kuai ̯ [ cefhmnopqrst ] 3 butʃului ̯ [ p ] 3 mɨtʃlɔi ̯ [ bkl ] 58 lime for betelnut 1 [ 0uvw ] 4 bithi [ c ] tʃun 1 [ o ] 5 pɨtʃhi [ u ] tʃuni 2 h [ bjkl ] 6 bigoɾon [ v ] t uŋ 2 h [ a ] 7 tʃaɾa [ w ] t ũ 3 tʃɨndʊi ̯ [ r ] 56 sugarcane 3 tʃuŋdoi ̯ [ g ] 1 akh [ 0 ] 3 tʃundəi ̯ [ dem ] 2 koɾou̯ [ g ] 3 tʃundɔi ̯ [ t ] 2 kru [ abcehjkl ] 3 tʃundoi ̯ [ cfhnpq ] 2 kuru [ cdfimnot ] 3 tʃundui ̯ [ s ] 3 koɾou̯ [ g ] 3 tʃunəi ̯ [ i ] 3 kuru [ cdfimnot ] 4 tʃun [ 0uvw ] 3 kuruk [ pqrs ] 4 tʃunəi ̯ [ i ] 4 golot [ w ] 5 tʃɨndʊi ̯ [ r ] 4 goɾut [ v ] 5 tʃundəi ̯ [ dem ] 4 gɾɨt [ u ] 5 tʃundɔi ̯ [ t ] 5 tʃundoi ̯ [ cfhnpq ] 5 tʃundui ̯ [ s ] 5 tʃuni [ o ]

59 liquor 3 muihaŋ̯ [ n ] 1 mɔd [ 0 ] 3 muip̯ hã [ a ] 2 aɾaʔ [ bjk ] 4 mɨik̯ han [ fm ] 2 aɾak [ t ] 4 mɨik̯ hã [ h ] 2 aɾau̯ [ al ] 4 mɛkhan [ o ] 3 tʃəu̯k [ co ] 4 məik̯ han [ i ] 3 tʃɔk [ d ] 4 mikhan [ e ] 3 tʃɔu̯k [ fhn ] 4 moik̯ hã [ c ] 3 tʃuak [ eimpqrst ] 4 mʊihan̯ [ g ] 4 tʃuak [ eimpqrst ] 4 muihan̯ [ qr ] 4 tʃuaŋ [ g ] 5 bahain̯ [ t ] 5 tʃɨu̯ [ w ] 5 bahan [ ps ] 5 tʃhu [ uv ] 5 bakhan [ d ] 5 bɛʔɛn [ uv ]

60 milk 6 bahain̯ [ t ] 1 [ hpqrs ] dud 6 bahan [ ps ] 1 h [ 0uvw ] dud 6 bɛʔɛn [ uv ] 2 [ t ] abɔktɔi ̯ 6 mʊihan̯ [ g ] 2 [ abkl ] abɔtɔi ̯ 6 muihan̯ [ qr ] 2 [ j ] abutɔi ̯ 7 mɨik̯ han [ fm ] 3 [ cfg ] du 7 mɨik̯ hã [ h ] 4 [ deimo ] dul 7 məik̯ han [ i ] 5 [ n ] dub 7 moik̯ hã [ c ]

7 mʊihan̯ [ g ] 61 oil 7 muihan̯ [ qr ] 1 tɛl [ 0uvw ] 7 muihaŋ̯ [ n ] 2 thau̯ [ t ] 8 randai ̯ [ w ] 2 thəu̯ [ abjkl ] 9 bakhan [ d ] 3 thau̯k [ gm ] 9 mɨik̯ han [ fm ] 3 thəu̯k [ chop ] 9 mɨik̯ hã [ h ] 3 thɔk [ deinqs ] 9 mɛkhan [ o ] 3 thɔu̯k [ fr ] h 9 məik̯ an [ i ] h 62 meat 9 mik an [ e ] 1 maŋʃo [ 0 ] A bahain̯ [ t ] 2 mɨik̯ hã [ h ] A bahan [ ps ] 2 moik̯ hã [ c ] A muihaŋ̯ [ n ]

2 muiβa̯ [ jk ] 2 muiβã̯ [ l ] 2 muib̯ ha [ b ] 2 muip̯ hã [ a ] 3 mɨik̯ han [ fm ] 3 məik̯ han [ i ] 3 mʊihan̯ [ g ] 3 muiβã̯ [ l ] 3 muihan̯ [ qr ]

63 salt 65 garlic 1 lɔbon / nun [ 0 ] 1 ɾɔʂun [ cdem ] 2 ʂɨm [ m ] 1 ɾɔʂuŋ [ fpq ] 2 ʂəu̯ŋ [ g ] 1 ɾɔʂũ [ c ] 2 ʂɔm [ definopqrt ] 1 ɾɔʃun [ 0iv ] 2 ʂɔ ̃ [ abcfhjkl ] 1 ɾoʂũ [ h ] 3 ʂɨm [ m ] 1 ɾotʃun [ o ] 3 ʂɔm [ definopqrt ] 1 ɾuʃun [ sw ] 3 ʃom [ s ] 2 ɾɔʂun [ cdem ] 3 ʃum [ v ] 2 ɾɔʂuŋ [ fpq ] 3 sɨm [ w ] 2 ɾɔʂũ [ c ] 4 khasɨm [ u ] 2 ɾɔʃun [ 0iv ] 5 ʂəu̯ŋ [ g ] 2 ɾoʂũ [ h ] 5 sɨm [ w ] 2 ɾuʃun [ sw ] 2 riʂum [ r ] 64 onion 3 ɾiʂuŋkɨphu [ g ] 1 [ 0iv ] pɛadʒ̯ 3 ɾiʂũkphu [ abjkl ] 1 [ cr ] piadʒɔ̯ 3 riʂumkɨphui ̯ [ t ] 1 [ d ] piaʂo̯ 3 roʂumkʉphu [ n ] 2 [ h ] pija 4 nasɨin duk̚khi [ u ] 2 pijai ̯ [ efm ] 2 pijaʃ [ opq ] 66 pepper 2 pijɛʃ [ s ] 1 moɾɪtʃ [ 0 ] 3 riʂumkɨtʃak [ t ] 2 thaimʂɔ̯ [ bl ] 3 riʂuŋkɨtʃa [ k ] 2 thaiŋʂo̯ [ jk ] 3 riʂuŋktʃak̚ [ g ] 2 thamʂsɔ [ t ] 3 riʂũktʃa [ abjl ] 2 thãiʂɔ̯ [ a ] 3 roʂumkɨtʃak [ n ] 3 mɨʂɨ [ m ] 4 nasɨn [ u ] 3 mɨtʃo [ h ] 4 raʃun [ w ] 3 mɔʂɔ [ i ] 3 mɔʃɔ [ s ] 3 moʂə [ e ] 3 moʂo [ cgpqr ] 3 motʃo [ fo ] 3 mʊʂʊ [ n ] 4 dʒɨɾɨk [ w ] 4 dʒaʔluk̚ [ v ] 4 dʒalɨk [ u ] 5 mɔʂɔ [ i ] 5 mɔʃɔ [ s ] 5 moʂə [ e ] 5 moʂo [ cgpqr ] 5 moʂoɾ [ d ] 5 motʃo [ fo ] 5 mʊʂʊ [ n ]

67 elephant 70 deer 1 hati [ 0v ] 0 no entry [ u ] 2 maidʒu̯ [ b ] 1 hoɾɪn [ 0s ] 2 maidʒuŋ̯ [ l ] 2 ɨmʂɔi ̯ [ abjl ] 3 maidʒu̯ [ b ] 3 mɨʂɨi ̯ [ r ] 3 maiju̯ [ aj ] 3 mɨʂəi ̯ [ emo ] 4 maiju̯ [ aj ] 3 mɨʂɔi ̯ [ t ] 4 majuŋ [ cdefghikmnopqrst ] 3 mɨʂoi ̯ [ gh ] 5 maidʒuŋ̯ [ l ] 3 mɨʂou̯ [ k ] 5 majuŋ [ cdefghikmnopqrst ] 3 moʂoi ̯ [ c ] 6 moŋma [ uw ] 3 mʊʂəi ̯ [ n ] 3 muʂəi ̯ [ i ] 68 tiger 3 muʂʊi ̯ [ f ] 1 h [ 0 ] bag 3 muʂui ̯ [ pq ] 2 [ abklt ] ɨmʂa 4 mat̚tʃok [ vw ] 2 [ j ] ɨnʂa 5 mɨʂɨi ̯ [ r ] 3 [ chnqr ] mɨʂa 5 mɨʂəi ̯ [ emo ] 3 [ cdefgimo ] maʂa 5 mɨʂɔi ̯ [ t ] 3 [ p ] muʂa 5 mɨʂoi ̯ [ gh ] 3 [ s ] muʃa 5 mɨʂou̯ [ k ] 4 h [ uvw ] mattʃ a 5 miʂɪŋ [ d ]

5 mʊʂəi ̯ [ n ] 69 bear 5 muʂəi ̯ [ i ] 1 h [ s ] b alːuk 1 h [ 0 ] b aluk 71 monkey 2 [ abgjklrt ] gɔu̯ŋ 0 no entry [ v ] 2 [ pq ] goŋ 1 banoɾ [ 0 ] 3 h [ c ] mɛp uma 2 mɨkhra [ norst ] 3 h [ n ] mɛp uŋma 2 makhara [ i ] 3 h [ i ] mɛp urma 2 makhra [ cdefghmpq ] 3 h [ do ] mip urma 2 mukhra [ abjkl ] 3 h [ m ] mup urma 3 hamak [ uw ] 4 muphut [ e ] 5 haɾuŋ mɨphuma [ h ] 72 rabbit 5 haɾuŋ muip̯ huŋma [ f ] 1 khɔrgɔ [ defgnot ] 6 mak̚bɨl [ u ] 1 khɔrgoʂ [ bcp ] 6 mak̚bul [ vw ] 1 khɔrgoʃ [ 0isvw ] 1 khorgoʃ [ u ] 1 khorguʂ [ h ] 1 khurkuʃ [ r ] 2 dʒɔu̯ŋ [ a ] 2 dʒuŋ [ jkl ] 3 khurkuʃ [ r ] 3 kurkur [ q ] 3 thurku [ m ]

73 snake 75 house lizard 1 ʃap [ 0 ] 1 ʈɪkʈɪki [ 0 ] 2 tʃɨbːu [ a ] 1 tuktuki [ s ] 2 tʃɨpːu [ u ] 2 nɔkbɛraima̯ [ t ] 2 tʃibou̯k [ chno ] 2 nɔkbrɛima̯ [ d ] 2 tʃibu [ g ] 2 nɔu̯baɾima [ abjkl ] 2 tʃibuk [ cdefimpqrs ] 2 nokbrɛima̯ [ f ] 2 tʃubːu [ t ] 2 nou̯braiʂa̯ [ gnpq ] 2 tʃubou̯ [ jkl ] 3 ɛmruŋ [ ct ] 2 tʃubu [ b ] 3 emroŋ [ h ] 3 tʃɨbːu [ a ] 4 tuktuki [ s ] 3 tʃɨpːu [ u ] 4 tutubi [ em ] 3 tʃibu [ g ] 4 tutuki [ i ] 3 tʃubːu [ t ] 5 nou̯ktoktulai ̯ [ o ] 3 tʃubou̯ [ jkl ] 6 khantʃidɨk [ u ] 3 tʃup̚bu [ v ] 7 hatika [ v ] 4 dɨpɨu̯ [ w ] 8 toktokːoɾot [ w ] 8 tuktuki [ s ] 74 crocodile 9 nɔkbɛraima̯ [ t ] 1 h [ bl ] k ɔmi 9 nɔkbrɛima̯ [ d ] 1 h [ aj ] k ɔu̯mi 9 nokbraiʂa̯ [ r ] 1 h [ k ] k ɔmĩ 9 nokbrɛima̯ [ f ] 1 [ 0qrs ] kumir 9 nou̯braiʂa̯ [ gnpq ] 2 jakhɛma [ t ] 2 maik̯ hɛma [ c ] 76 turtle 2 makhɛma [ h ] 1 kɔttʃhop [ 0 ] 2 makhima [ f ] 2 kɛɾau̯ŋ [ a ] 2 makhimai ̯ [ im ] 3 kaiʂiŋ̯ [ gnq ] 2 markhimai ̯ [ o ] 3 kaiʂoi̯ ŋ̯ [ c ] 3 khiɾimai ̯ [ d ] 3 kaisɨi̯ ŋ̯ [ h ] 3 khirmoi ̯ [ n ] 3 kaʂin [ defipr ] 4 khormaima̯ [ g ] 4 kaiʂiŋ̯ [ gnq ] 5 ʂuʂuma [ e ] 4 kaiʂoi̯ ŋ̯ [ c ] 6 tuini̯ khurumphrui ̯ [ p ] 4 kaisɨi̯ ŋ̯ [ h ] 7 aɾɛŋga [ v ] 4 kotʃou̯ŋ [ o ] 7 aɾɪŋga [ w ] 5 tɔimɔi̯ ̯ [ bjklt ] 7 aɾiŋkha [ u ] 6 mʊihamtʃik̯ [ m ] 7 kaʈhuwa [ s ] 8 kathua ̯ [ w ] 8 katthua ̯ [ v ] 9 tʃapːa [ u ]

77 frog 80 cow 1 bæŋ [ 0uv ] 1 goɾu [ 0 ] 2 dʒɔu̯ŋgla [ bjkl ] 2 ɨmʂu [ ab ] 2 dʒɔu̯ŋla [ a ] 3 mɨʂou̯ [ gh ] 2 jɔŋla [ st ] 3 mɨʂou̯k [ n ] 2 joŋgla [ pqr ] 3 mɪʂu [ jkl ] 2 juŋgla [ g ] 3 moʂou̯ [ cr ] 3 totɛ [ cdefhmn ] 3 muʂou̯k [ deo ] 4 gɔkbæn [ i ] 3 muʂu [ t ] 4 gou̯bɛiŋ̯ [ o ] 3 muʂuk [ fimpq ] 5 bɛŋboŋ [ w ] 4 maʔʃu [ uv ] 4 maʔsu [ w ] 78 dog 5 mɨʂou̯ [ gh ] 1 [ 0 ] kukur 5 mɨʂou̯k [ n ] 2 [ em ] ʂəi ̯ 5 moʂou̯ [ cr ] 2 [ abghjklnot ] ʂoi ̯ 5 muʂou̯k [ deo ] 2 [ i ] ʂʊi ̯ 5 muʂu [ t ] 2 [ dfpq ] ʂui ̯ 5 muʂuk [ fimpq ] 3 [ r ] ʃɨi ̯ 5 muʃuk [ s ] 3 ʃui ̯ [ s ] 4 atʃak [ uv ] 81 water buffalo 5 kɨi ̯ [ w ] 1 mohiʃ [ 0 ] 6 ʂoit̯̚ [ c ] 2 ɨmʂɨ [ a ] 2 inʂi [ j ] 79 cat 3 mɪʂi [ bcklno ] 1 [ w ] bɨiɾa̯ 3 miʂi [ ghit ] 1 [ st ] bilai ̯ 3 miʂɪk [ em ] 1 [ 0 ] biɽal 3 miʂip [ pqr ] 2 [ w ] bɨiɾa̯ 3 miʃip [ s ] 2 [ st ] bilai ̯ 4 mɪʂi [ bcklno ] 2 [ abjkl ] blai ̯ 4 miʂi [ ghit ] 3 [ i ] amɛŋ 4 moiʃi̯ [ v ] 3 [ cgh ] ami 4 moʃi [ u ] 3 [ defmnoqr ] amiŋ 4 mʊʂʊi ̯ [ f ] 4 [ p ] amiʂa 4 muʂui ̯ [ d ] 5 [ v ] mɛŋgao̯ 5 tʃɨndɨk [ w ] 5 [ u ] mɛŋgoŋ 6 mɪʂi [ bcklno ]

6 miʂi [ ghit ] 6 miʃip [ s ] 6 moiʃi̯ [ v ] 6 moʃi [ u ]

82 horn (of buffalo) 84 goat 1 ʃiŋ [ 0 ] 1 tʃhagol [ 0 ] 2 ɨŋkrɔŋ [ a ] 2 pɔin̯ [ t ] 2 ɨŋkrɔu̯ŋ [ j ] 2 pou̯ŋ [ g ] 2 bɔkrɔŋ [ s ] 2 pun [ npqrs ] 2 bokroŋ [ hmnopr ] 2 pũ [ abjkl ] 2 bokruŋ [ cg ] 3 boɾun [ v ] 2 bokuroŋ [ i ] 3 puɾun [ w ] 2 bukruŋ [ f ] 3 purum [ o ] 2 mɨkrɔŋ [ kl ] 3 purun [ cdefhim ] 2 mɔkrɔu̯ŋ [ b ] 4 domok [ u ] 3 bɔkɔɾɔŋ [ deq ] 3 bɔkrɔŋ [ s ] 85 pig 1 [ 0 ] 3 bokroŋ [ hmnopr ] ʃukor 2 [ bjkl ] 3 bokruŋ [ cg ] wa 2 [ at ] 3 bokuroŋ [ i ] wɔ 3 [ gp ] 3 bugrɔŋ [ t ] wag̚ 3 [ is ] 3 bukruŋ [ f ] wak 3 [ demqruvw ] 3 mɨkrɔŋ [ kl ] wak̚ 3 [ h ] 3 mɔkrɔu̯ŋ [ b ] wau̯g̚ 3 [ cf ] 4 bɔkɔɾɔŋ [ deq ] wəu̯k̚ 4 [ gp ] 4 koɾoŋ [ w ] wag̚ 4 [ h ] 5 goɾoŋ [ v ] wau̯g̚ 4 [ cf ] 5 gɾoŋ [ u ] wəu̯k̚ 4 [ n ] 5 koɾoŋ [ w ] wɔg 5 jau̯k [ o ] 83 tail 1 lɛdʒ [ 0 ] 86 rat 1 [ 0 ] 2 khitɨŋ [ o ] idur 2 [ a ] 2 khithɔu̯ŋ [ abcjkl ] ʂijɔ 2 [ t ] 2 khitɔŋ [ de ] ʂijoi ̯ 2 [ bejklmno ] 2 khitoŋ [ hims ] ʂiŋjɔ 3 [ cfhipqr ] 2 khituŋ [ fpqr ] ʂindʒɔ 3 [ d ] 2 ʂitɨŋ [ g ] ʂindʒɔɾ 3 [ g ] 2 ʂitou̯ŋ [ n ] ʂindɔ 3 [ s ] 3 biʂtɔu̯ŋ [ t ] ʃindʒɔ 4 [ bejklmno ] 3 khitɨŋ [ o ] ʂiŋjɔ 4 [ cfhipqr ] 3 khitɔŋ [ de ] ʂindʒɔ 4 [ d ] 3 khitoŋ [ hims ] ʂindʒɔɾ 4 [ g ] 3 khituŋ [ fpqr ] ʂindɔ 5 [ u ] 3 ʂitɨŋ [ g ] miʃi 5 [ v ] 3 ʂitou̯ŋ [ n ] moʃai ̯ 6 [ w ] 4 diʔmi [ w ] miʔtʃut̚ 4 khiʔmai ̯ [ v ] 4 khiʔmi [ u ]

87 chicken (adult female) 91 bird 1 murgi [ 0 ] 1 pakhi [ 0s ] 2 tau̯ [ abgjklw ] 2 tau̯pi [ abjkl ] 3 tau̯k̚ [ hmot ] 3 tao̯k [ t ] 3 təu̯k [ q ] 3 tau̯k [ ghmo ] 3 tɔk [ i ] 3 təu̯k̚ [ c ] 3 tɔu̯k [ s ] 3 tɔk [ di ] 3 tou̯k̚ [ cenr ] 3 tou̯k (ʂa) [ efnpqr ] 4 tou̯ŋma [ dfp ] 4 tau̯ [ w ] 5 dau̯ [ v ] 5 dau̯ [ v ] 6 duʔu [ u ] 6 doʔo [ u ]

88 egg 92 insect 1 ɖim [ 0 ] 1 poka [ 0 ] 2 tao̯ktoi ̯ [ t ] 2 dʒɔŋ [ a ] 2 tau̯ktɔi ̯ [ hmo ] 2 dʒoŋ [ u ] 2 tau̯tɔi ̯ [ abgjkl ] 2 dʒou̯ŋ [ bjkl ] 2 tɔktʊi ̯ [ i ] 2 tʃoŋ [ w ] 2 tɔktui ̯ [ s ] 3 jɔŋ [ s ] 2 tou̯ktoi ̯ [ cdefn ] 3 joŋ [ cdegimnopqrt ] 2 tou̯ktʊi ̯ [ qr ] 3 juŋ [ fh ] 3 butui ̯ [ p ] 4 miʂɨrɨŋ [ c ] 4 bit̚tʃi [ u ] 5 dʒoŋʔtʃu [ v ] 5 dao̯tʃi [ v ] 6 tɨi ̯ [ w ] 93 cockroach 1 tɛlapoka [ 0w ] 89 fish 2 huluma [ abdefghjklp ] 1 maʈʃh [ 0 ] 2 khuluma [ mo ] 2 a [ abcdefghijklmnopqrst ] 2 khuruma [ c ] 3 na [ w ] 2 kulama [ n ] 4 naʔthok̚ [ uv ] 2 kuluma [ t ] 3 khuluma [ mo ] 90 duck 3 khuruma [ c ] 1 [ 0 ] hãʃ 3 khuruŋma [ i ] 2 h [ deimnopqr ] tak um 3 kuluma [ t ] 2 h [ abjkl ] tau̯k ɔ ̃ 4 khuluma [ mo ] 2 h [ cgh ] tau̯k uŋ 4 khuruma [ c ] 2 h [ s ] tɔk um 4 kulama [ n ] 2 h [ t ] tɔu̯k ɔm 4 kuluma [ t ] 2 h [ f ] tok uŋ 4 kurma [ qrs ] 3 [ uv ] gagak̚ 5 ʃɛʔluk̚ [ u ] 4 [ w ] dao̯gɛp̚ 6 tɛltʃuɾa [ v ]

94 bee 96 spider 1 mou̯maʈʃhi [ 0 ] 1 makoɽʃa [ 0 ] 2 pija [ abgjklnpqrst ] 2 bɛi ̯ [ abjkl ] 2 poidʒja̯ [ e ] 3 bæŋ [ i ] 2 poja [ cdfh ] 3 bɛiŋ̯ [ nt ] 2 pʊrija [ i ] 3 bɛŋ [ dempqrs ] 3 poidgja̯ [ m ] 3 boiŋ̯ [ cfh ] 3 poidʒja̯ [ e ] 4 biŋma [ g ] 3 poja [ cdfh ] 5 magor [ o ] 3 pʊrija [ i ] 6 gawaŋ [ w ] 4 poiraʂi̯ [ o ] 6 guwaŋ [ uv ] 4 pʊrija [ i ] 5 bidʒa [ uv ] 97 ant 1 [ 0 ] 6 mɛ [ w ] pipɽa 2 mɨiʂrɨŋ̯ [ hn ] 95 fly 2 mɨʂrɨŋ [ c ] 1 matʃhi [ 0 ] 2 miʂrəm [ m ] 2 dʒɔu̯ŋʂani [ a ] 2 mɔʂrɔm [ t ] 3 thampuima̯ [ t ] 2 mʊiʂʊrʊm̯ [ i ] 3 thau̯ŋphɔima̯ [ bjkl ] 2 mʊiʂurum̯ [ d ] 4 thamiŋ [ en ] 2 mʊitʃ̯ hərɨm [ e ] 4 thamiŋma [ i ] 2 muʔʂrõ [ l ] 5 thampui ̯ [ rs ] 2 muiʔʂroŋ̯ [ k ] 5 thaŋbɯi ̯ [ g ] 2 muiʂrɨŋ̯ [ g ] 5 thɛmbai ̯ [ p ] 2 muiʂrum̯ [ fpq ] 6 thaima̯ [ cdfh ] 2 muiʂurum̯ [ r ] 6 thamphi [ u ] 2 muiʃrɔm̯ [ s ] 6 thampui ̯ [ rs ] 2 muʂrɔŋ [ abj ] 6 thɛmai ̯ [ q ] 3 ʃɨmɨltʃak [ u ] 6 thɛmbai ̯ [ p ] 4 ʃomnol [ v ] 7 thaima̯ [ cdfh ] 5 samal [ w ] 7 thaimiŋ̯ [ m ] 6 mɛtʃoɾom [ o ] 7 thamiŋ [ en ] 6 miʂrəm [ m ] 7 thamphi [ u ] 6 mʊiʂʊrʊm̯ [ i ] 7 thɛmai ̯ [ q ] 6 mʊiʂurum̯ [ d ] 8 joŋkha [ o ] 6 mʊitʃ̯ hərɨm [ e ] 9 khanphi [ v ] 6 muiʂurum̯ [ r ] 9 thamphi [ u ] A thampui ̯ [ rs ] A thampuima̯ [ t ] B sot [ w ] C thamiŋma [ i ] C thampuima̯ [ t ]

98 mosquito 100 face 1 mɔʃa [ 0 ] 1 mukh [ 0 ] 2 thami [ c ] 2 ɨŋkhaŋ [ j ] 2 thampoi ̯ [ q ] 2 ɨŋkhau̯ [ a ] 2 thampui ̯ [ s ] 3 mɨkhɨŋ [ w ] 3 thampuijakolok̯ [ r ] 3 mɨkhaŋ [ gnot ] 3 thaŋphɔijaklə̯ [ j ] 3 mɨkkhaŋ [ bcfhklqru ] 3 thau̯ŋphɔidʒaklau̯ ̯ [ bl ] 3 makhaŋ [ deim ] 4 thami [ c ] 3 muk̚khaŋ [ v ] 4 thamiŋ [ dei ] 3 mukhaŋ [ ps ] 4 thamuin̯ [ o ] 4 ɨŋkhaŋ [ j ] 5 joŋ [ n ] 4 mɨkhaŋ [ gnot ] 5 jou̯ŋ [ cf ] 4 mɨkkhaŋ [ bcfhklqru ] 6 juŋklau̯ [ g ] 4 muk̚khaŋ [ v ] 6 juŋkləu̯ [ h ] 4 mukhaŋ [ ps ] 7 thaːɨmphəi ̯ [ t ] 7 thampoi ̯ [ q ] 101 neck 1 [ 0 ] 7 thampui ̯ [ s ] gɔla 1 [ p ] 7 thaŋpui ̯ [ p ] godna 1 [ s ] 7 thau̯ŋphɔi ̯ [ ak ] gunːa 2 [ hmor ] 8 thaimiŋklauk̯ [ m ] gɨdɪna 2 [ afjn ] 9 gaŋgawa [ w ] gɨdɔna 2 [ c ] 9 gaŋguwa [ uv ] gɛdana 2 godəna [ ei ] 99 head 2 godna [ p ] 1 matha [ 0 ] 2 godona [ dq ] 2 ɨŋkhrɔu̯ [ ajl ] 3 gnaphuŋ [ g ] 2 mɨkhrau̯ [ k ] 4 kɨtːɔu̯phuŋ [ bkl ] 2 mukhrɔu̯ [ t ] 4 kɨtɔu̯kphɔŋ [ t ] 2 mukkhrəu̯ [ b ] 5 godok [ v ] 3 bɔkhɔɾɔk [ dempq ] 5 gutok [ u ] 3 bɔkhrɔk [ s ] 6 tokɾɛŋ [ w ] 3 bokhorok [ i ] 3 bokhrok [ nr ] 3 bokrou̯ [ fg ] 3 bukhrok [ o ] 4 bokrou̯ [ fg ] 4 mɨkhrau̯ [ k ] 4 mukhrɔu̯ [ t ] 4 mukkhrəu̯ [ b ] 5 kɔpa [ ch ] 6 skhu [ u ] 7 ʃkhao̯ [ v ] 8 dɨkɨm [ w ]

102 hair 104 nose 1 tʃul [ 0v ] 1 nak [ 0 ] 2 ɨŋkhnai ̯ [ ajk ] 2 ɨŋku [ a ] 3 khɨnni [ u ] 2 uŋkuŋ [ j ] 3 khanai ̯ [ de ] 3 bɔkuŋ [ cn ] 3 khənai ̯ [ i ] 3 bukoŋ [ g ] 3 khnai ̯ [ bcfghlopqr ] 3 bukuŋ [ cdefhimpqrs ] 3 khunai ̯ [ s ] 3 mukuŋ [ bkl ] 4 bakhanai ̯ [ m ] 3 uŋkuŋ [ j ] 4 bakhnai ̯ [ n ] 4 gɨŋ [ u ] 5 khai ̯ [ t ] 4 guŋ [ v ] 5 khau̯ [ w ] 4 kou̯ŋ [ o ] 6 bakhanai ̯ [ m ] 5 kɔu̯ŋthai ̯ [ t ] 6 khanai ̯ [ de ] 6 mukuŋ [ bkl ] 6 khənai ̯ [ i ] 6 nakhuŋ [ w ]

103 eye 105 ear 1 tʃok [ 0 ] 1 kan [ 0 ] 2 ɨŋkɔ [ ajk ] 2 khuŋdʒu [ g ] 3 mɨkon [ u ] 2 khundʒu [ cefhnpqrst ] 3 mɔkːɔ [ bl ] 2 khundʒur [ dimo ] 3 mɔkɔl [ s ] 2 khũdʒu [ abjkl ] 3 moko [ fghn ] 3 natʃɨl [ u ] 3 mokɔ [ c ] 3 natʃul [ v ] 3 mokol [ deimopqr ] 4 nakhar [ w ] 3 mukɔi ̯ [ t ] 4 mɨkon [ u ] 106 cheek 1 [ 0 ] 4 mɨkɾɛŋ [ w ] gal 2 h h [ a ] 4 mɔkɔl [ s ] ɨŋk au̯t ai ̯ 3 h [ bcdfhknprst ] 4 mokol [ deimopqr ] k aŋga 3 h [ q ] 5 mɨkon [ u ] k aŋgar 3 h [ jl ] 5 mɨkɾɛŋ [ w ] k au̯ŋga 4 h [ eimo ] 5 mukuɾuŋ [ v ] k aŋ 5 khaŋgabɨthai ̯ [ g ] 6 phait̯ hop̚ [ v ] 6 phait̯ hupa [ w ] 6 phithop̚ [ u ]

107 chin 109 tongue 1 tʃibuk [ 0 ] 1 dʒɪb [ 0 ] 2 tʃɛŋglai ̯ [ t ] 2 ɨmʂlai ̯ [ aj ] 2 tʃiŋglai ̯ [ bjkl ] 2 mɨʂlai ̯ [ bkl ] 2 tʃiŋlai ̯ [ a ] 3 bɨʂlai ̯ [ gpqr ] 3 khoglai ̯ [ m ] 3 buʃlai ̯ [ s ] 3 kholai ̯ [ cdefghinr ] 3 mɨʂlai ̯ [ bkl ] 4 kholai ̯ [ cdefghinr ] 4 ʂalai ̯ [ defhimo ] 4 khualai̯ ̯ [ pq ] 4 ʂɛlai ̯ [ c ] 4 kuali̯ [ o ] 4 ʂlai ̯ [ fnt ] 5 thutma [ s ] 5 sɾi [ u ] 6 khuʔdubu [ v ] 6 ʃɛlabak̚ [ v ] 6 khudumbok [ u ] 7 thɛlampa [ w ] 7 kadɨmbai ̯ [ w ] 7 khudumbok [ u ] 110 tooth 1 [ 0 ] 8 khoglai ̯ [ m ] dãt 2 [ abcdefghijklmnpqrst ] 8 khualai̯ ̯ [ pq ] bua ̯ 3 ja [ o ] 108 mouth 4 wa [ uvw ] 1 mukh [ 0 ] 2 ɨŋkhu [ aj ] 111 elbow 0 [ p ] 3 bokhu [ g ] no entry 1 [ s ] 3 mukkhu [ bklt ] kɔinːa̯ 1 [ r ] 4 buhuk [ s ] konɛ 1 [ 0 ] 4 bukhɔu̯k̚ [ cd ] konui ̯ 2 [ kl ] 4 bukhok [ i ] dʒaʂkuŋ 2 [ abj ] 4 bukhou̯k [ o ] dʒau̯ʂkuŋ 2 [ t ] 4 bukhou̯k̚ [ h ] jaiʂkɔŋ̯ 2 [ d ] 4 bukhuk [ efmnpqr ] jaiʂukuŋ̯ 2 [ gn ] 5 khuʃuk̚ [ u ] jaʂkuŋ 3 h [ h ] 5 khutʃuk̚ [ w ] t aindu̯ 3 h [ cf ] 6 khu [ v ] t ainduŋ̯ 4 [ eim ] 7 bokhu [ g ] kilini 5 [ o ] 7 bukhɔu̯k̚ [ cd ] gɛndi 6 [ q ] 7 bukhok [ i ] jakguti 7 h [ u ] 7 bukhou̯k [ o ] dʒak̚sk u 8 [ v ] 7 bukhou̯k̚ [ h ] dʒakgila 9 [ w ] 7 bukhuk [ efmnpqr ] tʃak̚wɛŋ

112 hand 115 fingernail 1 hat [ 0 ] 1 nɔk [ 0 ] 2 dʒau̯ [ ajl ] 2 dʒau̯ʂku [ abjkl ] 3 bia ̯ [ bk ] 2 jaiʂku̯ [ ct ] 4 jag̚ [ cdeht ] 2 jaiʂuku̯ [ dei ] 4 jak [ cfgimnopqrs ] 2 jaʂku [ ghmnpqr ] 5 dʒak [ uv ] 2 jaʃku [ s ] 5 tʃak [ w ] 2 jɛʂku [ f ] 3 jau̯ktʃul [ o ] 113 palm 4 dʒak̚ʃukhul [ v ] 1 [ 0 ] hatɛr talu 4 dʒak̚sɨkhɨl [ u ] 2 h [ abjkl ] dʒau̯p a 4 tʃak̚ʃikhoɾ [ w ] 2 japha [ cdefhimnopqrst ] 3 japhablai ̯ [ g ] 116 knee 4 dʒak̚pha [ u ] 1 haʈu [ 0 ] 4 dʒau̯pha [ abjkl ] 2 dʒaːʂku [ abjkl ] 4 tʃak̚pha [ w ] 2 jaʂkuː [ r ] 5 dʒak̚pha [ u ] 2 jaʂuku [ pq ] 5 dʒak̚phathai ̯ [ v ] 3 jaiʂukuŋ̯ [ d ] 3 jaʂkuː [ r ] 114 finger 3 jaʂuku [ pq ] 1 [ 0 ] aŋgul 4 jaʂkubɨthɔ [ gh ] 2 [ abjkl ] dʒau̯ʂɔi ̯ 4 jaʂkubothɔ [ c ] 3 [ eio ] jaiʂa̯ 4 jaʂkubutho [ fn ] 3 [ mnpqr ] jaʂi 4 jaʂkumuthɔr [ t ] 3 [ c ] jaʂma 4 jaʃkubɔthɔr [ s ] 3 [ t ] jaʂoi ̯ 5 jaiʂu̯ [ i ] 4 h [ d ] jaʂabat ai ̯ 5 jaʂkuː [ r ] 4 h [ gh ] jaʂibɨt ai ̯ 5 jaʂu [ em ] 4 h [ f ] jɛʂipt ai ̯ 5 jaʂuku [ pq ] 5 [ eio ] jaiʂa̯ 6 jau̯ktʃudʒura [ o ] 5 [ mnpqr ] jaʂi 7 dʒaːʂku [ abjkl ] 5 [ t ] jaʂoi ̯ 7 dʒaʃukhu [ u ] 5 [ s ] jaʃi 7 jaʂuku [ pq ] 6 [ uv ] dʒak̚ʃi 8 dʒaʔʃukhu [ v ] 6 [ w ] tʃak̚ʃi 8 dʒaʃukhu [ u ]

9 tʃakɨu̯ [ w ]

100

117 foot 119 fat 1 pa / pɔd [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ u ] 2 dʒapha [ ajkl ] 1 tʃorbi [ 0 ] 2 japha [ t ] 2 ɨmpha [ abjkl ] 3 dʒaphikuŋ [ b ] 2 ɨmpham [ t ] 4 japalai ̯ [ m ] 3 bɪphã [ f ] 4 japhlai ̯ [ o ] 3 bopha [ c ] 4 japlai ̯ [ cdefghi ] 3 bopham [ deimo ] 5 jathɨk [ n ] 3 bophan [ n ] 5 jathɛk [ s ] 3 bophaŋ [ g ] 6 jakuŋ [ pqr ] 3 bophã [ h ] 7 dʒaʔapha [ u ] 3 bupham [ pqrs ] 7 dʒaʔpha [ v ] 4 ludi [ w ] 7 dʒapha [ ajkl ] 4 mudu [ v ] 8 tʃaʔ [ w ] 5 ɨmpham [ t ] 9 japha [ t ] 5 bopham [ deimo ] 9 japhlai ̯ [ o ] 5 bupham [ pqrs ] 9 japlai ̯ [ cdefghi ] 120 skin 118 bone 1 tʃamɽa [ 0 ] 1 haɽ [ 0 ] 2 ɨŋkʉ [ aj ] 2 ɨŋkrɛi ̯ [ al ] 3 buku [ cfghn ] 3 bɨkrɨiŋ̯ [ ho ] 3 bukur [ dimopqrst ] 3 bɨkrɨŋ [ c ] 3 bukut [ e ] 3 bɛkɛrɛŋ [ deimnpqr ] 3 muku [ bkl ] 3 bɛkrɛŋ [ s ] 4 bigɨl [ u ] 3 bɪkrɨŋ [ fg ] 4 bigul [ v ] 3 mɨkrɛiŋ̯ [ bjkt ] 5 khol [ w ] 4 gɾeŋ [ uv ] 4 kɛɾɛŋ [ w ] 121 blood 1 [ 0 ] 5 bɛkɛrɛŋ [ deimnpqr ] ɾɔkto 2 h [ b ] 5 kɛɾɛŋ [ w ] mɨt ɔi ̯ 3 thɨi ̯ [ w ] 3 thɔi ̯ [ acjklmnot ] 3 thʊi ̯ [ efghir ] 3 thui ̯ [ dpqs ] 4 hanʔtʃhi [ v ] 4 hantʃhi [ u ]

101

122 sweat 125 back 1 gham [ 0 ] 1 piʈh [ 0 ] 2 kɨlɨmtʊi ̯ [ e ] 2 phɛku [ a ] 2 klɨmtəi ̯ [ m ] 2 phɛkuŋ [ cfk ] 2 klɨŋtəi ̯ [ f ] 2 phɪkuŋ [ gh ] 2 klɨŋtɔi ̯ [ cgh ] 2 phikou̯ŋ [ o ] 2 klɔmtɔi ̯ [ t ] 2 phikuŋ [ bdeijlmnpqrs ] 2 klɔŋtɔi ̯ [ bjkl ] 3 mukɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 2 klɔtɔĩ ̯ [ a ] 3 phɛkuŋ [ cfk ] 2 kɔlɔmtui ̯ [ s ] 3 phɪkuŋ [ gh ] 2 kolomti [ o ] 3 phikou̯ŋ [ o ] 2 kolomtʊi ̯ [ r ] 3 phikuŋ [ bdeijlmnpqrs ] 2 kolomtui ̯ [ pq ] 4 dʒaŋgɨl [ u ] 2 kʊlʊmtʊi ̯ [ i ] 4 dʒaŋgul [ v ] 2 kulumtɔi ̯ [ n ] 5 kɨn [ w ] 2 kulumtui ̯ [ d ] 3 tuŋgoa ̯ [ w ] 126 body 1 [ 0 ] 4 khɾamtʃhi [ uv ] ga / dɛho 2 ɨmːau̯ [ aj ] 123 belly 2 ɨmːã [ bk ] 1 pɛʈ [ 0 ] 3 bɨʂak [ fghnopqr ] 2 ɨmphai ̯ [ a ] 3 baʂak [ cdeim ] 3 bhɔhɔu̯ [ jkl ] 3 buʃak [ s ] 3 bɔhɔk [ s ] 4 bɨʂak [ fghnopqr ] 3 bɔhɔu̯ [ b ] 4 mɨʂau̯ [ l ] 3 bɔhɔu̯k [ t ] 5 ɨmʂak [ t ] 3 bohok [ pqr ] 6 bɛʔɛn [ v ] 4 bou̯ŋ [ g ] 6 bimaŋ [ u ] 5 bou̯k [ n ] 7 randai ̯ [ w ] 6 ɔk [ de ] 6 ok [ i ] 127 person 1 [ 0 ] 6 ou̯k [ cfhmo ] lok 2 [ abcjkl ] 7 bɨk̚ma [ u ] brɔu̯ 2 [ t ] 7 buk̚ma [ v ] brɔu̯k 2 [ fh ] 8 pipuk̚ [ w ] brou̯k 3 bɔrɔk [ s ] 124 heart (organ) 3 boɾok [ demnopqr ] 0 no entry [ abcdefghijklmnopqrst ] 3 boɾou̯k [ g ] 1 hɾidɔi ̯ [ 0 ] 3 brɔu̯k [ t ] 2 dʒaŋgi [ uvw ] 3 brou̯k [ fh ] 3 buruk [ i ] 4 mandai ̯ [ v ] 4 mandi [ uw ]

102

128 man 129 woman 1 puɾuʃ [ 0 ] 1 mohɪla [ 0 ] 2 tʃɨla [ bckpqr ] 2 brɔi ̯ [ abjklt ] 2 tʃala [ ei ] 3 bɛɾɔk [ c ] 2 tʃla [ ajl ] 3 biɾau̯k [ fh ] 3 tʃalaɾok [ cmn ] 3 biɾɔk [ i ] 3 tʃɪlaɾou̯ [ g ] 3 biɾok [ d ] 3 tʃilaɾɔk [ s ] 3 boiɾok̯ [ em ] 3 tʃilaɾok [ fo ] 4 brɨirə̯ [ g ] 4 tʃalaɾok [ cmn ] 5 bɛɾɔk [ c ] 4 tʃaɾok [ d ] 5 biɾɔk [ i ] 4 tʃlaɾao̯k [ h ] 5 biɾok [ d ] 4 tʃlarau̯k [ t ] 5 biʂɪɾok [ o ] 5 mɛʔɛʃa [ u ] 5 bʊɾiɾok [ n ] 5 miʔaʃa [ v ] 6 boiɾok̯ [ em ] 6 bipha [ w ] 6 bʊrʊi ̯ [ r ] 7 tʃɨla [ bckpqr ] 6 burui ̯ [ pq ] 7 tʃɪlaɾou̯ [ g ] 7 mitʃɨk̚ʃa [ uv ] 8 tʃalaɾok [ cmn ] 8 gɨwui ̯ [ w ] 8 tʃaɾok [ d ] 9 boiɾok̯ [ em ] 8 tʃilaɾɔk [ s ] 9 bʊɾiɾok [ n ] 8 tʃilaɾok [ fo ] 9 buɾuiɾɔk̯ [ s ] 8 tʃlaɾao̯k [ h ] A biʂɪɾok [ o ] 8 tʃlarau̯k [ t ] A bʊɾiɾok [ n ] A buɾuiɾɔk̯ [ s ]

103

130 family 133 husband 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 ʃami [ 0 ] 1 poɾibar [ 0s ] 2 ɨmʂai ̯ [ ab ] 2 nɔu̯khɔ [ ajkl ] 2 ɨnʂai ̯ [ j ] 2 nou̯k [ cfo ] 3 bɨʂai ̯ [ pqrt ] 2 nou̯khua ̯ [ e ] 3 baʂai ̯ [ i ] 3 nɔu̯brɔ [ b ] 3 mɨʂai ̯ [ kl ] 3 nɔu̯kbrou̯ [ t ] 4 tʃɨla [ s ] 4 nokhoŋa [ m ] 4 tʃala [ cdemn ] 4 nokhuŋ [ cdqr ] 4 tʃɪla [ cfho ] 4 nokhuŋtʃa [ n ] 5 tʃɨla [ s ] 4 nukhuŋ [ p ] 5 tʃɪla [ cfho ] 4 nukhuŋ (mairaŋ)̯ [ i ] 5 tʃɪlaɾɔ [ g ] 5 nɔu̯khɔ [ ajkl ] 6 ʃai ̯ [ v ] 5 nokhoŋa [ m ] 6 ʃɛ [ u ] 5 nokhuŋ [ cdqr ] 7 dʒɨk̚bipha [ w ] 5 nou̯khua ̯ [ e ] 5 nukhuŋ [ p ] 134 wife 1 [ 0 ] 5 nukhuŋ (mairaŋ)̯ [ i ] stɾi 2 h [ a ] 6 nou̯ [ g ] b i 3 h [ bkl ] 6 nou̯k [ cfo ] b ihi 3 [ it ] 7 nou̯kʂaphaŋtʃa [ h ] bihi 3 bihik [ pqr ] 131 father 4 biri [ fo ] 1 baba [ 0ov ] 4 bɔroi ̯ [ g ] 1 babu [ r ] 4 bri [ h ] 2 abːa [ u ] 4 bʊrʊi ̯ [ en ] 2 aba [ cnt ] 4 buri [ cd ] 2 apa [ abjklt ] 4 buroi ̯ [ m ] 2 apha [ fhi ] 4 burui ̯ [ s ] 3 ba [ efgmpq ] 5 bhihi [ bkl ] 4 pa [ d ] 5 bihi [ it ] 5 pha [ s ] 5 biʂi [ j ] 6 awa [ w ] 6 dʒɨk̚ [ u ]

6 dʒik̚ [ v ] 132 mother 7 dʒɨk̚gɨwui ̯ [ w ] 1 ma [ 0dms ] 2 ama [ fghipqruvw ] 2 amaŋ [ c ] 2 amɔŋ [ bl ] 2 amɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 2 amu [ aj ] 2 amuŋ [ k ] 3 ajɨk [ n ] 4 gogo [ o ] 5 jʊg [ e ]

104

135 son 136 daughter 1 tʃɨla [ q ] 1 mɛjɛ [ 0 ] 1 tʃhɛlɛ [ 0 ] 2 ɨmʂaju [ ab ] 2 ɨmʂa [ abt ] 2 mɨʂaju [ k ] 3 bɨʂa [ op ] 3 bɛrau̯ bɨʂa [ c ] 3 bɨʂla [ r ] 3 birɔk baʂa [ i ] 4 tʃɨla bɨʃa [ s ] 3 boirok̯ baʂa [ em ] 4 tʃala bɨʂa [ n ] 3 bʊri bɨʂa [ n ] 4 tʃala baʂa [ eim ] 3 buɾu̯ bɨʃa [ s ] 4 tʃɪla bɨʂa [ c ] 4 bɨʂa biri [ f ] 5 bɨʂa tʃala [ g ] 4 bɨʂa bri [ h ] 5 bɨʂa tʃla [ h ] 4 bɨʂa broi ̯ [ g ] 5 baʂa tʃarɔk [ d ] 4 baʂa birok [ d ] 5 bɪʂa tʃala [ f ] 4 mɨʂa broi ̯ [ l ] 6 bɨʂa tʃala [ g ] 5 bɨʂa bri [ h ] 6 bɨʂa tʃla [ h ] 5 bɨʂa dʒɨk [ r ] 6 bɪʂa tʃala [ f ] 6 ɨnʂa broi ̯ [ j ] 6 mɨʂa tʃla [ l ] 6 bɨʂa bri [ h ] 7 ɨnʂa tʃla [ j ] 6 bɨʂa broi ̯ [ g ] 7 mɨʂala [ k ] 6 mɨʂa broi ̯ [ l ] 7 mɨʂa tʃla [ l ] 7 bɨʂa dʒɨk [ r ] 8 mɛʔɛʃa phiʃa [ u ] 7 bɨʂa dʒuk [ p ] 9 miʔa doi ̯ [ v ] 8 ʂaʂɨk [ o ] A ʃa bipha [ w ] 9 brɔi ̯ [ t ] 9 burui ̯ [ q ] A mitʃɨk̚piʃa [ u ] B mitʃik̚doi ̯ [ v ] C ʃa gɨwui ̯ [ w ] D bɨʂa broi ̯ [ g ] D bɨʂa dʒuk [ p ] E mɨʂa broi ̯ [ l ] E mɨʂaju [ k ]

137 older brother 1 bɔɽo bhai ̯ / dada [ 0s ] 2 hɔʔgra [ a ] 3 ada [ nv ] 3 ata [ bcfhjlt ] 4 dada [ dgimpqu ] 4 dara [ r ] 5 da [ eo ] 6 phao̯ tʃuŋguwa [ w ] 7 takhugra [ ak ]

105

138 older sister 140 younger sister 1 bɔɽo bon / didi [ 0 ] 1 tʃhoʈo bon [ 0 ] 2 hɔʔgra dʒuma [ a ] 2 βanaŋ [ bkl ] 3 takhugrama [ a ] 2 βanəu̯ [ a ] 4 abi [ bjklu ] 3 βɔhanau̯ [ j ] 4 aboi ̯ [ cfghn ] 4 hanok [ pqr ] 4 abʊi ̯ [ i ] 4 nanɔk [ dim ] 4 aibi̯ [ t ] 4 nanok [ o ] 5 bai ̯ [ pqrsv ] 5 thaita̯ kɔtɔi ̯ [ e ] 5 boi ̯ [ dmo ] 6 akəi ̯ [ f ] 5 bʊi ̯ [ e ] 7 ahɔnɔk dʒɨg [ h ] 6 dʒa tʃuŋguwa [ w ] 7 ãu̯hãu̯ dʒɨg [ g ] 8 ahɔnɔk dʒɨg [ h ] 139 younger brother 8 ahonokʈʃou̯k [ c ] 1 h h [ 0 ] tʃ oʈo b ai ̯ 9 dɨdɨŋ brʊi ̯ [ n ] 2 h [ bkl ] ɨmp ajɔŋ A boin̯ tʃikin [ s ] 2 h [ aj ] ɨmp aju B nanɔk [ dim ] 2 h [ t ] ɨmp ajuŋ B nanok [ o ] 2 h [ qr ] bup ajuŋ B nono [ v ] 2 h [ dfhim ] p ajoŋ C anu [ u ] 3 [ c ] akoi ̯ C nono [ v ] 4 [ e ] tɛ D nao̯ mɨlguwa [ w ] 5 [ g ] tau̯ku kɨtɔi ̯ E bahanau̯k [ t ] 6 kɨtəi ̯ [ o ] 7 dɨdɨŋ tʃala [ n ] 141 friend 8 daŋ [ p ] 1 bɔndu [ s ] 9 bai ̯ tʃikin [ s ] 1 bondhu [ 0 ] A dʒoŋ [ uv ] 2 gɨtʃiŋ [ b ] B dʒoŋ mɨlguwa [ w ] 2 kɨʂɛiŋ̯ [ f ] 2 kɨtʃɨin̯ [ hjk ] 2 kɨtʃɛiŋ̯ [ gt ] 2 kɨtʃəin̯ [ cl ] 2 kʉʂoin̯ [ o ] 2 kətʃiŋ [ a ] 2 kiʂiŋ [ m ] 2 kitʃiŋ [ deinpr ] 3 jar [ q ] 4 badʒu [ uvw ]

106

142 name 145 door 1 nam [ 0 ] 1 dɔrdʒa [ 0 ] 2 ɨmːɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 1 dɔrka [ t ] 2 ɨmːu [ abk ] 2 doa [ g ] 2 ɨmːuŋ [ jl ] 2 doga [ abklnpqr ] 3 ɨmːɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 2 dua [ cfh ] 3 ɨmːuŋ [ jl ] 3 doa [ g ] 3 bimɨŋ [ u ] 3 dua [ cfh ] 3 bimuŋ [ v ] 3 duar [ eos ] 3 bɔmuŋ [ s ] 4 dɔu̯ŋla [ j ] 3 bomɨŋ [ efghmn ] 4 doga [ abklnpqr ] 3 bomuŋ [ dp ] 4 doŋla [ a ] 3 bʊmʊŋ [ i ] 5 duap̯ haŋ [ m ] 3 bumuŋ [ cr ] 5 duaphaŋ [ i ] 4 ɨmːɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 6 dugalam [ d ] 4 ɨmːuŋ [ jl ] 7 dogatʃɨl [ u ] 4 mɨŋ [ o ] 7 dogatʃhul [ v ] 4 muŋ [ qw ] 8 dokor [ w ] 8 duar [ eos ] 143 village 1 giram [ s ] 146 window 1 gɾam [ 0 ] 1 dʒaŋla [ c ] 2 para [ abcdefgijklmnoqt ] 1 dʒanɛla [ s ] 2 pra [ h ] 1 dʒanala [ 0houv ] 3 kami [ ipr ] 2 taila̯ [ abkl ] 4 ʃoŋ [ uvw ] 2 tailam̯ [ defimnr ] 2 tailã̯ [ j ] 144 house 3 khɛrki [ pq ] 1 h [ 0 ] baɽi / g ɔr 4 lau̯tã [ g ] 2 [ abcejkl ] nɔu̯ 5 dualama̯ [ t ] 2 [ g ] nou̯ 5 tailam̯ [ defimnr ] 3 [ dpq ] nɔk 6 kɜkli [ w ] 3 nɔu̯k [ t ] 3 nok [ irs ] 147 roof 3 nok̚ [ uvw ] 1 ʈʃhad / ʈʃal [ 0v ] 3 nou̯k [ fhmno ] 2 nɔkhuŋ [ abcfghkno ] 2 nɔu̯khuŋ [ lt ] 2 nok̚khɨŋ [ u ] 2 nokhuŋ [ mp ] 2 nukhuŋ [ deijqrsw ]

148 wall (of house) 0 no entry [ abcdefghijklmnopqrst ] 1 dɛal [ 0w ] 2 bɛɾa [ u ] 3 wal [ v ]

107

149 pillow 152 clothing 1 balɪʃ [ 0vw ] 0 no entry [ s ] 2 gɨbːoŋ [ jl ] 1 poʃak [ 0 ] 2 gɔbːɔŋ [ bk ] 1 puʂak [ h ] 2 gɔbuŋ [ g ] 1 puʂau̯ [ g ] 2 kɨbːɔŋ [ a ] 2 khʉtai ̯ [ ajl ] 2 kɨbɨŋ [ n ] 2 kutai ̯ [ t ] 2 kɨboŋ [ h ] 3 kaːmu [ bk ] 2 kɔbɔŋ [ deimqrs ] 4 kamuŋ tʃou̯ŋmuŋ [ c ] 2 koboŋ [ fp ] 5 ritʃou̯ŋ [ f ] 2 kubːɔu̯ŋ [ t ] 5 ritʃum [ deimr ] 2 kuboŋ [ o ] 6 gubai ̯ [ n ] 2 kubuŋ [ c ] 7 ʂailam̯ [ o ] 3 khudam [ u ] 8 tʃuŋmuŋ [ p ] 9 kamtʃɨloi ̯ [ q ] 150 blanket A baʔɾa [ v ] 1 [ st ] kɔmbɔl A baɾa [ uw ] 1 kɔmbol [ 0bcdfhjklmpquvw ] 1 komol [ or ] 153 medicine 1 kumbol [ n ] 1 oʃud [ 0 ] 2 gɔu̯bɔ [ a ] 2 ɨmthi [ t ] 2 kuŋbo [ g ] 2 inthi [ aj ] 3 rodʒai ̯ [ ei ] 3 bɨthi [ g ] 3 bɪthi [ cdfhmnopqr ] 151 ring (on finger) 3 bithi [ eis ] 1 [ v ] aŋdi 3 mɪthi [ bkl ] 1 [ 0uw ] aŋti 4 ʃam [ uv ] 2 [ j ] dʒaʂtaŋ 4 sam [ w ] 2 dʒau̯ʂtã [ abkl ] 2 jaʂtam [ t ] 154 paper 2 jaʂtaŋ [ gn ] 1 kagodʒo [ r ] 2 jaʃtam [ s ] 1 kagodʒ [ 0 ] 3 jaita̯ [ h ] 1 kagoʃ [ pqs ] 3 jaitam̯ [ deimo ] 2 kagdʒɨ [ h ] 3 jaitã̯ [ cf ] 2 kagodʒo [ r ] 3 jaʂtam [ t ] 2 kagodʒ [ 0 ] 3 jaʂtaŋ [ gn ] 3 tʃaku [ abjkl ] 3 jaʃtam [ s ] 4 lɛk̚kha [ uvw ] 4 jaitam̯ [ deimo ] 4 lɛkha [ cdefgimnot ] 4 jaʂitam [ pqr ] 4 jaʂtam [ t ] 4 jaʂtaŋ [ gn ] 4 jaʃtam [ s ]

108

155 needle 157 broom 1 ʂutʃi [ abdgjklnpqr ] 1 dʒhaɽu [ 0 ] 1 ʃutʃ / ʃui [ 0 ] 2 nɔu̯kʂi [ t ] 1 ʃutʃi [ s ] 2 nɔu̯ʂi [ bcjkl ] 2 ʂibi [ cfhio ] 2 nokʂi [ r ] 2 ʂipi [ em ] 2 nokʃi [ is ] 2 ʂutʃi [ abdgjklnpqr ] 2 nou̯kʂi [ hmoq ] 3 ʃɛlɛŋʃi [ v ] 3 nɔu̯kʂi [ t ] 3 slɛŋʃi [ u ] 3 nɔu̯ʂi [ bcjkl ] 4 sɨlʃimi [ w ] 3 nokʂi [ r ] 5 ʂutʃi [ abdgjklnpqr ] 3 nokʂip [ p ] 5 ʃutʃi [ s ] 3 nou̯kʂi [ hmoq ] 5 tʃitʃi [ t ] 3 nou̯kʂiŋ [ en ] 3 nou̯ʂiŋ [ g ] 156 thread 4 nɔu̯ʂi [ bcjkl ] 1 [ 0 ] ʃuta 4 nɔu̯ʂimɔ [ a ] 2 [ j ] gutuŋ 4 nou̯ʂiŋ [ g ] 2 [ gq ] kɨtɨŋ 5 nɔu̯kʂi [ t ] 2 h [ fmn ] k ɨɖɨŋ 5 nokʂi [ r ] 2 h [ u ] k ɨldɨŋ 5 nokʂip [ p ] 2 h [ r ] k ɨʈiŋ 5 nou̯kʂi [ hmoq ] 2 h [ h ] k udou̯ŋ 5 nou̯kʂiŋ [ en ] 2 h [ d ] k uduŋ 5 nou̯kʂitra [ f ] 2 h [ v ] k uldɪŋ 6 bailiŋʂiŋ̯ [ d ] 2 h [ e ] k uluŋ 7 ʃaʔla [ u ] 2 h [ apst ] k utuŋ 7 ʃaʔlak̚ [ v ] 2 [ bkl ] kutuŋ 8 nogɛk̚ [ w ] 3 khɨɖɨŋ [ fmn ] 3 khɨldɨŋ [ u ] 3 khɨʈiŋ [ r ] 3 khudou̯ŋ [ h ] 3 khuduŋ [ d ] 3 khuldɪŋ [ v ] 3 khulum [ i ] 3 khutuŋ [ apst ] 4 khlou̯ŋ [ co ] 4 khulum [ i ] 4 khuluŋ [ e ] 5 pitɨŋ [ w ]

109

158 spoon (for eating) 160 hammer 1 tʃamiʃ [ m ] 1 atuɾa [ npqrs ] 1 tʃamoʃ [ r ] 1 hantuɾa [ m ] 1 tʃamotʃ [ 0uvw ] 1 hatuɾa [ do ] 2 phaik̯ hɔ [ abjklt ] 1 hatuɾi [ 0 ] 2 phaiko̯ [ gn ] 1 hãntuɾa [ f ] 2 phaikoi̯ ̯ [ h ] 2 anthuɾa [ h ] 2 phaikok̯ [ i ] 2 atuɾa [ npqrs ] 2 phakɔi ̯ [ c ] 2 hantuɾa [ m ] 2 phokai ̯ [ df ] 2 hãntuɾa [ f ] 3 dua ̯ [ o ] 3 atʃuɾa [ g ] 4 tʃaruk [ q ] 3 atuɾa [ npqrs ] 4 tʃaruk (bɨʂa) [ p ] 3 hatuɾa [ do ] 5 kotʃori [ e ] 4 anthuɾa [ h ] 6 ata [ s ] 4 atʃuɾa [ g ] 7 phaik̯ hɔ [ abjklt ] 4 atuɾa [ npqrs ] 7 phaiko̯ [ gn ] 5 matu [ ajl ] 7 phaikoi̯ ̯ [ h ] 5 matul [ bcek ] 7 phaikok̯ [ i ] 6 toknai ̯ [ i ] 7 phakɔi ̯ [ c ] 7 tɨbːɔu̯ [ t ] 8 atur [ v ] 159 knife (to cut meat) 8 atuɾa [ npqrs ] 0 [ uvw ] no entry 9 hatur [ uw ] 1 [ efghno ] ʂuɾi 9 hatuɾa [ do ] 1 [ c ] ʃuɾi 9 hatuɾi [ 0 ] 1 h [ 0i ] tʃ uɾi A atur [ v ] 1 [ d ] tʃuɾi A hatur [ uw ] 1 tʃuri [ s ] 2 daʂa [ abjkl ] 161 axe 3 tʃaku [ mpqr ] 1 kuʈhar [ 0w ] 4 tʃɛmtɛ [ t ] 2 rɔwa [ b ] 2 ruwa [ acdefghijklmnopqrstuv ]

110

162 bow 164 spear 0 no entry [ u ] 0 no entry [ m ] 1 dhɔnu [ d ] 1 bɔrʃa [ 0 ] 1 dhɔnuk [ 0vw ] 2 kɔ [ abjkl ] 1 dɔnuk [ s ] 3 gɛda [ dio ] 1 donu [ o ] 3 kɛda [ cn ] 1 dunɔ [ g ] 4 dʒadi [ e ] 2 paː [ a ] 4 dʒatha [ u ] 3 badou̯ [ c ] 4 dʒathi [ hv ] 3 badou̯k [ f ] 5 bolom [ fq ] 3 badu [ h ] 6 wakɨplai ̯ [ t ] 3 baduk [ n ] 6 wakapla [ g ] 3 madu [ bjkl ] 7 oloŋga [ r ] 4 badou̯ [ c ] 8 tʃakɨla [ p ] 4 badou̯k [ f ] 9 rakʃa [ s ] 4 badu [ h ] A guthɨni [ w ] 4 baduk [ n ] 4 batul [ em ] 165 fire 1 [ 0 ] 4 batur [ i ] agun 2 [ fg ] 5 badukhuŋ [ pqr ] ho 2 [ abchjkln ] 5 maduphuŋ [ t ] hɔ 3 hor [ ipqrst ] 163 arrow 4 hot [ demo ] 0 no entry [ cnu ] 5 wal [ uvw ] 1 tir [ 0opqsvw ] 2 ɨmʂu [ a ] 166 ashes 1 h [ 0v ] 2 paɨmʂu [ bkl ] tʃ ai 2 h [ di ] 3 batur waphli [ i ] t apala 2 h h [ w ] 4 pa [ j ] t ap ɾa 2 h [ abcefghjklmnopqrst ] 5 buʂu [ df ] t apla 3 [ u ] 6 bʊtʃʊlʊi ̯ [ e ] hadɨbu

7 guli [ gt ] 167 smoke 8 ʂɛl [ hm ] 1 dhõa [ 0 ] 9 ban [ r ] 1 [ eimno ] duma 2 haku [ cdh ] 2 hɔkhu [ bl ] 2 hɔku [ st ] 2 hoku [ fgpr ] 2 hukul [ q ] 2 hũkhu [ ajk ] 3 walkhu [ w ] 3 walkhua ̯ [ uv ]

111

168 candle 171 to go 1 mombati [ 0ciopstuvw ] 1 dʒawa [ 0 ] 1 monbati [ fq ] 2 thaŋ [ di ] 1 mumbati [ dem ] 2 thaŋ (dik) [ e ] 1 mumʈʃati [ r ] 2 thaŋ (dou̯k) [ cfh ] 1 muŋbati [ g ] 2 thaŋ (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 2 mudai ̯ [ abjkl ] 2 thaŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 mundai ̯ [ n ] 2 thaŋ (goi)̯ [ p ] 2 mũdai ̯ [ h ] 2 thaŋ (naiha)̯ [ t ] 2 thaŋ (oi toŋgo) [ r ] 169 boat 2 thaŋ (tha) [ m ] 1 [ 0 ] nou̯ka 2 thaŋ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 [ u ] rɨŋ 2 thaŋ (u) [ s ] 2 [ t ] rɔu̯ŋ 2 thau̯ŋ [ j ] 2 [ cgho ] rou̯ŋ 2 thã (dɨ) [ o ] 2 [ abdefijklmnpqrsvw ] ruŋ 2 thãu̯ [ abkl ]

3 jaŋ [ u ] 170 road 4 rɛʔɛŋ [ vw ] 1 [ h ] ɾaʃta 1 [ 0 ] ɾasta / ʃoɽok 172 to come 2 [ eo ] lam 1 aʃa [ 0 ] 2 [ cdfimnpqrst ] lama 2 phai ̯ [ im ] 2 [ abjkl ] lã 2 phai ̯ (di) [ o ] 3 [ cdfimnpqrt ] lama 2 phai ̯ (dou̯k) [ cfhs ] 3 [ g ] laŋma 2 phai ̯ (duŋ) [ d ] 3 [ uv ] rama 2 phai ̯ (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 4 [ eo ] lam 2 phai ̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 4 [ cdfimnpqrst ] lama 2 phai ̯ (ha) [ e ] 4 [ w ] ram 2 phai ̯ (im) [ j ] 4 [ uv ] rama 2 phai ̯ (na) [ abkl ]

2 phai ̯ (naiha)̯ [ t ] 2 phai ̯ (oitoŋgo) [ p ] 2 phai ̯ (toŋgo) [ qr ] 3 riba [ v ] 3 ripa [ u ] 4 hi [ w ]

112

173 to stand 174 to sit 1 daɽano [ 0 ] 1 bɔʃa [ 0 ] 2 bɨʂa (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 aʂɔk [ d ] 2 bɨʂai ̯ (toŋgo) [ p ] 2 aʃoŋ [ u ] 2 bɨtʃa (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 atʃo (ɨm) [ bk ] 2 bɨtʃai ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 atʃo (guo̯) [ f ] 2 baʂə (kha) [ d ] 2 atʃɔ (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 batʃa [ im ] 2 atʃɔ (na) [ al ] 2 batʃa (dɨ) [ o ] 2 atʃɔ (tɔŋu) [ t ] 2 batʃa (gɨ) [ n ] 2 atʃɔ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 batʃa (ha) [ e ] 2 atʃok [ m ] 2 batʃa (n) [ b ] 2 atʃok (gɨ) [ n ] 2 batʃa (na) [ akl ] 2 atʃok (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 batʃa (ni) [ g ] 2 atʃoŋ [ v ] 2 batʃa (tɔŋu) [ t ] 2 atʃou̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 batʃa (tou̯m) [ j ] 2 atʃu (dɨ) [ o ] 2 batʃai ̯ (toŋgo) [ r ] 2 atʃu (goi)̯ [ p ] 2 bɪtʃa (gɨ) [ f ] 2 atʃu (goitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 butʃai ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 2 atʃu (granɨ) [ g ] 3 tʃadɛŋ [ v ] 2 atʃu (ha) [ e ] 3 tʃhadɛŋ [ u ] 2 atʃuk [ i ] 4 tʃap̚ [ w ] 2 atʃuk̚ (dou̯k) [ h ] 3 mu [ w ]

175 to lie down 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 ʃoa [ 0 ] 2 thu (m) [ j ] 2 thu (mi) [ bkl ] 2 thu (na) [ a ] 3 loko (goitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 3 rɨko (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 3 rɔkɔi ̯ (tɔŋmi) [ t ] 3 rɔkɔl (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 roko (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 3 roko (gɨ) [ n ] 3 roko (ha) [ ei ] 3 roko (khadou̯k) [ cm ] 3 rokoi ̯ (dou̯k) [ fs ] 3 rokoi ̯ (toŋgo) [ qr ] 4 hagol (dɨ) [ o ]

113

176 to walk 177 to fly 1 hãʈa [ 0 ] 1 uɽa [ 0 ] 2 hɨin̯ (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 bim (i) [ abkl ] 2 hɨŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 3 bɨl (aŋ) [ u ] 2 hɨŋ (tɔu̯ŋmi) [ j ] 3 bil [ v ] 2 hɛm (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 bil (ʊ) [ i ] 2 him [ m ] 3 bir (ha) [ e ] 2 him (dɨ) [ o ] 3 bir (jog) [ f ] 2 him (i) [ bkl ] 3 bir (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 him (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 3 biɾ (ɨ) [ m ] 2 him (toŋgo) [ q ] 3 biɾ (o) [ d ] 2 him (ʊ) [ i ] 3 biɾ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 him (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 4 bi (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 hin (na) [ a ] 4 bi (gɨ) [ n ] 2 hiŋ (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 4 bi (tɔŋu) [ t ] 2 hiŋ (tɔŋu) [ t ] 5 batʃa (ha) [ j ] 3 hɨin̯ (dou̯k) [ h ] 5 biʂa (kha) [ g ] 3 thaŋ (dou̯k) [ f ] 6 bɨl (aŋ) [ u ] 4 raaɾaiʔ̯ [ v ] 6 bil [ v ] 4 ramari [ uw ] 6 bil (ʊ) [ i ] 5 hɨin̯ (dou̯k) [ h ] 6 bul [ w ] 5 hɨŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 6 urijo [ o ] 5 hɨŋ (tɔu̯ŋmi) [ j ] 7 bi (dou̯k) [ ch ] 5 hin (na) [ a ] 7 uri (dou̯k) [ s ] 5 hoin̯ (duk̚) [ c ] 6 hɨin̯ (dou̯k) [ h ] 178 to enter 1 h [ 0 ] 6 hɨŋ (gɨ) [ n ] ɖ oka 2 [ k ] 6 hɨŋ (tɔu̯ŋmi) [ j ] ha (ɨm) 2 [ o ] 6 hɛm (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] ha (bdɨ) 2 [ i ] 6 him [ m ] ha (bdʊk) 2 [ dm ] 6 him (dɨ) [ o ] ha (bo) 2 [ s ] 6 him (i) [ bkl ] ha (boidou̯ ̯k) 2 [ pqr ] 6 him (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] ha (boitoŋgo)̯ 2 [ cfh ] 6 him (toŋgo) [ q ] ha (dou̯k) 2 [ l ] 6 him (ʊ) [ i ] ha (mi) 2 [ a ] 6 him (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] ha (na) 2 [ n ] 6 hum (uit̯ haŋha) [ e ] ha (nagɨ) 2 [ t ] 7 hoin̯ (duk̚) [ c ] ha (nai)̯ 2 [ b ] 7 hum (uit̯ haŋha) [ e ] ha (ʂɔmi) 2 ha (ʂɔa)̃ [ j ] 3 ba (ba) [ e ] 4 biʂiŋ (gohagranɨ) [ g ] 5 nap [ uv ] 6 daŋ [ w ]

114

179 to kick 4 tɔiʂjɔ̯ (na) [ a ] 1 lathɛ (rinai)̯ [ t ] 4 tʊija̯ [ i ] 1 lathi (ɾika) [ o ] 5 tɔijao̯ ̯g̚ (dou̯k) [ h ] 1 lathi (ɾodou̯k) [ c ] 5 tɔijog̯ (ni) [ e ] 1 lathi (ritoŋgo) [ pq ] 5 tɔijogː̯ (o) [ d ] 1 lathi (rograni) [ g ] 5 tɔijogo̯ (toŋgo) [ p ] 1 lathi (ruoitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 5 tɔijou̯ ̯ [ f ] 1 lathi maɾa [ 0 ] 5 tʊijogoi̯ ̯ (toŋgo) [ r ] 1 latthi (rɨdi) [ m ] 5 tuijogoi̯ ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 kakha (gɔido̯ ̯uk) [ s ] 6 təijau̯ ̯ (ɨ) [ m ] 2 kara (mi) [ j ] 6 tɔijau̯ ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 kaʂu (mi) [ kl ] 6 tɔirijao̯ ̯ [ g ] 2 kaʂu (na) [ a ] 6 tɔiʂjau̯ ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 3 kaʂɨk̚ (dou̯k) [ h ] 6 tʊija̯ [ i ] 3 kaʂu (mi) [ kl ] 7 hijo [ n ] 3 kaʂu (na) [ a ] 8 jao̯ [ o ] 4 katʃrɛ (grɛnəi)̯ [ f ] 9 tuiriogːu̯ [ s ] 5 japai ̯ (ɾogo) [ d ] A tɔihijɔu̯ ̯ mi [ t ] 5 japai ̯ (rʊ) [ i ] B dʒaɾao̯ [ v ] 6 tau̯ (mi) [ b ] B dʒuɾu [ u ] 7 gathɨlni [ w ] C huŋ [ w ] 7 gathɨŋdat [ v ] D təijau̯ ̯ (ɨ) [ m ] 8 gathɨlni [ w ] D tɔijao̯ ̯g̚ (dou̯k) [ h ] 8 kathɨŋ [ u ] D tɔijau̯ ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 9 latth (ɾɨha) [ e ] D tɔijou̯ ̯ [ f ] 9 latth (rɨgɨ) [ n ] D tɔiʂjau̯ ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 9 latthi (rɨdi) [ m ] D tʊija̯ [ i ] E tɔijao̯ ̯g̚ (dou̯k) [ h ]

180 to swim E tɔijog̯ (ni) [ e ] 1 [ 0 ] ʃatar kaʈa E tɔijogː̯ (o) [ d ] 2 [ m ] təijau̯ ̯ (ɨ) E tɔisjɔŋ̯ [ j ] 2 tɔijau̯ ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 tɔijou̯ ̯ [ f ] 2 tɔiʂjau̯ ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 tɔiʂjɔ̯ (na) [ a ] 2 tʊija̯ [ i ] 3 tɔijou̯ ̯ [ f ] 3 tɔiʂjau̯ ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 3 tɔiʂjɔ̯ (na) [ a ] 3 tɔisjɔŋ̯ [ j ] 4 təijau̯ ̯ (ɨ) [ m ] 4 tɔijau̯ ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 4 tɔijog̯ (ni) [ e ] 4 tɔijogː̯ (o) [ d ] 4 tɔijou̯ ̯ [ f ]

115

181 to see 183 to wait 1 dɛkha [ 0 ] 1 ɔpɛkkha kɔɾa [ 0 ] 2 na (khodɨ) [ o ] 2 naiʂi̯ (tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 na (ʂigɨtoŋgo) [ r ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ [ i ] 2 nai ̯ [ mv ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 2 nai ̯ (dou̯k) [ chs ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 nai ̯ (jo) [ f ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 nai ̯ (jʊ) [ i ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 nai ̯ (mi) [ bk ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (tɔu̯mi) [ aj ] 2 nai ̯ (na) [ a ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (toŋgo) [ pq ] 2 nai ̯ (ʂitoŋgo) [ q ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (tou̯nkha) [ g ] 2 nai ̯ (toŋgo) [ p ] 2 naiʂiŋ̯ (wo) [ f ] 2 nei ̯ [ w ] 2 naʂiŋ [ m ] 3 nu (gɨ) [ n ] 2 naʂiŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 3 nu (ha) [ t ] 2 naʂiŋ (kja) [ o ] 3 nu (hokha) [ g ] 3 lɛŋkho [ e ] 4 nuŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 4 nai ̯ (toŋkha) [ s ] 4 nuŋ (ha) [ e ] 5 ʃam [ w ] 5 malai ̯ [ l ] 5 ʃɛŋ [ uv ] 6 nei ̯ [ w ] 6 ni [ u ] 184 to cry 1 [ 0 ] 7 mai ̯ (ɨm) [ j ] kãda 2 ka (am) [ j ] 182 to hear 2 ka (gɨ) [ n ] 1 ʃona [ 0 ] 2 ka (gɨitou̯ ̯ŋkha) [ g ] 2 khana [ im ] 2 ka (mi) [ abkl ] 2 khana (dou̯ŋ0 [ d ] 2 ka (wɔ) [ t ] 2 khina [ v ] 3 kab (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 khna (dɨ) [ o ] 3 kab (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 khna (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 3 kabui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 2 khna (gə) [ f ] 4 kra (dɨ) [ o ] 2 khna (kha) [ g ] 4 kra (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 2 khna (mi) [ bkl ] 4 kra (gʊ) [ f ] 2 khna (migɨ) [ n ] 5 karabʊ [ i ] 2 khna (na) [ ae ] 5 karap [ m ] 2 khna (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 5 karapha [ e ] 2 khna (wɔ) [ t ] 6 gaɾap̚ [ v ] 2 khnai ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 6 karap [ m ] 2 khnai ̯ (toŋgo) [ pqr ] 7 gaɾap̚ [ v ] 3 khɨnna [ u ] 7 gɾap̚ [ u ] 3 khana [ im ] 8 khɛp̚ [ w ] 3 khana (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 9 ka (gɨ) [ n ] 3 khina [ v ] 9 kra (gʊ) [ f ] 4 naniʔ [ w ]

116

185 to cook 187 to eat 1 ɾanːa kɔɾa [ 0 ] 1 khawa [ 0 ] 2 ʂoŋ (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 tʃa [ i ] 2 ʂɔŋ (dʒjɔmo) [ a ] 2 tʃa (dɨ) [ o ] 2 ʂɔu̯ŋ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 tʃa (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 ʂoŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 tʃa (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ʂoŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 tʃa (dou̯ŋdɨ) [ n ] 2 ʂoŋ (jo) [ f ] 2 tʃa (gɨ) [ m ] 2 ʂoŋ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 tʃa (granɨ) [ g ] 2 ʂou̯ŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 tʃa (gʊ) [ f ] 2 ʂou̯ŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 tʃa (ha) [ e ] 2 ʂou̯ŋ (ha) [ em ] 2 tʃa (jɛ tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 ʂou̯ŋ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 tʃa (mi) [ bkl ] 2 ʂuŋ [ i ] 2 tʃa (mɔ) [ a ] 2 ʂuŋ (nikaik̯ ha) [ g ] 2 tʃa (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 ʂuŋ (tɔŋgɔ) [ t ] 2 tʃa (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 ʃɔŋ (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 tʃa (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ʃoŋ [ uv ] 2 tʃai ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 ʃuŋ (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 tʃaʔ [ v ] 3 rɨm [ w ] 3 tshaʔ [ u ] 4 ʃat [ w ] 186 to boil (water) 1 ʃiddho kɔɾa [ 0 ] 2 rɔ (dʒau̯mɔ) [ a ] 2 rɔ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ru [ m ] 2 ru (dɨ) [ o ] 2 ru (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 ru (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ru (gɨ) [ n ] 2 ru (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 ru (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 ru (ha) [ e ] 2 ru (mi) [ bkl ] 2 ru (wo) [ f ] 2 ru mi [ t ] 3 ɾou̯g̚ (dʒɔnai)̯ [ g ] 3 rug (toŋgo) [ q ] 4 muthuŋ [ i ] 5 rɨt̚ [ u ] 5 rit̚ [ v ] 5 rot̚ [ w ] 6 ru (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 6 rug (toŋgo) [ q ]

117

188 to drink 189 to sing 1 (pani) pankɔɾa [ 0 ] 1 gan gawa [ 0 ] 2 lɨŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 rɨtʃa (atɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 lɨŋ (ʊ) [ f ] 2 rɨtʃa (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 lou̯ŋ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 rɨtʃa (granɨ) [ g ] 2 nɨŋ [ m ] 2 rɨtʃa (jɛ tɔŋu) [ t ] 2 nɨŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 rɨtʃa (migɨ) [ n ] 2 nɨŋ (ha) [ e ] 2 rɨtʃab (dɨ) [ o ] 2 nɨŋ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 rɨtʃab (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 nɨu̯ŋ (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 rɨtʃaboi ̯ (toŋgo) [ pr ] 2 nʊŋ [ i ] 2 rɨtʃai ̯ (dou̯k) [ f ] 2 nuŋ (goitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 2 ratʃab (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 nuŋ (granɨ) [ g ] 2 ratʃap [ i ] 2 nuŋ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 ratʃap (di) [ m ] 2 nuŋ (migɨ) [ n ] 2 ratʃap (ha) [ e ] 2 nuŋ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 ritʃa (mi) [ bkl ] 2 nuŋ (tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 ritʃa (mɔ) [ a ] 2 nuŋ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ritʃabui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 2 nuŋ (toŋgo) [ q ] 3 rɨŋʔ [ uw ] 2 nuŋ (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 riŋʔ [ v ] 2 rɨŋ [ uw ] 3 lɨŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 190 to bite 1 [ 0 ] 3 lɨŋ (ʊ) [ f ] kamɽano 2 [ ch ] 3 nɨŋ [ m ] wa (dou̯k) 2 [ gn ] 3 nɨŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] wa (gra) 2 [ f ] 3 nɨŋ (ha) [ e ] wa (gʊ) 2 [ bkl ] 3 nɨŋ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] wa (mi) 2 [ a ] 3 nɨu̯ŋ (dou̯k) [ h ] wa (mɔ) 2 [ j ] 3 rɨŋ [ uw ] wa (tou̯m) 2 [ t ] 3 riŋ [ v ] wai ̯ (mi) 3 wal (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 wal (ʊ) [ i ] 3 war (ɨ) [ m ] 3 war (ɨitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 3 war (ha) [ e ] 3 war (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 war (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 4 jar (dɨ) [ o ] 5 tʃɨk̚ [ u ] 5 tʃhɪk̚ [ v ] 6 kak̚ [ w ]

118

191 to laugh 192 to speak 1 haʃa [ 0 ] 1 bɔla [ 0 ] 2 mɨnɨi ̯ (toŋgo) [ r ] 2 ʂa [ i ] 2 mʊnʊi ̯ [ m ] 2 ʂa (dɨ) [ o ] 2 mʊnʊi ̯ (ha) [ e ] 2 ʂa (di) [ m ] 2 mʊnʊi ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 ʂa (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 munəi ̯ (duŋ) [ d ] 2 ʂa (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 munɔ (joitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 2 ʂa (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 2 munui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 2 ʂa (ha) [ e ] 2 munui ̯ (jo) [ g ] 2 ʂa (mi) [ bklt ] 2 munui ̯ (tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 ʂa (mɔ) [ a ] 2 nui ̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 ʂa (niuŋkha) [ g ] 3 mɨnɨi ̯ (toŋgo) [ r ] 2 ʂa (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 3 mɨnei ̯ [ w ] 2 ʂa (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 3 mɪni (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 ʂai ̯ (dou̯k) [ f ] 3 mɪnɔi ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 ʂai ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 3 minə ̯ [ i ] 3 ʂa (dou̯k) [ ch ] 3 mini (jo) [ f ] 3 ʂai ̯ (dou̯k) [ f ] 3 mini (jogɨ) [ n ] 3 ʃa (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 mɔniɨ ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 4 agan [ uv ] 3 mʊnʊi ̯ [ m ] 5 bal [ w ] 3 mʊnʊi ̯ (ha) [ e ] 3 mʊnʊi ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 3 munəi ̯ (duŋ) [ d ] 3 munɔ (joitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 3 munui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 3 munui ̯ (jo) [ g ] 3 munui ̯ (tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 4 ɪnːɔi ̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 4 munui ̯ (tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 5 khaʔdɪŋ [ v ] 5 khadɨŋ [ u ]

119

193 to know 194 to forget 1 dʒana [ 0 ] 1 bhulɛ dʒawa [ 0 ] 2 ɨntʃi (tou̯m) [ j ] 2 pa (ɔit̯ haŋkha) [ g ] 2 ɪmtʃi (nama) [ a ] 2 pa (wɛthaŋmi) [ t ] 3 ʂi [ i ] 2 pau̯ (mi) [ k ] 3 ʂi (dɨ) [ o ] 2 pau̯ (thau̯mi) [ l ] 3 ʂi (dou̯k̚) [ cf ] 2 pəu̯ (jɛthau̯mi) [ b ] 3 ʂi (dʒak) [ h ] 2 pəu̯ (jɛthãu̯ã) [ a ] 3 ʂi (ha) [ et ] 2 pəu̯ (thɔu̯n) [ j ] 3 ʂi (jɔgɨ)̯ [ n ] 3 pa (ɔit̯ haŋkha) [ g ] 3 ʂi (jɔdi) [ m ] 3 pla (oit̯ haŋkha) [ h ] 3 ʂi (jɔi)̯ [ b ] 3 pou̯k (thaŋkha) [ n ] 3 ʂi (kha) [ g ] 4 palo [ i ] 3 ʂi (mi) [ kl ] 4 pla (oit̯ haŋkha) [ h ] 3 ʂi (oitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 4 plau̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 4 ʂai ̯ (mantoŋgo) [ qr ] 4 plau̯ (withaŋdɨ) [ o ] 4 ʂi (oitoŋgo)̯ [ p ] 4 plau̯ (wo) [ f ] 5 ʂi (dɨ) [ o ] 5 palo [ i ] 5 ʂi (dou̯k̚) [ cf ] 5 palok (di) [ m ] 5 tʃi (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 5 palok (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 6 ʂi (dou̯k̚) [ cf ] 6 pogoi ̯ (thaŋgo) [ pqr ] 6 ʃi (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 6 pogoi ̯ (thaŋoidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 7 haʔai ̯ [ v ] 7 pogoi ̯ (thaŋgo) [ pqr ] 7 haji [ u ] 7 ʂagʊi ̯ (thaŋha) [ e ] 8 tɨŋ [ w ] 8 gual̯ [ uv ] 9 awan [ w ]

120

195 to sleep 197 to do/make 1 ghumano [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ u ] 2 thu [ iu ] 1 kɔɾa [ 0 ] 2 thu (dɨ) [ o ] 2 taŋ (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 thu (di) [ m ] 2 taŋ (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 thu (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 taŋ (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 thu (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 taŋ (jɛ tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 thu (dʒnai ̯ [ g ] 2 tau̯ŋ (mi) [ kl ] 2 thu (ha) [ e ] 2 tau̯ŋ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 thu (mi) [ bkl ] 2 tau̯ŋ (tɔu̯) [ j ] 2 thu (migɨ) [ n ] 3 khalai ̯ [ i ] 2 thu (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 3 khlai ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 thu (tou̯m) [ j ] 3 khlai ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 thu (wɛ tɔŋmi) [ t ] 3 khlai ̯ (ha) [ em ] 2 thu (wo) [ f ] 3 khlai ̯ (jo) [ f ] 2 thu nama [ a ] 4 khai ̯ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 thui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 4 khai ̯ (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 3 ʃoi ̯ [ v ] 4 khai ̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 4 dʒɨu̯ [ w ] 5 kai ̯ (niuŋkh) [ g ] 6 banau̯ (mi) [ b ] 196 to dream 7 thaɾi [ vw ] 1 h [ 0 ] ʃɔpno dɛk a 8 khai ̯ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 [ m ] ɨmaŋnuŋ (wo) 8 khlai ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 [ n ] ɛmaŋnu (gɨ) 8 khlai ̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 ɛmaŋnu (goitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 ɛmaŋnu (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ [ i ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ (ha) [ e ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ (kha) [ g ] 2 ɛmaŋnuŋ (wo) [ f ] 2 imaŋmuŋ (mi) [ t ] 2 imaŋnu (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 2 imaŋnuŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 rɨmau̯nɨŋ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 rɨmau̯nu (mi) [ bkl ] 2 rɨmau̯nu (um) [ j ] 3 dʒumaŋ (nɨk̚) [ u ] 3 dʒumaŋ (nuk̚) [ vw ]

121

198 to work 199 to play 1 kadʒ kɔɾa [ 0 ] 1 khɛla [ 0 ] 2 ʂamuŋtaŋ (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 1 khɛlai ̯ [ w ] 2 ʂamuŋtaŋ (jɛ tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 thɨŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 ʂamuŋtau̯ŋ (mi) [ j ] 2 thɨŋ (gɨitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 ʂamuŋtau̯ŋ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 thɨŋ (ha) [ em ] 2 ʂamuŋtau̯ŋ (tau̯ŋmi) [ l ] 2 thɨŋ (jɛ tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 2 ʂamuŋtau̯ŋ (tau̯ŋtou̯m) [ kl ] 2 thɨŋ (niuŋkha) [ g ] 2 ʂamutau̯ŋ (mi) [ b ] 2 thɨŋ (wo) [ f ] 2 ʃamʊŋtaŋ (ʊi) [ i ] 2 thou̯ŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 ʃamuŋtaŋ (guidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 thʊŋ [ i ] 3 kamkai ̯ (dʒna) [ g ] 2 thuŋ [ d ] 3 kamkhai ̯ (duŋ) [ d ] 2 thuŋ (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 kamkhai ̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 thuŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 3 kamkhai ̯ (ha) [ en ] 2 thuŋ (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 3 kamkhlai ̯ [ m ] 2 thuŋ (mi) [ bkl ] 3 kamkhlai ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 thuŋ (mɔ) [ a ] 3 kamkhlai ̯ (jo) [ f ] 2 thuŋ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 4 kamtaŋ (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 thuŋ (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 4 kãtaŋ (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 khal [ u ] 5 kam (pɨi)̯ [ w ] 3 khalʔ [ v ] 5 kam (ruʔ) [ v ] 5 kham (rɨm) [ u ] 6 kamkhai ̯ (duŋ) [ d ] 6 kamtaŋ (dou̯k) [ h ]

122

200 to dance 201 to throw 1 natʃa [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ m ] 2 ɨmʂa (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 1 tʃhuɽa [ 0 ] 2 ɨmʂa (mi) [ b ] 2 khoi ̯ (huimi)̯ [ t ] 2 ɪnʂa (mɔ) [ a ] 2 khui ̯ (hɔʔmi) [ bl ] 2 ɪnʂa (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 khui ̯ (hɔʔmɔ) [ a ] 3 mɨʂa (dɨ) [ o ] 2 khui ̯ (homi) [ k ] 3 mɨʂa (dou̯k) [ h ] 2 khui ̯ (um) [ j ] 3 mɨʂa (jɛ tɔŋɔ) [ t ] 3 kou̯k (dou̯k) [ h ] 3 mɨʂa (mi) [ kl ] 3 kou̯k (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 mɨʂa (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 4 ko (hogɨ) [ n ] 3 mɨʂa (wo) [ f ] 4 kou̯ (ha) [ e ] 3 mɨʂai ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 4 kou̯ (wo) [ f ] 3 maʂa [ dim ] 5 kau̯ [ i ] 3 maʂa (gɨ) [ n ] 5 kau̯ (niuŋkha) [ g ] 3 maʂa (ha) [ e ] 6 khibi (oitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 3 mɛʃa [ uv ] 6 khita (roidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 moʂa (niuŋkha) [ g ] 6 khita (roitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 3 muʃai ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 7 hou̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 4 haŋʃɛŋ [ u ] 7 kou̯k (dou̯k) [ h ] 5 biʃɨi ̯ [ w ] 8 pau̯ (grodɨ) [ o ] 6 ɨmʂa (mi) [ b ] 9 gau̯that̚ [ v ] 6 mɨʂa (mi) [ kl ] 9 gothat̚ [ u ] 7 ɨmʂa (dou̯k̚) [ c ] A thɨp̚ [ w ] 7 mɨʂa (dɨ) [ o ] B khoi ̯ (huimi)̯ [ t ] 7 mɨʂa (dou̯k) [ h ] B khui ̯ (homi) [ k ] 7 muʃai ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] B ko (hogɨ) [ n ]

123

202 to lift 203 to push 1 tola [ 0 ] 1 dhakːa dɛwa [ 0 ] 1 tuli [ v ] 2 duːʂu (mɔ) [ a ] 2 tɪʂa (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 duːʂu (um) [ j ] 2 tiʂa [ i ] 2 duŋʂu (hɔmi) [ l ] 2 tiʂa (dou̯ŋ) [ dm ] 2 duŋʂu (homi) [ k ] 2 tiʂa (gɨ) [ n ] 3 duŋ (goihok̯ ha) [ g ] 2 tiʂa (ha) [ e ] 3 duŋ (hɔmi) [ b ] 2 tiʂa (ninuŋkha) [ g ] 4 ʂɔŋ (kodou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 tiʂa (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 4 ʂɔo̯ŋ (huimi)̯ [ t ] 2 tiʂa (wo) [ f ] 4 ʂou̯ŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 tiʃa [ s ] 4 ʂuŋ [ i ] 2 tɔiʂa̯ (ha) [ t ] 4 ʂuŋ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 tɔiʂa̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 4 ʂuŋ (gogɨ [ n ] 2 tɔiʂa̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 4 ʂuŋ (koha) [ e ] 2 tɔiʂa(̯ mi) [ bkl ] 4 ʂuŋ (ku) [ m ] 3 tia ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 4 ʂuŋ (wo) [ f ] 4 dithom [ u ] 4 ʃuŋ (oirohoi̯ dou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 5 paitao̯ ̯ [ w ] 5 dagarɨ (toŋgo) [ r ] 5 dagiri (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 6 thɛlarɨ (kha) [ o ] 7 ʃɨphat̚gɛt̚ [ v ] 7 sɨphakat̚ [ u ] 8 ʂɔŋ (kodou̯k̚) [ c ] 8 sɨkdou̯ [ w ] 9 duŋ (hɔmi) [ b ] 9 duŋʂu (hɔmi) [ l ] 9 duŋʂu (homi) [ k ] 9 ʂɔo̯ŋ (huimi)̯ [ t ]

124

204 to pull 206 to wipe 1 ʈana [ 0 ] 1 motʃha [ 0 ] 2 ʂo (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 1 mutʃhɛt [ u ] 2 ʂo (holaniuŋkha) [ g ] 2 hu [ im ] 2 ʂo (oitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 hu (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 ʂo (tonoitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 2 hu (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ʂɔ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 hu (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 2 ʂɔ (laidou̯ ̯k) [ h ] 2 hu (ha) [ e ] 2 ʂɔ (lam) [ j ] 2 hu (khomi) [ k ] 2 ʂɔ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 hu (mi) [ bl ] 2 ʂɔ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 hu (mɔ) [ a ] 2 ʂɔu̯ (mi) [ t ] 2 hu (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 ʂoi ̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 hu (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 ʂoi ̯ (tɔha) [ e ] 2 hu (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ʂou̯ (wo) [ f ] 2 hu (trudou̯k) [ h ] 2 ʂʊ [ m ] 2 hu (wo) [ f ] 3 stɨŋ (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 hou̯k (dɨ) [ o ] 4 ʃo (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 hu (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 5 sʊ [ i ] 3 hu (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 6 ʃal [ uv ] 4 phu (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 7 bɨt̚ [ w ] 5 lipɛmi [ t ] 6 suduʔba [ v ] 205 to tie 7 ʃɛʃɛt̚ [ w ] 1 bãdha [ 0 ] 2 kha [ iuvw ] 2 kha (dɨ) [ o ] 2 kha (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 kha (dou̯ŋ) [ dm ] 2 kha (dʒa) [ g ] 2 kha (gɨ) [ n ] 2 kha (gʊ) [ f ] 2 kha (ha) [ e ] 2 kha (mi) [ bkl ] 2 kha (mɔ) [ a ] 2 kha (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 kha (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 kha (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 kha (wɔ) [ t ]

125

207 to weave (on loom) 208 to sew 1 tatɛ bona [ 0 ] 1 ʃɛlai ̯ kɔɾa [ 0 ] 2 ta [ i ] 2 ʂu (boitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 2 ta (gɨ) [ no ] 2 ʂu (buitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 ta (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 ʂu (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 2 ta (gʊ) [ f ] 2 ʂu (dʒna) [ g ] 2 tau̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 ʂu (mi) [ bklt ] 2 tau̯ (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 2 ʂu (mɔ) [ a ] 2 tau̯ (mi) [ bklt ] 2 ʂu (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 tau̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 ʂu (wo) [ f ] 2 tau̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ʂu (wogɨ) [ n ] 3 tak (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 3 ʂub (dɨ) [ o ] 3 tak (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 ʂup [ i ] 3 tak (ha) [ e ] 3 ʂup (ha) [ em ] 3 tau̯k [ m ] 4 ʂuk (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 tok̚ [ w ] 4 ʃɪk̚ [ v ] 4 ri waui ̯ dou̯k [ s ] 4 ʃuk̚ [ w ] 4 tau̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 4 sɨk̚ [ u ] 5 dok̚ [ uv ] 5 ʂub (dɨ) [ o ] 5 tok̚ [ w ] 5 ʃubui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 6 tak (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 6 tak (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 209 to wash (face/hand) 1 h [ 0 ] 6 tau̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] d oa 2 [ im ] 7 tak (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] ʂu 2 [ o ] 7 tau̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] ʂu (dɨ) 2 ʂu (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 ʂu (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ʂu (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 2 ʂu (ha) [ e ] 2 ʂu (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 ʂu (ʂadʒna) [ g ] 2 ʂu (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 ʂu (tʃadou̯k) [ h ] 2 ʂu (wo) [ f ] 2 ʂuː (mi) [ bklt ] 2 ʂuː (mɔ) [ a ] 3 ʂu (tʃadou̯k) [ h ] 3 ʃu tʃai ̯ dou̯k [ s ] 4 ʃugal [ uv ] 5 ʃuʃut̚ [ w ]

126

210 to take bath 211 to cut (something) 1 gosol kɔɾa [ 0 ] 1 kaʈa [ 0 ] 2 təiku̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 tan (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 təiku̯ (luk) [ fm ] 2 tan (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 2 təiku̯ (wo) [ f ] 2 tan (ha) [ e ] 2 tɪku (mɔ) [ a ] 2 tan (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 tɔiklu̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 2 tan (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 tɔiku̯ (dou̯k) [ ch ] 2 taŋ (dʒadʒa) [ g ] 2 tɔiku̯ (dʒna) [ g ] 2 taŋ (wo) [ f ] 2 tɔiku̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 2 tã (dɨ) [ o ] 2 tɔiku̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 tã (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 2 tɔiku̯ (wɔ) [ t ] 2 tã (mi) [ bkl ] 2 tukui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 2 tã (mɔ) [ a ] 2 tukui ̯ (toŋgo) [ pqr ] 2 tã (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 3 ku [ i ] 3 ra [ im ] 3 ku (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 4 tai ̯ (mi) [ t ] 3 ku (ha) [ e ] 5 rat̚ [ uv ] 4 təiku̯ (gɨ) [ n ] 6 khan [ w ] 4 təiku̯ (luk) [ fm ] 4 təiku̯ (wo) [ f ] 4 teiɾu̯ [ w ] 4 tɪku (mɔ) [ a ] 4 tɔiku̯ (dou̯k) [ ch ] 4 tɔiku̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 4 tɔiku̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 4 tɔiku̯ (wɔ) [ t ] 4 tukui ̯ (dou̯k) [ s ] 4 tukui ̯ (toŋgo) [ pqr ] 5 abu [ u ] 5 habu [ v ]

127

212 to burn 213 to buy 1 poɽano [ 0 ] 1 kena [ 0 ] 2 ʂa [ i ] 2 pa (jəitoŋgo)̯ [ r ] 2 ʂau̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] 2 pai ̯ [ i ] 2 ʂau̯ (grani) [ g ] 2 pai ̯ (dou̯k) [ chs ] 2 ʂau̯ (mi) [ bklt ] 2 pai ̯ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 ʂau̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 pai ̯ (dʒna) [ g ] 2 ʂau̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 pai ̯ (ha) [ e ] 3 ʂo (goitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 pai ̯ (hagɨ) [ n ] 3 ʂou̯ (ho) [ f ] 2 pai ̯ (jo) [ f ] 4 ʂau̯g̚ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 pai ̯ (mi) [ bklt ] 4 ʂog (toŋgo) [ q ] 2 pai ̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 5 ʂao̯k (dɨ) [ o ] 2 pai ̯ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 5 ʂau̯g̚ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 pai ̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 5 ʂau̯k [ m ] 3 parai ̯ [ m ] 6 ʂao̯k (dɨ) [ o ] 3 prai ̯ (dɨ) [ o ] 6 ʂau̯k [ m ] 4 bɛɾai ̯ [ v ] 6 ʂɔk (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 4 parai ̯ [ m ] 6 ʂɔk (douŋgɨ) [ n ] 5 bɛɾai ̯ [ v ] 7 ʂɔk (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 5 bɾi [ u ] 7 ʂɔk (douŋgɨ) [ n ] 6 ra [ w ] 7 ʂog (toŋgo) [ q ] 8 ʃɔ prɔidou̯ ̯k [ s ] 214 to sell 1 [ 0 ] 9 ʃau̯ʔ [ v ] bikɾi kɔɾa 2 h [ ch ] 9 ʃuʔ [ u ] p a (dou̯k̚) 2 h [ n ] A ʃau̯ [ w ] p a (gɨ) 2 h [ bklt ] B rɨ ha [ e ] p a (mi) 2 h [ a ] C ʂau̯ (dou̯k) [ c ] p a (mɔ) 2 h [ j ] C ʂau̯g̚ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] p a (tɔu̯m) 2 h [ f ] C ʂɔk (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] p a (wo 2 pha dʒna) [ g ] 3 phal [ imuvw ] 3 phal (dɨ) [ o ] 3 phal (dou̯k) [ s ] 3 phal (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 3 phal (ha) [ e ] 3 phal (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 4 pha (dou̯k̚) [ ch ] 4 phal (dou̯k) [ s ] 4 phal (dou̯ŋ) [ d ]

128

215 to steal 216 to lie, fib 1 ʈʃuɾi kɔɾa [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ i ] 2 khəu̯ (mi) [ bklt ] 1 mɪttha bɔla [ 0 ] 2 khəu̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 pakwa ʂa (mi) [ bkl ] 2 kho (goidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 pakwa ʂa (mɔ) [ a ] 2 khɔ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 pəkwa ʂa (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 khou̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 3 miʂa ʂa (dɨ) [ o ] 2 kou̯ (wo) [ f ] 3 miʂa ʂa (dou̯ŋ) [ dm ] 3 khau̯ [ i ] 3 miʂa ʂa (douk̚) [ ch ] 3 khəu̯ (mi) [ bklt ] 3 miʂa ʂa (gɨ) [ n ] 3 khəu̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 3 miʂa ʂa (gʊ) [ f ] 4 khau̯k [ m ] 3 mʊtʃha ʂa (ha) [ e ] 4 khau̯k (dɨ) [ o ] 4 kau̯phɛi ̯ [ g ] 4 khɔk [ d ] 5 ɛrɛŋ ʂa (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pq ] 4 khou̯k (dou̯k) [ h ] 6 tatal ʂa (oitoŋgo) [ r ] 5 khaoi ̯ (ladʒna) [ g ] 6 tatɛl ʂa (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 6 thəu̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 7 thugi / buʔwa [ u ] 7 tʃhau̯ / tʃhaʔwa [ u ] 8 buʔ [ v ] 8 tʃor [ v ] 9 tholai ̯ [ w ] 9 ʃakhau̯ [ w ] A kəu̯pi ʂa (mi) [ t ] A khɔk [ d ] A khog (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] A khou̯k (dou̯k) [ h ] B koui ̯ (tiha) [ e ] C kho (goidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] C khou̯ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] C khou̯k (dou̯k) [ h ]

129

217 to take 218 to give 1 nɛa [ 0 ] 1 dɛa [ 0 ] 2 la [ i ] 2 rɨ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 la (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 2 rɨ (gɨ) [ n ] 2 la (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 rɨ (gʊ) [ f ] 2 la (dʒna) [ g ] 2 rɨ (ha) [ em ] 2 la (gʊ) [ f ] 2 rɨi ̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 la (ha) [ e ] 2 ri (mi) [ t ] 2 la (mi) [ bklt ] 2 ri (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pqr ] 2 la (mɔ) [ a ] 3 ho (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 2 la (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 3 rɨ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 3 tilaŋ [ m ] 3 ru (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 3 tlaŋ (dɨ [ o ] 4 hon [ u ] 3 tlaŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 5 ron [ v ] 4 klaŋ (gɨ) [ n ] 6 hut̚ [ w ] 4 tlaŋ (dɨ) [ o ] 7 rɨ (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 4 tlaŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 7 rɨ (gɨ) [ n ] 5 na (haoitoŋgo)̯ [ q ] 7 rɨ (gʊ) [ f ] 5 na (harɨtoŋgo) [ r ] 7 rɨ (ha) [ em ] 5 na (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 7 rɨi ̯ (tɔu̯m) [ j ] 5 na (oitoŋgo) [ p ] 7 rɔ (dɨ) [ o ] 6 raʔ / raʔa [ uv ] 7 rɔ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 7 ra [ w ] 7 rɔ (dʒnai)̯ [ g ] 8 la (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 7 ru (uidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 8 tlaŋ (dou̯k̚) [ h ] 7 rʊ [ i ] 9 la (dou̯k̚) [ c ] 7 rui ̯ (mi) [ bkl ] 9 na (oidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 7 rui ̯ (mɔ) [ a ]

130

219 to kill 221 to love 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 bhalobaʃa [ 0 ] 1 mɛɾɛ fɛla [ 0 ] 2 halai ̯ (mi) [ k ] 2 buta (khuimɔ)̯ [ a ] 2 halai ̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 butha (dou̯ŋ) [ dm ] 2 hãlai ̯ (mi) [ bj ] 2 butha (gɔi ̯ paiɾɨdou̯ ̯k̚) [ ch ] 3 hamdʒa (laik̯ h) [ h ] 2 butha (gɔi ̯ paiɾok̯ ha) [ c ] 3 hamdʒa (wo) [ f ] 2 butha (gʊ) [ f ] 3 hamdʒag [ s ] 2 butha (khuim)̯ [ j ] 3 hamdʒag (dou̯ŋ) [ dn ] 2 butha (khuimi)̯ [ bkl ] 3 hamdʒag (ha) [ em ] 2 butha (ra) [ e ] 3 hamdʒag (mani) [ r ] 2 butha (roitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 3 hamdʒag (oi)̯ [ pq ] 2 buthai ̯ (mi) [ t ] 3 hamdʒak [ i ] 2 buthai ̯ (parɨkha) [ n ] 3 hamdʒau̯ (mi) [ l ] 2 buthal [ i ] 3 hamtʃag (lɛinai̯ )̯ [ o ] 3 bui ̯ (khobodɨ) [ o ] 3 handʒa (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 bui ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 4 kahaŋ (krɨŋ) [ g ] 4 to (guidou̯ ̯k [ s ] 5 namnɨk̚ [ u ] 4 tou̯ (gɔi ̯ pairodi)̯ [ g ] 5 namnɪk̚ [ v ] 5 nɛmnuk̚ [ w ] 220 to die 6 hamdʒa (laik̯ h) [ h ] 1 [ 0 ] maɾa dʒawa 6 hamdʒa (wo) [ f ] 2 h [ f ] t ɨ (jo) 6 hamdʒag [ s ] 2 h [ w ] t ɨi ̯ 6 hamdʒag (dou̯ŋ) [ dn ] 2 h [ c ] t oi ̯ (dou̯k̚) 6 hamdʒag (ha) [ em ] 2 h [ n ] t oi ̯ (gɨ) 6 hamdʒag (mani) [ r ] 2 h h [ h ] t oi ̯ (jɔit̯ aŋdou̯k) 6 hamdʒag (oi)̯ [ pq ] 2 h h [ g ] t oi ̯ (jot aŋna) 6 hamdʒak [ i ] 2 h [ i ] t ʊi ̯ 6 hamdʒau̯ (mi) [ l ] 2 h [ e ] t ʊi ̯ (ha) 6 hamjak (laimi)̯ [ t ] 2 h [ d ] t ui ̯ (dou̯ŋ) 6 hamtʃag (lɛinai̯ )̯ [ o ] 2 thui ̯ (ha) [ m ] 2 thui ̯ (oitoŋgo)̯ [ pr ] 2 thui ̯ (thamɔ) [ a ] 2 thui ̯ (thaŋha) [ t ] 2 thui ̯ (thaŋoidou̯ ̯k) [ s ] 2 thui ̯ (thau̯mi) [ bkl ] 2 thui ̯ (thɔu̯m) [ j ] 2 thui ̯ (toŋgo) [ q ] 3 ʃi / ʃija [ uv ] 4 thɨ (jo) [ f ] 4 thɨi ̯ [ w ] 4 thi (thãdɨ) [ o ]

131

222 to hate 224 two 1 ghɾina kɔɾa [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ i ] 2 naiʂli̯ (dou̯ŋgɨ) [ n ] 1 dui ̯ [ 0 ] 2 naiʂɛlɛ̯ (mani) [ r ] 2 (kɨ) nui ̯ [ o ] 2 naiʂlɛ̯ (mi) [ jt ] 2 (kai)̯ nɔi ̯ [ abjkl ] 2 naiʂlɛ̯ (mɔ) [ a ] 2 (kai)̯ nui ̯ [ pq ] 2 naiʂli̯ (dou̯ŋ) [ d ] 2 (khɔk) nui ̯ [ s ] 2 naiʂli̯ (wo) [ q ] 2 (khrɔk) nɔi ̯ [ t ] 2 naisili̯ [ i ] 2 (krɨŋ) nui ̯ [ c ] 2 naitʃili̯ (ha) [ e ] 2 nɨi ̯ [ r ] 2 naitʃili̯ (jo) [ f ] 2 nʊi ̯ [ em ] 2 naitʃli̯ (ka) [ h ] 2 nui ̯ [ dfghn ] 3 ʂni (dou̯k) [ c ] 3 gni [ u ] 3 ʂniŋ (mi) [ bkl ] 3 goni [ w ] 4 ʂin (tʃagɨ) [ o ] 4 giniŋ [ v ] 4 ʂini [ m ] 4 goni [ w ] 5 kubiʃi [ w ] 5 (kɨ) nui ̯ [ o ] 6 ʂɛlɛŋgo [ p ] 5 goni [ w ] 6 ʃɛlɛŋgu [ s ] 7 mənaŋ (gɨ) [ g ] 8 mit̚tʃi [ u ] 9 khanʔtʃɪk [ v ]

223 one 0 no entry [ i ] 1 ek [ 0 ] 2 (kai)̯ ha [ bkl ] 2 (kai)̯ ʂa [ pqr ] 2 (kɛ) ha [ g ] 2 (kɛ) ja [ afj ] 2 (ki) ja [ o ] 3 (kai)̯ ha [ bkl ] 3 (kɛ) ha [ g ] 3 (khrɔk) ha [ t ] 3 ha [ e ] 4 (kai)̯ ʂa [ pqr ] 4 (krɨŋ) ʂa [ cn ] 4 ʂa [ dhm ] 5 (go) ʃa [ w ] 5 (goi)̯ ʃa [ v ] 5 (khɔk) ʃa [ s ] 5 ʃa [ u ] 6 (go) ʃa [ w ] 6 (kai)̯ ʂa [ pqr ]

132

225 three 226 four 0 no entry [ i ] 0 no entry [ i ] 1 tɪn [ 0 ] 1 tʃar [ 0 ] 2 tham [ dfmr ] 2 (kai)̯ boroi ̯ [ p ] 2 thaŋ [ g ] 2 (kai)̯ brɔi ̯ [ bkl ] 2 thã [ h ] 2 (kai)̯ brui ̯ [ ajq ] 2 (kɨ) tham [ o ] 2 (khɔk) brui ̯ [ s ] 2 (kai)̯ tham [ pq ] 2 (khrɔk) brɔi ̯ [ t ] 2 (kai)̯ thã [ jl ] 2 (krɨŋ) brɔi ̯ [ c ] 2 (kai)̯ thaŋ [ abk ] 2 broi ̯ [ o ] 2 (khrɔk) tham [ t ] 2 brʊi ̯ [ fghmnr ] 2 (khɔk) tam [ s ] 2 burʊi ̯ [ e ] 2 (krɨŋ) tham [ c ] 2 burui ̯ [ d ] 3 ʈham [ n ] 3 (go) bɾi [ w ] 3 tam [ e ] 3 biɾi [ v ] 3 tham [ dfmr ] 3 bɾi [ u ] 3 (kɨ) tham [ o ] 4 (kai)̯ boroi ̯ [ p ] 3 (kai)̯ tham [ pq ] 4 burʊi ̯ [ e ] 3 (khɔk) tam [ s ] 4 burui ̯ [ d ] 3 (khrɔk) tham [ t ] 3 (krɨŋ) tham [ c ] 227 five 0 [ i ] 4 gɨtam [ u ] no entry 1 [ 0 ] 4 githam [ v ] patʃ 2 [ abhjklpq ] 4 gotham [ w ] (kai)̯ ba 2 h [ s ] 5 (kai)̯ tham [ pq ] (k ɔk) ba 2 h [ t ] 5 (krɨŋ) tham [ c ] (k rɔk) ba 2 [ c ] 5 gɨtam [ u ] (krɨŋ) ba 2 [ defgmnor ] 5 (kɨ) tham [ o ] ba 3 [ w ] 6 (kɨ) tham [ o ] (go) baŋa 3 [ v ] 6 (kai)̯ tham [ pq ] baŋa 3 [ u ] 6 (kai)̯ thaŋ [ abk ] boŋa

6 (kai)̯ thã [ jl ] 6 (khrɔk) tham [ t ] 6 githam [ v ] 7 (kɨ) tham [ o ] 7 (kai)̯ tham [ pq ] 7 (kai)̯ thaŋ [ abk ] 7 (kai)̯ thã [ jl ] 7 (khɔk) tam [ s ] 7 gotham [ w ]

133

228 six 230 eight 0 no entry [ is ] 0 no entry [ is ] 1 tʃhɔi ̯ [ 0 ] 1 aʈ [ 0 ] 2 (kai)̯ dɔ [ ab ] 2 (kai)̯ tʃa [ abjkl ] 2 (kai)̯ dou̯ [ k ] 2 (khrɔk) tʃai ̯ [ t ] 2 (krɨŋ) dou̯ [ cj ] 2 tʃa [ g ] 2 dɔu̯ [ e ] 3 (kai)̯ tʃar [ pq ] 3 (kai)̯ dok [ pq ] 3 (krɨŋ) tʃar [ c ] 3 (kai)̯ dou̯g̚ [ l ] 3 tʃal [ h ] 3 (khrɔk) dou̯k [ t ] 3 tʃar [ dfmnor ] 3 dok [ fmruv ] 4 du [ e ] 3 dou̯k [ dghno ] 5 tʃɛt̚ [ v ] 4 (go) koɾok̚ [ w ] 5 tʃhɛt̚ [ u ] 5 (kai)̯ dɔ [ ab ] 6 gandanɨi ̯ [ w ] 5 (kai)̯ dok [ pq ] 7 (kai)̯ tʃa [ abjkl ] 5 (kai)̯ dou̯ [ k ] 7 (kai)̯ tʃar [ pq ] 5 (kai)̯ dou̯g̚ [ l ] 231 nine 229 seven 0 no entry [ ceis ] 0 no entry [ is ] 1 nɔi ̯ [ 0 ] 1 ʃat [ 0 ] 2 (kai)̯ ʂku [ abjklq ] 2 (go) ʃɨni [ w ] 2 (kai)̯ ʂuku [ p ] 2 (kai)̯ ʂɪni [ p ] 2 (khrɔk) ʂkou̯ [ t ] 2 (kai)̯ ʂni [ abjklq ] 2 ʂɪku [ m ] 2 (khrɔk) ʂni [ t ] 2 ʂiku [ d ] 2 (krɨŋ ʂni [ c ] 2 ʂkou̯ [ g ] 2 ʂɪni [ dfghmnr ] 2 ʂku [ n ] 2 ʃini [ v ] 2 tʃɪku [ f ] 2 sni [ u ] 2 tʃuku [ r ] 2 tʃɪni [ eo ] 3 ʂɪku [ m ] 3 ʂiku [ d ] 3 tʃɪku [ f ] 3 tʃikou̯k [ o ] 3 tʃuku [ r ] 4 ʂkou̯k [ h ] 4 tʃikou̯k [ o ] 5 ʃkhu [ uv ] 6 gadanɨi ̯ goiʃa̯ [ w ]

134

232 ten 235 twenty 0 no entry [ cei ] 0 no entry [ defim ] 1 dɔʃ [ 0 ] 1 biʃ [ 0 ] 2 (kai)̯ tʃi [ abjklpq ] 2 khɔ [ abjkl ] 2 (khɔk) tʃi [ s ] 3 kru (ʂa) [ c ] 2 (khrɔk) tʃi [ t ] 3 kuri (ʃa) [ s ] 2 tʃi [ dfghmnor ] 4 (khrɔk) khɔl [ t ] 3 tʃikhɨŋ [ u ] 4 khol (ʂa) [ pq ] 3 tʃkhiŋ [ v ] 5 kuɾi [ gn ] 4 tʃeigɨk̯̚ [ w ] 5 kuɾi (kja) [ o ] 5 kuri (ʃa) [ s ] 233 eleven 6 nɨitʃi̯ [ r ] 0 [ ceiopqsv ] no entry 7 tʃi krɨŋ nui ̯ [ h ] 1 [ 0 ] ægaɾo 8 khol / kholgrik [ uv ] 2 [ b ] (kai)̯ tʃiʂa 9 kholtʃaŋʃa [ w ] 2 (khrɔk) tʃiʂa [ t ] 2 tʃiʂa [ afgjklmnr ] 236 hundred 2 tʃiʃa [ u ] 0 no entry [ i ] 3 (kaitʃi)̯ kaiʂa̯ [ d ] 1 ʃɔ [ 0 ] 4 (krɨŋtʃi) krɨŋʂa [ h ] 2 ɨrdʒaha [ t ] 5 tʃeigɨk̚ʃa̯ [ w ] 2 ɪrdʒaha [ abjkl ] 3 radʒa [ w ] 234 twelve 3 raʂa [ cdefghmnpqr ] 0 [ ceiopqs ] no entry 3 rudʒa (ʃa) [ s ] 1 [ 0v ] baɾo 4 ʂoa ̯ [ o ] 2 [ b ] (kai)̯ tʃignɔi ̯ 5 rɨt̚tʃa [ v ] 2 h [ t ] (k rɔk) tʃiŋɔi ̯ 5 rɨt̚tʃha [ u ] 2 tʃigni [ u ] 2 tʃignɔi ̯ [ ajkl ] 237 thousand 2 tʃinɨi ̯ [ r ] 0 no entry [ dhipr ] 2 tʃinʊi ̯ [ m ] 1 adʒar [ s ] 2 tʃinui ̯ [ fgn ] 1 hadʒal [ uv ] 3 (kaitʃi)̯ kainui̯ ̯ [ d ] 1 hadʒaɾ [ 0moqw ] 4 (krɨŋtʃi) krɨŋnui ̯ [ h ] 2 ʂaiha̯ [ bkl ] 5 tʃeigɨk̚nɨi̯ ̯ [ w ] 2 ʂaiʂa̯ [ t ] 2 ʂaja [ aj ] 3 hadʒar kaiʂa̯ [ cn ] 3 hadʒar kɛha [ eg ] 4 nuiʂi̯ [ f ]

135

238 some 240 all 1 kɪtʃhu [ 0 ] 1 ʃɔb [ 0 ] 1 kiaʂa̯ [ d ] 2 ʂuai ̯ [ abjkl ] 1 kiʂa [ efhinopr ] 3 dʒɨto [ f ] 1 kitʃa [ q ] 3 dʒitə ̯ [ cg ] 1 kitʃa (ʃa) [ s ] 3 dʒɔtːɔ [ s ] 2 kiaʂa̯ [ d ] 3 dʒɔtɔ [ deoq ] 2 kiʂa [ efhinopr ] 3 dʒotɔ [ i ] 2 kitʃa [ q ] 4 dʒɨto [ f ] 2 kitʃa (ʃa) [ s ] 4 dʒɔtːɔ [ s ] 2 kuʂa [ m ] 4 dʒɔtɔ [ deoq ] 2 ʂiʂa [ abjklt ] 4 dʒotɔ [ i ] 3 kiʂitʃa [ c ] 4 dʒotono [ p ] 3 kitʃa [ q ] 5 tʃorok [ m ] 3 kitʃa (ʃa) [ s ] 5 tʃrok [ n ] 4 bãia̯ [ g ] 5 tʃrou̯k [ h ] 5 ak̚khiʃa [ v ] 6 bɛbag [ r ] 5 ok̚khiʃa [ u ] 6 bɛbak̚ [ v ] 6 tʃoiʃam̯ [ w ] 7 pap [ t ] 8 gɨmɨk̚ [ u ] 239 many 9 dʒamain̯ [ w ] 1 ɔnɛk [ 0 ] 2 gɨbːaŋ [ bl ] 241 big 2 kɨbːaŋ [ ajkq ] 1 bɔɽo [ 0 ] 2 kɨbaŋ [ cfghnor ] 2 kɨtːɔ [ bl ] 2 kabaŋ [ deim ] 2 kɨtɔr [ t ] 2 kɔbːaŋ [ t ] 2 kɪtɔ [ ajk ] 2 kubaŋ [ ps ] 2 kɔtɔ [ fg ] 3 baŋʔa [ uv ] 2 kotor [ pqr ] 4 paŋʃembia ̯ [ w ] 3 gɔrdʒa [ dmn ] 3 godʒa [ e ] 3 gordʒa [ i ] 4 gara [ cho ] 5 daʔla [ uv ] 6 tʃuŋa [ w ] 7 kɨtːɔ [ bl ] 7 kɨtɔr [ t ] 7 kɔʈɔr [ s ] 7 kɔtɔ [ fg ] 7 kotor [ pqr ]

136

242 small 244 short (length) 1 tʃhoto [ 0 ] 1 khaʈo [ 0 ] 2 ʂtɛʔ [ abjklt ] 2 baɾa [ abcegjklmopqr ] 3 ʂɛtɛ [ g ] 2 bara [ ist ] 4 gɛɾa [ h ] 2 bɛɾa [ d ] 4 giɾa [ cdefo ] 2 bra [ hn ] 4 gira [ i ] 3 braʂa [ f ] 4 gura [ n ] 4 khandoka [ u ] 5 guruʂa [ m ] 5 bɛnʔda [ v ] 6 bɨʂa [ q ] 6 suŋa [ w ] 6 bɨʂatɛo̯ [ p ] 7 tʃikin [ s ] 245 heavy 1 h [ 0 ] 7 tʃikɔn [ r ] b aɾi 2 [ abjkl ] 8 tʃhonːa [ u ] ʂli 2 [ j ] 8 tʃonːa [ v ] ʂlim 3 [ eh ] 9 mɨlːa [ w ] hili 3 hilik [ imnpqrs ] 243 long 3 hilio [ g ] 1 lɔmba [ 0 ] 3 holi [ f ] 2 klaɔ ̯ [ k ] 4 tʃhɾima [ u ] 2 klau̯ [ abchjlt ] 4 tʃiɾima [ w ] 2 kləu̯k [ f ] 5 ridʒia ̯ [ v ] 2 klou̯k [ n ] 6 hili [ eh ] 3 kɨlau̯ [ g ] 6 hilijɔ [ ot ] 3 kalau̯k [ m ] 6 hilik [ imnpqrs ] 3 kɔlɔk [ s ] 6 hilio [ g ] 4 rao̯t̚wa [ w ] 7 hilijɔ [ ot ] 4 rau̯ʔwa [ v ] 7 hɔlijo [ c ] 4 ruʔwa [ u ] 8 hilio [ g ] 5 kɨlau̯ [ g ] 8 hɔlijo [ c ] 5 klaɔ ̯ [ k ] 8 holi [ f ] 5 klau̯ [ abchjlt ] 8 hului ̯ [ d ] 6 kalau̯k [ m ] 6 kalɔk [ di ] 246 light (not heavy) 1 [ 0 ] 6 kalok [ eopqr ] halka 2 [ abjkl ] 6 kləu̯k [ f ] ʂlɛiŋ̯ 3 [ cho ] 6 klou̯k [ n ] hlɨiŋtʃa̯ 3 [ f ] 6 kɔlɔk [ s ] hlɨŋʂ a 4 hɛlɛŋ [ deimnpqrs ] 4 həliŋ [ g ] 4 hiliŋha [ t ] 5 tʃɛŋʔa [ uv ] 5 tʃɛŋa [ w ]

137

247 fat 249 wide, broad 1 kɔʈɔ [ g ] 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 moʈa [ 0 ] 1 tʃɔu̯ɽa [ 0 ] 2 ʂau̯thu [ a ] 1 tʃou̯ra [ s ] 3 kɨtɔ [ jk ] 2 kɨbɛiŋ̯ [ j ] 3 kɨtɔr [ t ] 2 kɨʂɔu̯ŋ [ al ] 3 kɔʈɔ [ g ] 2 kɛbɛŋ [ m ] 3 kɔtɔ [ bl ] 3 kua ̯ [ bcfhkn ] 3 kotor [ pqr ] 4 kuar̯ [ deioqrt ] 4 gaɾa [ cfho ] 5 dʒaga kɔtɔ [ g ] 5 lonɖa [ in ] 6 toroi ̯ toŋgo [ p ] 5 lonɖi [ s ] 6 tɨrha [ em ] 250 narrow 0 [ cuvw ] 7 ʂagːam [ d ] no entry 1 [ 0 ] 8 mɨlːa [ u ] ʃɔɾu 2 [ h ] 8 mulːa [ v ] kɨtʃɛ ̃ 2 [ abk ] 9 lɛma [ w ] kɨtʃɔ 3 kɨtʃɛ ̃ [ h ] 248 thin 3 kɛʂːɛ [ l ] 0 no entry [ w ] 3 kɛʂɛp [ dmqr ] 1 tʃikon [ 0r ] 3 kɛtʃɛp [ ei ] 2 ʂaini̯ [ k ] 4 kɛtʃɛp [ ei ] 2 ʂainiŋ̯ [ a ] 4 kɛtʃɛpʂa [ o ] 3 ʂtɛ [ bjlt ] 5 koʂoʂa [ n ] 3 sɛtɛ [ g ] 6 tʃɔtʃɛ̃ [ j ] 4 gɛɾa [ h ] 7 dʒaga ʂɛtɛ [ g ] 4 giɾa [ cdefo ] 8 bɨʂatoi ̯ toŋgo [ p ] 4 guɾa [ n ] 9 giɾa [ f ] 5 bɨʂak [ q ] A tʃipa [ s ] 5 bɨʂatɛ [ p ] B ʂtɛ [ t ] 6 karam [ i ] 6 kɛram [ s ] 7 ramtʃoka [ u ] 8 ramːa [ v ] 9 guɾa [ n ] 9 guɾuʂa [ m ]

138

251 deep 253 full (cup) 1 gobhir [ 0 ] 1 puɾno / bhoɾa [ 0 ] 2 kɨtho [ f ] 2 kɨplɨŋ [ cfhm ] 2 kɨthɔu̯ma [ t ] 2 kɨpulɨŋ [ d ] 2 kɨthou̯ [ c ] 2 kɨpuŋ [ j ] 2 kɨthou̯k [ h ] 2 kəpuŋ [ abkl ] 2 kɨthu [ ajkl ] 2 kɔpɨlɨŋ [ e ] 2 kɔthɔk [ e ] 2 koplɨŋ [ g ] 2 kɔthu [ b ] 2 kʊplʊŋ [ i ] 2 kuthou̯k [ o ] 2 kuplɨŋ [ no ] 2 kuthuk [ dinpqrs ] 2 kupluŋ [ qst ] 3 kɨlɨŋkha [ g ] 2 kupuluŋ [ pr ] 4 thɨŋʔa [ uv ] 3 gapːa [ uv ] 4 thoʔwa [ w ] 4 phiŋa [ w ] 5 kɨthou̯k [ h ] 5 kɔthɔk [ e ] 254 empty (cup) 1 h [ 0 ] 5 koʈhok [ m ] k ali 2 [ cdefhmno ] 5 kuthou̯k [ o ] bɨktʃa 2 [ i ] 5 kuthuk [ dinpqrs ] bʊktʃa 2 bukʂa [ j ] 252 shallow 2 buktʃa [ abklpqrst ] 0 no entry [ uvw ] 2 butʃa [ g ] 1 ɔgobhir [ 0 ] 3 doŋdʒa [ uv ] 2 kɨthə [ a ] 4 kantɾa [ w ] 3 thou̯gja [ defmno ] 3 thugːja [ r ] 3 thugja [ i ] 3 thuja [ bhjkl ] 4 thɛlɛtʃa [ c ] 5 thɛnɛ [ pq ] 6 kɨlɨja [ g ] 7 kutʃuk [ s ] 8 thɔo̯kthaija̯ [ t ]

139

255 hungry 257 sweet 1 khidɛ laga [ 0 ] 1 miʃʈi [ 0 ] 2 hɔkhɔim̯ [ j ] 2 kɨtːɔi ̯ [ abcjkl ] 2 hɔu̯khɔimi̯ [ abkl ] 2 kɨtɨi ̯ [ hr ] 3 okhijo [ ce ] 2 kɨtɔi ̯ [ ot ] 3 okhujo [ d ] 2 kɨtʊi ̯ [ m ] 4 okkhika [ h ] 2 kɨtui ̯ [ defn ] 4 okkhikha [ fg ] 2 kɔtɔi ̯ [ g ] 4 okkhuika̯ [ qs ] 2 kʊtʊi ̯ [ i ] 5 ɔkhliha [ i ] 2 kutui ̯ [ pqs ] 6 okkhuika̯ [ qs ] 3 tɔijɔ̯ [ c ] 6 ukhuikja̯ [ pr ] 4 tʃhiʔa / tʃhiʔja [ uv ] 7 ukhamka [ o ] 5 sɨma [ w ] 8 ok̚khi / ok̚khrija [ u ] 8 okkhrijɔ [ m ] 8 uk̚khɾi / uk̚khrija [ v ] 9 okʂika [ n ] A ɔkɔiha̯ [ t ] B ok̚khi / ok̚khrija [ u ] B okhi [ w ] C ok̚khi / ok̚khrija [ u ] C okkhika [ h ] C okkhikha [ fg ]

256 thirsty 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 pipaʃa pawa [ 0 ] 2 (tɔi)̯ kəu̯mi [ abjkl ] 2 (toi)̯ kaŋgɨ [ n ] 2 kaŋɨ [ em ] 2 kaŋo [ c ] 2 kaŋɔ [ i ] 3 (tɔi)̯ kaŋha [ t ] 3 (toi)̯ kaŋgɨ [ n ] 3 (tui)̯ kaŋkha [ s ] 3 kaŋɨ [ em ] 3 kaŋgo [ d ] 3 kaŋkha [ ghopqr ] 3 kaŋo [ c ] 3 kaŋɔ [ i ] 4 lɨŋna mutʃuka [ f ]

140

258 sour 259 bitter 1 ʈɔk [ 0 ] 1 tita [ 0 ] 2 kɨkhɨi ̯ [ r ] 2 kɨkha [ achijklnpqr ] 2 kɨkhɔi ̯ [ ak ] 2 kaʔa [ u ] 2 kɨkhrɨi ̯ [ hm ] 2 kakha [ dem ] 2 kɔkhɔi ̯ [ bjl ] 2 kɔkha [ b ] 2 kokhroi ̯ [ c ] 2 kukha [ s ] 2 kʊkhrʊi ̯ [ i ] 3 kha.a [ w ] 2 kʊkhʊi ̯ [ q ] 3 khaʔa [ v ] 2 kukhui ̯ [ s ] 3 khagɨ [ go ] 3 mɨkhroi ̯ [ o ] 3 khagʊ [ f ] 3 mukhui ̯ [ p ] 3 khawɔ [ t ] 4 khɔrɔijɔ̯ [ e ] 4 kaʔa [ u ] 4 khʊijɔ̯ [ f ] 4 kha.a [ w ] 4 khuijo̯ [ dgn ] 4 khaʔa [ v ] 5 kɨkhɨi ̯ [ r ] 5 khɔimi̯ [ t ] 260 spicy, hot 1 h [ 0 ] 5 khʊijɔ̯ [ f ] dʒ al 2 [ abkl ] 5 khuijo̯ [ dgn ] ʂiau̯ 2 [ j ] 6 mɛʃɛŋa [ v ] ʂiau̯m 3 [ gmo ] 6 miʃɛŋa [ u ] jao̯gɨ 3 [ n ] 7 khɨja [ w ] jao̯gu 3 [ h ] 7 khɔimi̯ [ t ] jau̯ɯ 3 [ c ] 7 khʊijɔ̯ [ f ] jawo 3 [ i ] 7 khuijo̯ [ dgn ] jawʊ 3 [ dfpq ] 8 kɨkhrɨi ̯ [ hm ] jogo 4 [ gmo ] 8 kokhroi ̯ [ c ] jao̯gɨ 4 [ n ] 8 kʊkhrʊi ̯ [ i ] jao̯gu 4 [ r ] 8 mɨkhroi ̯ [ o ] jog 4 [ dfpq ] 9 kɨkhɨi ̯ [ r ] jogo 5 [ gmo ] 9 kɨkhɔi ̯ [ ak ] jao̯gɨ 5 [ n ] 9 kɔkhɔi ̯ [ bjl ] jao̯gu 5 [ e ] 9 kʊkhʊi ̯ [ q ] jau̯gwɔ 5 [ dfpq ] 9 kukhui ̯ [ s ] jogo 6 [ s ] 9 mukhui ̯ [ p ] riogːu 7 hijɔu̯mi [ t ] 8 dʒɾuwa [ u ] 9 ʃaʔdika [ v ] A wɛla [ w ]

141

261 ripe 263 right 1 paka [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ fuvw ] 2 kɨmɨn [ mn ] 1 ʃɔʈhik [ 0 ] 2 kɨmɨŋ [ cgh ] 2 atʃau̯ŋ [ ajkl ] 2 kɨmɔ [ aj ] 3 khrɔ [ b ] 2 kɨmɔi ̯ [ t ] 4 daidʒːɔ̯ [ de ] 2 kɔmːɔ [ bkl ] 4 daidʒa̯ [ c ] 2 kɔmɨn [ e ] 4 daidʒu̯ [ i ] 2 kɔmɔn [ s ] 5 ʈhik [ mors ] 2 komon [ o ] 5 thɪk [ h ] 2 kʊmʊn [ i ] 6 kahã [ g ] 2 kumun [ dpqr ] 7 ou̯ŋkha [ n ] 3 mɨnːa [ uvw ] 8 kɨbːɔi ̯ [ t ] 3 mɨŋkha [ f ] 8 kubui ̯ (no) [ q ] 8 kubui ̯ (tʃatʃano) [ p ] 262 rotten (fruit) 1 pɔtʃa [ 0 ] 264 wrong 2 kɨʂɔu̯ [ t ] 0 no entry [ cuvw ] 2 kɨʂɔu̯k [ n ] 1 bhul [ 0 ] 2 kɨsau̯ [ abgjl ] 1 bul [ es ] 2 kɨsəu̯ [ k ] 2 kroːm [ j ] 2 kɛʂao̯k [ fhm ] 2 krɔmi [ abkl ] 2 kɛʂau̯ [ c ] 3 tʃaja [ dpr ] 2 kɛʂɔk [ i ] 4 plau̯kha [ ho ] 2 kɛʂok [ d ] 4 plokha [ f ] 2 kɔʃɔk [ s ] 5 pokh [ n ] 2 koʂəu̯k [ o ] 6 plau̯kha [ ho ] 2 koʂok [ epqr ] 6 plau̯wɔ [ m ] 3 ʃawa [ v ] 7 poulha [ g ] 3 ʃowa [ u ] 8 pogːjo [ q ] 3 sawa [ w ] 9 oŋja [ i ] h A t ik krɔi ̯ [ t ]

142

265 fast 266 slow 1 taɽataɽi [ 0 ] 1 dhiɾɛ dhiɾɛ [ 0 ] 2 daidi̯ [ t ] 2 tɨrɨ tɨrɨ [ q ] 2 dɔu̯mi [ al ] 2 tlu tlu [ abjklt ] 2 dodi [ gi ] 3 tɨlɨk tɨlɨk [ e ] 2 doii̯ [ o ] 3 tɨrɨ tɨrɨ [ q ] 2 dou̯di [ f ] 3 tɨrɨk tɨrɨk [ r ] 2 dou̯gɨ [ n ] 3 tɪlɨk tɪlɨk [ o ] 3 dau̯phrɔi ̯ [ bjk ] 3 tʊlʊk tʊlʊk [ i ] 4 dagti [ q ] 3 tuluk tuluk [ p ] 4 daktui ̯ [ d ] 4 kiʂa kiʂa [ cg ] 5 dɔip̯ hai ̯ [ e ] 5 katʃaŋ katʃaŋ [ dmn ] 6 dati dodro [ r ] 6 lɛijo̯ lɛijo̯ [ f ] 6 doro doro [ p ] 7 aʃtɛ aʃtɛ [ h ] 7 dagti [ q ] 8 tɛp tɛp [ s ] 7 dou̯gɨ [ n ] 9 khaʃin [ uv ] 8 hajao̯k tʃɨprɯ [ h ] 9 khaʃini [ w ] 9 laŋʂa [ c ] A doi ̯ [ s ] 267 same 0 [ ev ] B thɛŋɾi [ u ] no entry 1 [ 0 ] C rakai ̯ [ v ] ɛki 1 [ h ] D mana [ w ] ɛkoi ̯ 2 [ ajl ] E dɔu̯mi [ al ] bɔʔla 2 [ k ] E dodi [ gi ] bɔhala 3 [ b ] E doii̯ [ o ] bɔtɨmːa 3 [ c ] E dou̯di [ f ] imotɨma 4 [ o ] E dou̯gɨ [ n ] baga 4 [ dfimnq ] E dou̯wɔ [ m ] bakʂa 5 dʒətɔkau̯ [ g ] 6 obohahaino̯ [ p ] 7 solalai ̯ [ r ] 8 ɛkrɔkɔm [ s ] 9 bɔha [ t ] 9 bɔhala [ k ] A apʃan [ u ] A damʃan [ w ]

143

268 different 271 hot (weather) 1 bhinːo [ 0 ] 1 gɔɾom [ 0 ] 2 da.a [ jk ] 2 kɨtou̯ŋ [ h ] 2 daha [ a ] 2 kɔtuŋ [ bl ] 3 tʃɔrai ̯ [ bl ] 2 kuʈuŋ [ r ] 4 kɔthɛ [ cdefhno ] 2 kutou̯ŋ [ o ] 4 kothɛ [ i ] 2 kutuŋ [ deimnpqs ] 5 dʒuda [ gq ] 3 tuːm [ j ] 5 dʒuta [ m ] 4 tuŋmi [ ak ] 6 oboija̯ [ p ] 4 tuŋʂiə [ f ] 7 solija [ r ] 5 uŋmaiʂja̯ [ g ] 8 alga [ v ] 6 tɔu̯ŋphlami [ t ] 8 alka [ s ] 6 tuŋbraʉ [ c ] 9 kɨbːɔin̯ [ t ] 7 dɨŋʔa [ u ] A dɨŋthaŋ [ uw ] 8 khama [ vw ]

269 dry 272 cold (weather) 1 ʃukna [ 0 ] 1 ʈhanɖa [ 0 ] 2 krain̯ [ t ] 2 kɨtʃaŋ [ pqr ] 2 kran [ s ] 2 kɨtʃã [ bkl ] 2 kraŋ [ gopq ] 2 kɨtʃəu̯ŋ [ aj ] 2 kraŋa [ ab ] 3 kɨtʃaŋ [ pqr ] 2 krã [ cfhjkl ] 3 kɨtʃaŋgɨ [ gt ] 3 karan [ deim ] 3 kɨtʃəu̯ŋ [ aj ] 3 kɪran [ r ] 4 hɨiŋ̯ [ f ] 3 krain̯ [ t ] 4 hiŋ [ is ] 3 kran [ s ] 5 hɨiŋ̯ [ f ] 3 kraŋ [ gopq ] 5 hɔin̯ [ cdehmno ] 3 krã [ cfhjkl ] 6 khaʃinːa [ u ] 4 kra.am [ n ] 7 ʃitna [ v ] 4 krain̯ [ t ] 8 tʃɨkːa [ w ] 4 kran [ s ] 4 kraŋ [ gopq ] 273 good 1 h [ 0 ] 4 krã [ cfhjkl ] b alo 2 [ s ] 5 raʔna [ w ] gaham 2 [ k ] 5 ranʔna [ uv ] kaha 2 kaham [ pqrt ] 270 wet 2 kahaŋ [ g ] 1 bhidʒa [ 0 ] 2 kəhã [ abjl ] 2 kɪʂi [ j ] 3 gam [ cdefhimno ] 2 kiʂi [ cdefghiklmnopqrt ] 4 mɛma [ w ] 2 kiʃi [ s ] 4 namːa [ uv ] 2 kɔʂi [ ab ] 3 ʃuʃija [ uv ] 4 peiʃia̯ ̯ [ w ]

144

274 bad 276 old 1 khaɾap [ 0 ] 1 puɾano [ 0 ] 2 hãdʒa [ abjkl ] 2 kɨʂaŋ [ fg ] 2 namdʒa [ uv ] 2 kɨʃam [ s ] 3 haija̯ [ g ] 2 kɨtʃa [ abjkl ] 3 ʂaija̯ [ f ] 2 kɨtʃam [ nopqrt ] 3 tʃaja [ cdhim ] 2 kɨtʃã [ ch ] 4 haija̯ [ g ] 2 katʃam [ deim ] 4 haimja̯ [ s ] 3 git̚tʃam [ v ] 4 hamija [ nopqrt ] 3 kɨʃam [ s ] 5 bɛthɛja [ e ] 3 kɨtʃam [ nopqrt ] 5 hamija [ nopqrt ] 3 kɨtʃã [ ch ] 6 namdʒa [ uv ] 3 katʃam [ deim ] 6 nɛmtʃa [ w ] 3 pitʃam [ w ] 4 git̚tʃam [ v ] 275 new 4 git̚tʃham [ u ] 1 [ 0 ] notun 4 kɨʃam [ s ] 2 [ u ] gɨtːal 4 kɨtʃam [ nopqrt ] 2 kɨtːa [ abcjkln ] 2 kɨta [ fh ] 277 broken 2 kɨtal [ opqrst ] 1 baimi̯ [ ab ] 2 katal [ deim ] 1 bhaŋa [ 0 ] 2 kəta [ g ] 2 bai.oʔ̯ [ w ] 3 gɨtːal [ u ] 3 gɨbai ̯ [ gkl ] 3 git̚dal [ v ] 3 kɨbːai ̯ [ jrt ] 3 kɨtal [ opqrst ] 3 kɨbai ̯ [ fhnq ] 3 katal [ deim ] 3 kɨpai ̯ [ o ] 4 pidan [ w ] 3 kabai ̯ [ deim ] 3 kobai ̯ [ c ] 3 kubai ̯ [ p ] 4 baidʒak [ s ] 5 baiʔa̯ [ v ] 5 biʔja [ u ]

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278 above 279 below 1 upoɾe [ 0 ] 1 hatʃɛ [ dehq ] 2 ʂakagɨ [ eo ] 1 hatʃi [ cg ] 2 ʂakawo [ pt ] 1 nitʃɛ [ 0 ] 2 ʂau̯gawa [ a ] 2 khama [ kl ] 2 ʂau̯gawo [ k ] 2 khamawa [ a ] 2 ʂau̯gawɔ [ b ] 2 khamawɔ [ b ] 3 ʂaka [ imr ] 3 haʂɛ [ j ] 3 ʂau̯ga [ jl ] 3 hatʃɛ [ dehq ] 3 ʂka [ n ] 3 hatʃi [ cg ] 3 ʃakːa [ uv ] 4 talawɔ [ t ] 4 ʂka [ n ] 4 tɔlagɨ [ fo ] 4 ʂka.ɯ [ h ] 4 tola [ imnr ] 5 kɔʂou̯ [ g ] 4 tolawɔ [ ps ] 5 kotʃou̯ [ c ] 5 nɨŋa [ u ] 5 kutʃou̯k [ f ] 5 nɛkŋa [ v ] 5 kutʃuk [ diqs ] 6 nɨŋ [ w ] 6 khambai ̯ [ w ] 6 nɨŋa [ u ] 7 ʂaka [ imr ] 7 khamawɔ [ b ] 7 ʂakagɨ [ eo ] 7 talawɔ [ t ] 7 ʂakawo [ pt ] 8 ʂau̯ga [ jl ] 280 far 1 [ 0 ] 8 ʂau̯gawa [ a ] duɾɛ 2 [ t ] 8 ʂau̯gawo [ k ] hakɨtʃal 2 [ abjkl ] 8 ʂau̯gawɔ [ b ] haktʃa 2 haktʃal [ pqr ] 3 laŋʂa [ c ] 3 laŋtʃa [ fgh ] 4 kɨtʃa [ f ] 4 kɨtʃal [ nos ] 4 katʃal [ deim ] 5 haktʃa [ abjkl ] 5 haktʃal [ pqr ] 5 katʃal [ deim ] 6 tʃɛʔla [ v ] 6 tʃhɛlːa [ u ] 7 dʒana [ w ]

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281 near 284 black 1 katʃhɛ [ 0 ] 1 kalo [ 0 ] 1 kit̚tʃhi [ v ] 2 kɨʂɨm [ m ] 2 ʂama [ deim ] 2 kɨʂɨŋ [ fh ] 2 ʂampa [ n ] 2 kɨʂɔ ̃ [ jkl ] 2 ʂampha [ t ] 2 kəʂɨŋ [ g ] 2 ʂaŋpha [ g ] 2 kəʂɔ ̃ [ ab ] 2 ʂãpha [ abjkl ] 2 kɔʂom [ eopqrt ] 3 ʂampa [ n ] 2 kɔʃɔm [ s ] 3 ʂampawo [ pq ] 2 koʂom [ p ] 4 kɔɾɛjo [ ch ] 2 kʊʂʊm [ i ] 4 koɾo [ o ] 2 kuʂum [ dn ] 5 laʂɨmaʂa [ f ] 3 giʃima [ uv ] 6 gana [ r ] 3 kɨʂɨm [ m ] 6 ʂama [ deim ] 4 naka [ w ] 7 ʂama [ deim ] 5 kɨʂɨm [ m ] 7 ʃamɔ [ s ] 5 kɨʂɨŋ [ fh ] 8 dʒaphaŋ [ u ] 5 kɨʂɔ ̃ [ jkl ] 9 nɛka [ w ] 5 kəʂɨŋ [ g ] 5 kəʂɔ ̃ [ ab ] 282 right 5 kɪʂɨŋ [ c ] 1 [ 0 ] ɖan 5 kɔʂom [ eopqrt ] 2 [ w ] dʒagaɾa 5 koʂom [ p ] 2 [ v ] dʒakːaɾa 5 kʊʂʊm [ i ] 2 [ u ] dʒakaɾa 5 kuʂum [ dn ] 2 dʒau̯gra [ abjkl ] 2 jagara [ dei ] 285 white 3 dʒau̯gra [ abjkl ] 1 ʃada [ 0 ] 3 jagara [ dei ] 2 kɨphui ̯ [ t ] 3 jagra [ cfghmnopqrst ] 2 kəfu [ abkl ] 2 kɔphou̯ [ g ] 283 left 2 kufu [ cj ] 1 [ 0 ] bam 2 kuphu [ fhmno ] 2 [ s ] ɖɛbra 3 bokːa / gipːok̚ [ uvw ] 2 [ bjkl ] dɛbra 4 kɨphui ̯ [ t ] 2 [ a ] dɛgra 4 kɔphou̯ [ g ] 3 [ cdefghimnopqrt ] jagʂi 4 kuphu [ fhmno ] 3 [ s ] jakʃi 4 kuphuk [ e ] 4 [ w ] dʒagɨʃi 4 kuphul [ di ] 4 [ u ] dʒakːaʃi 4 kuphur [ pqrs ] 4 dʒak̚gaʃi [ v ] 5 dʒakːaʃi [ u ] 5 jakʃi [ s ]

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286 red 289 when (near future) 1 lal [ 0 ] 1 kɔkhon [ 0 ] 2 kɨtʃak [ fghnoqrst ] 2 baip̯ hu [ cefim ] 2 kɨttʃa [ abjkl ] 2 baip̯ hubo [ n ] 2 kɪtʃag̚ [ c ] 2 baip̯ huwə [ h ] 3 gɨtʃaka [ u ] 2 baip̯ huwɔ [ abjkl ] 3 gɪtʃak [ v ] 3 baip̯ hu [ cefim ] 3 kɨtʃak [ fghnoqrst ] 3 braip̯ hu [ g ] 3 katʃak [ deimp ] 4 bakhləi ̯ [ o ] 3 kɪtʃag̚ [ c ] 4 bakhlui ̯ [ d ] 4 saka [ w ] 5 baip̯ hubo [ n ] 5 baip̯ huwə [ h ] 287 green 5 baip̯ huwɔ [ abjkl ] 0 [ uvw ] no entry 5 bophuru [ p ] 1 [ 0p ] ʃobudʒ 5 brɛphuwɔ [ t ] 1 [ s ] ʃobuʃ 5 buphuru [ qr ] 2 h [ cfghjklqr ] kɨk raŋ 6 bu ʃomoi ̯ [ s ] 2 h [ dem ] kak araŋ 7 baʃku [ u ] 2 h [ in ] kak raŋ 7 baʃoko [ v ] 2 h [ ab ] kək raŋ 8 biba [ w ] 2 h [ t ] kʌk raŋ 9 braip̯ hu [ g ] 3 [ o ] ʂijal 9 brɛphuwɔ [ t ]

288 yellow 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 holud [ 0 ] 2 kərɨmɨ [ e ] 2 kɔrmɔ [ abcjklt ] 2 kormo [ oqrs ] 2 kormʊ [ n ] 2 krɨmɨ [ hm ] 2 kʊrʊmʊ [ i ] 2 kurmu [ f ] 2 kurumu [ d ] 3 ʂɔtɔiruŋ̯ [ g ] 3 ʂutuiroŋ̯ [ p ]

148

290 where 291 who 1 kothai ̯ [ 0 ] 1 kɛ [ 0 ] 2 batijɔ [ ajkl ] 2 ʂɨbə [ g ] 2 batɔiwɔ̯ [ b ] 2 ʂɨbo [ h ] 3 bərɨ [ em ] 2 ʂɨbɔ [ abjkl ] 3 bɔrəu̯ [ f ] 2 ʂabo [ pr ] 3 bɔro [ g ] 2 ʂɪbɔ [ t ] 3 brɔ [ h ] 2 ʂobo [ dfq ] 3 brɔ (wɔ) [ t ] 2 ʃuba [ s ] 3 brɔu̯ [ c ] 3 ʂərɨ [ e ] 3 bʊrʊ [ i ] 3 ʂrɨ [ cmn ] 3 buro [ os ] 3 ʂro [ o ] 4 bərɨ [ em ] 3 ʂʊrʊ [ i ] 4 bɔrəu̯ [ f ] 4 ʃa [ uv ] 4 bɔro [ g ] 5 tʃaŋ [ w ] 4 bʊrʊ [ i ] 6 ʂɨbə [ g ] 4 bʊrʊbʊ [ n ] 6 ʂɨbo [ h ] 4 buro [ os ] 6 ʂɨbɔ [ abjkl ] 5 bɔdajo [ d ] 6 ʂərɨ [ e ] 6 bijaŋ [ qr ] 6 ʂɪbɔ [ t ] 6 biʃaŋ [ w ] 6 ʂobo [ dfq ] 7 bat̚tʃa [ uv ] 7 ʂɨbə [ g ] 8 bodʒaga [ p ] 7 ʂɨbo [ h ] 7 ʂɨbɔ [ abjkl ] 7 ʂabo [ pr ] 7 ʂɪbɔ [ t ] 7 ʂobo [ dfq ] 7 ʂʊrʊ [ i ]

292 what 1 ki [ 0 ] 2 tɨma [ t ] 2 tama [ deim ] 2 tamo [ pqr ] 2 timːa [ abcfghjklno ] 2 tuma [ s ] 3 mua ̯ [ u ] 4 maɾa [ v ] 5 atoŋ [ w ]

149

293 how many 294 this thing 0 no entry [ uvw ] 1 eʈa [ 0 ] 1 kɔiʈa̯ [ 0 ] 2 ɨmʊ [ ehmn ] 2 kaibɨʂɨ̯ [ fgq ] 2 bɔma [ abjkl ] 2 kaibɨʂɨk̯ [ mor ] 2 ɛmo [ c ] 2 kaibʊʂʊk̯ [ e ] 2 imo [ do ] 2 kaibuʂu̯ [ p ] 2 imu [ f ] 2 kaibuʂuk̯ [ d ] 2 ʊmʊ [ i ] 2 kaibuʃuk̯ [ s ] 2 umo [ q ] 2 kɛbuʂuk [ t ] 3 ɨmʊ [ ehmn ] 3 krɨmbɨʂɨk [ h ] 3 ɛmo [ c ] 3 krɨŋbɨʂɨkbʊ [ n ] 3 ibo [ s ] 3 krɨŋbɪʂɨ [ c ] 3 imo [ do ] 3 kruŋbʊʂʊk [ i ] 3 imu [ f ] 4 kaibɨʂɨ̯ [ fgq ] 3 obo [ r ] 4 kaibuʂu̯ [ p ] 3 ʊmʊ [ i ] 4 kaimʂu̯ [ bl ] 3 ubo [ p ] 4 kaiŋʂu̯ [ ajk ] 3 umo [ q ] 5 kaibɨʂɨk̯ [ mor ] 4 mo [ g ] 5 kaibʊʂʊk̯ [ e ] 5 bo [ t ] 5 kaibuʂuk̯ [ d ] 6 ijɛ̯ [ w ] 5 kaibuʃuk̯ [ s ] 6 ja [ uv ] 5 kɛbuʂuk [ t ] 5 krɨmbɨʂɨk [ h ] 295 that thing 1 [ 0 ] 5 kruŋbʊʂʊk [ i ] oʈa 2 [ a ] 6 kaibɨʂɨ̯ [ fgq ] ɔbɔma 2 [ p ] 6 kɛbuʂuk [ t ] obono 2 [ q ] 6 krɨŋbɪʂɨ [ c ] omono 2 ubɔma [ bjkl ] 3 obo [ s ] 3 uːobo [ r ] 3 ubo [ cdfgot ] 3 ubʊ [ eim ] 3 umʊ [ hn ] 4 hawa [ u ] 4 uwa [ v ] 4 uwɛ [ w ]

150

296 these things 297 those things 1 ɛgulo [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ q ] 2 bɔu̯ma [ aj ] 1 ogulo [ 0 ] 2 bɔu̯marau̯ [ bk ] 2 abomarau̯ [ k ] 2 boma [ l ] 2 ubɔu̯marau̯ [ b ] 3 iborok [ s ] 3 ubo [ cfgt ] 3 imoɾok [ d ] 3 ubʊ [ e ] 3 ʊmʊrɔk [ i ] 3 umʊ [ h ] 3 uborok [ pr ] 4 uboɾok [ drs ] 4 ɨmʊ [ eh ] 4 ubrok (ʂokol) [ o ] 4 ɛmo [ c ] 4 ubʊrɔk [ i ] 4 imo (ʂokol) [ o ] 4 umrok [ n ] 5 muʈʃorok [ m ] 5 oborokno [ p ] 5 ʊmʊrɔk [ i ] 5 uboɾok [ drs ] 5 uborok [ pr ] 5 ubʊrɔk [ i ] 6 iblɛi ̯ [ f ] 6 ubuʈʃorok [ m ] 7 modʒoto [ g ] 7 haiwaɾaŋ̯ [ v ] 8 mrok [ n ] 7 waɾaŋ [ u ] 8 ʊmʊrɔk [ i ] 8 uɾaŋ [ w ] 9 omoroŋno [ q ] 8 waɾaŋ [ u ] A bo [ t ] 9 ɔbɔu̯ma [ a ] B jaɾaŋ [ uv ] 9 ubɔma [ jl ] C iraŋ [ w ] 9 ubɔu̯marau̯ [ b ]

298 1s 1 ami [ 0 ] 2 aŋ [ bcdefghijklmnopqrstw ] 2 au̯ŋ [ a ] 3 aŋa [ uv ]

299 2s (familiar) 1 tumi [ 0 ] 2 nɨŋ [ cdefghmnoqrt ] 2 naŋ [ w ] 2 nʊŋ [ i ] 2 nuŋ [ abjklps ] 3 naʔa [ uv ]

300 2s (honorific) 1 apni [ 0 ] 2 nɨŋ [ cefghmnoqrt ] 2 naŋ [ w ] 2 nʊŋ [ i ] 2 nuŋ [ abdjklps ] 3 naʔa [ uv ]

151

301 3s (generic/male) 304 2p (familiar) 1 ʃɛ [ 0 ] 1 tomɾa [ 0 ] 2 abobraha [ kl ] 2 ɨnːau̯ [ j ] 2 abraha [ aj ] 2 ɨnːau̯ŋ [ akl ] 3 abɔbrɔha [ b ] 2 ɨnːã [ b ] 3 abobraha [ kl ] 3 nəu̯ [ c ] 4 bɨu̯ [ c ] 4 nau̯k̚ [ fh ] 4 bo [ fgoqr ] 4 nɔk̚ [ i ] 4 bʊ [ ehim ] 4 nɔu̯k [ dem ] 5 bou̯k [ d ] 5 narau̯k [ t ] 5 brou̯k [ n ] 5 nəra [ g ] 6 obo [ s ] 5 nɔrɔk [ s ] 6 ubo [ p ] 5 norok [ npqr ] 7 uboʂɛ [ t ] 6 nɨŋ [ o ] 8 bija [ uv ] 7 naʃoŋ [ u ] 9 uwɛ [ w ] 8 naʔmai ̯ [ v ] 9 natɨm [ w ] 302 3s (female) 0 no entry [ i ] 305 2p (honorific) 1 [ 0 ] ʃɛ 0 no entry [ i ] 2 [ b ] abɔbrɔma 1 apnaɾa [ 0 ] 2 [ kl ] abobroma 2 ɨnːa [ b ] 2 [ a ] abrama 2 ɨnːau̯ŋ [ akl ] 2 [ j ] abroma 3 ɨnːarɔ [ j ] 3 [ w ] uwɛ 4 nau̯ [ c ] 4 [ c ] bɨu̯ 5 nau̯g̚ [ f ] 4 [ fgoqr ] bo 5 nau̯k̚ [ h ] 4 [ ehm ] bʊ 6 narau̯k [ t ] 5 [ s ] obo 6 nərak [ g ] 5 [ p ] ubo 6 nɔrɔk [ s ] 6 [ d ] bou̯k 6 norok [ npqr ] 6 [ n ] brou̯k 7 nɨŋ [ o ] 7 [ t ] uboʂɛ 8 naʃoŋ [ u ] 8 [ uv ] bija 9 naʔmai ̯ [ v ]

A natɨm [ w ] 303 1p B nau̯k̚ [ h ] 1 amɾa [ 0 ] B nɔu̯k [ dem ] 2 [ p ] ʂuŋ 2 tʃɨŋ [ cefghmnor ] 2 tʃʊŋ [ i ] 2 tʃuŋ [ abdjklqst ] 3 hantʃɨŋ [ u ] 4 aŋga [ v ] 5 nanaŋ [ w ]

152

306 3p 1 taɾa [ 0 ] 2 abrau̯ [ l ] 2 abrau̯rɔ [ a ] 3 abobrau̯ [ k ] 3 abrau̯ [ l ] 4 abrau̯ [ l ] 4 ɔbra.ɔ [ j ] 5 abobrau̯ [ k ] 5 ubɔbrɔrəu̯ [ b ] 6 bau̯k [ h ] 6 bɔk [ i ] 7 ɨborok [ q ] 7 oborok [ ps ] 7 ou̯boɾək [ g ] 7 ubobok [ e ] 7 uboɾok [ dmr ] 7 ubrou̯k [ f ] 8 ɨborok [ q ] 8 oborok [ ps ] 8 ou̯boɾək [ g ] 8 uboɾok [ dmr ] 8 ubrou̯k [ f ] 8 umrok [ n ] 9 uːbo [ o ] 9 ubo [ t ] A biʃoŋ [ u ] B bigumai ̯ [ v ] C ɨtɨm [ w ] D bau̯ [ c ]

153

B. RECORDED TEXT TESTS B.1. Codes used in the transcription of texts In the following texts, these line codes are used:

Code: Meaning: \n Line number \k Standard Kok Borok \p Phonetic transcription \g Word-by-word English gloss of transcribed text \b Free (natural) Bangla translation of the text \e Free (natural) English translation of the text

The following abbreviations are used in the glosses:

CONT = continuous tense marker FUT = future tense marker HAB = habitual marker NEG = negative marker PAST = past tense marker POSS = possessive marker PP = past participle

Because a comprehensive grammar study was not a part of this survey, no attempt was made to delve into the miry depths of syntax, such as distinguishing among various types of past-tense markers. The glosses were taken to make sure that we understood the story well enough to produce accurate questions that would elicit clear answers. Even though the glosses are far from being complete or highly technical, they were judged to be good enough. Such are the limitatins of fieldwork and the decisions we learn to live with. B.2. Text transcription

B.2.1. Debbarma Kok Borok text Title: Ranjit Location: Arundhati Nagar, Agartala Date: 17 May 2007 Language: Debbarma Kok Borok

\n 1 \k Ranjit hwnwi sikla khoroksa Kasko kamio buma randijwk \g Ranjit named young one-man Kasko village his-mother widow \k bai tonglaijao \g with live-PAST \b রিঞ্জত নােম eকজন েছেল তার িবধবা মােয়র সােথ কাসেকা নামক gােম বাস করত। \e Ranjit lived in Kasko village with his widowed mother.

154

Question 1: Whom did Ranjit live with? Answer 1: His (widowed) mother.

\n 2 \k kami Kasko khamani kami ahai kasekhai \g village Kasko west-of village like much \k chahbaija nwngbaiya tongthothok chachthothok chengrabai kubuibai \g plentiful-food plentiful-drink joyful much-food fun honest \k sabo-bai-saboba chekleklai saboba kwrwng hinjak \g one-to-another joking who educated called \k saboba phangnang kwplai hinjak \g who strong victor called \b কাসেকা gােম pচুর পিরমােণ খাবার িছল, aেনক আনn eবং সততা, eবং সবাi e o জানত েয েক চালাক o শিkশালী। \e In Kasko village there were always plenty to eat and drink, lots of fun, joy, and honesty, and everyone knew who was smart and strong.

\n 3 \k aborokno nugwi randijwkmani bwsla Ranjit akhini buini \g these seeing widow-POSS son Ranjit smart others \k swlai sinai-nuknai hinjakna bagwi dalbidal wngma rokse \g than knowledgeable be-called for various be many \k teibo mwnwikothok wngwi tongna-chahna thai kwrwijak \g more laughing be stay-eat place not \b েসi সবেচেয় েবশী চালাক eটা েদখােত রিঞ্জত aেনক িকছুi করত, িকnt তােক িনেয় হাসাহািস করার কারেণ েস েকাথাo েখেত বা থাকেত পারতনা। \e Ranjit did many things to show that he was the smartest, but he was laughed at so that he couldn’t stay or eat anywhere.

\n 4 \k kamini siklirok khaito Ranjitno nuk khaino bukhuk \g village-POSS girls especially at-Ranjit seeing immediately mouth \k kholop-kholoplai mwnwibaio \g covering laughed \b gােমর েমেয়রা রিঞ্জতেক েদখেলi তােদর মুখ েঢেক হাসেতা। \e The girls of the village would cover their mouths and laugh at Ranjit as soon as they saw him.

Question 2: How did the girls laugh? Answer 2: Covering their mouths.

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\n 5 \k siklirok mwnwima bagwi Ranjit thamchi kajago \g girls laughed because Ranjit angry rose \b েমেয়েদর হাসার কারেণ রিঞ্জত েরেগ uেঠিছল। \e Because the girls laughed at him, Ranjit became angry.

Question 3: Why did Ranjit become angry? Answer 3: Because the girls laughed at him.

\n 6 \k salsa khai bwrwi siklirokno pheslikna bagwi sikli gnang \g one-day this women girls-to avenge for girls of \k nok mahrei rwsam-romo jotono thumwi daikungo hwiwi tonwikha \g family each rice-pounding-tools all collect far hid keep-PAST \b eর pিতেশাধ েনয়ার জn েস pেতয্ক েমেয়র বািড় েথেক রাচাম-রম দূের িনেয় লুিকেয় রাখেলা। \e To get back at the girls, he took the rice pounding tools from each of the girl’s families and hid them far away.

Question 4: What did Ranjit hide? Answer 4: Tools for pounding rice.

\n 7 \k yangkhai Senani auan-chuan sukna bagwi rwsam-romo \g for festival cake-wine pound for rice-pounding-tools \k naituklainale bohro mase manlailiya. \g search-started anywhere find-PP get-NEG-PAST \b uৎসেবর পূেবর্ মদ-পীঠা ৈতরী করার জn তারা েসi িজিনসgেলা খুঁজেলা িকnt েকাথাo খুঁেজ েপলনা। \e Before the Senani festival, they searched for the tools to make rice-wine cake, but they couldn’t find them anywhere.

Question 5: What did they want to make for the festival? Answer 5: (Rice-wine) cake.

\n 8 \k rwsam bai romo manyanai bagwi salnwi romoi naitukkha \g tool and tool not-finding for two-days tool search-PAST \b তারা d’িদন ধের খুঁেজo েসi িজিনসgেলা েপলনা। \e They searched for two days and couldn’t find the tools.

Question 6: How long did they search for the tools? Answer 6: Two days.

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\n 9 \k aphrukhai diyari karwi naina bagwi diyari karnai \g then monk for prophesy for monk man \k tubuna bagwi thahngna joraose akhini Ranjit bwsak \g brought for go-to that-time smartly Ranjit body \k buprajagwi kwlwiprai diyari romjagwi pau-pau chirikhogwi tongtekha \g trembling shaking monk spiritual sound crying continued \b যখনi তারা িজিনসgেলা খুঁেজ েবর করার জn eকজন পুেরাহীতেক িনেয় আসার জn যািচ্ছল িঠক তখনi রিঞ্জত িচৎকার িদেয় কাপেত শুr করল। \e Just when they were going to get a monk to reveal where the tools were hidden, Ranjit started to shake and make sounds.

\n 10 \k kamini joto bwrwirok saboni swlai sabo diyari naiwi man seklai-tonglaikha \g village-POSS all women whose before who monk get-result can quarrel \b েক কার আেগ িজিনসgেলা েপেত পাের eটা িনেয় gােমর মিহলারা ঝগড়া শুr কের িদেয়িছল। \e All the village’s women started to quarrel over who would get the result first.

Question 7: Who quarreled? Answer 7: All the village’s women.

\n 11 \k aphrukhai Ranjit satekha uahtlok uangsungsa arak nangnai \g then Ranjit said bamboo stalk-full alcohol need \b তখন রিঞ্জত বলল েয তার জn eক চুঙ্গা মদ লাগেব। \e Then Ranjit said he needed a bamboo stalk-full of alcohol.

Question 8: What did Ranjit say he needed? Answer 8: Bamboo stalk-full of alcohol.

\n 12 \k bo dudukolom uaksa sankha twmakhai bini hamjakmani chamung \g he young pig want-PAST because his favorite food \b েস eকটা শুকর ছানাo েচেয়িছল কারণ েসটা িছল তার িpয় খাবার। \e He also asked for a young pig because that was his favorite food.

\n 13 \k sanase lersio tubuna lerliya \g before said bring-PAST immediately \b িজিনসgেলা েকাথায় আেছ েসটা বেল েদবার আেগi সমs িজিনসgেলা িনেয় আসা হেয়িছল। \e Even before he could say it, everything was brought.

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\n 14 \k aphrukhai bwkha pengjagwi satekha: thahngbaidi rwsamkhai \g ahen heart satisfied said go tools \k tokhiraini hakchen ganani mathukrai tola tei \g Tokhirai-POSS area near valley down and \k romorokkhai kami khamani bwrwiphang tolao naibaidi hinwi \g tools village west banyan-tree under go-and-see this \k sama baksano dodop-dadap khiklai riphaibaikha \g saying as-soon-assound throw bring-PAST \b eরপর েস খুশী হেয় তােদরেক তকিখরােয়র eলাকায় eকটা বট গােছর নীেচ িগেয় খুঁজেত বলল, আর সেঙ্গ সেঙ্গ তারা েসখােন িগেয় েসi িজিনসgেলা খুঁেজ েবর কের িনেয় আসেলা। \e With a satisfied heart, he told them to find the tools in Tokhirai’s area under the banyan tree. Soon the tools were found and brought.

\n 15 \k aphrukhai Ranjit kamini ochaiyungno twi supjak sarna dagitekha \g then Ranjit village-POSS chief-monk water blessing sprinkle order-PAST \b তারপর রিঞ্জত pধান পুেরাহীতেক পািন িছিটেয় আশীবর্াদ িদেত বলল। \e Then Ranjit ordered the chief monk to sprinkle the water blessing.

Question 9: Whom did Ranjit order to give the blessing? Answer 9: The chief monk.

\n 16 \k twi supjak sarna baksano akhini sraisakhai bwchatekha \g water blessing sprinkle as-soon-as smartly freely stand \b পািন িছটােনা সােথ সােথi েস দৃঢ়তার সােথ uেঠ দাড়াল। \e As soon as the water was sprinkled, he stood with confidence.

\n 17 \k ulokhai uaksa dudulokolno ratharwi chahtekha \g afterwards pig young cut ate \b পের েস শুকর ছানািট েখেয়িছল। \e Later, he ate the young pig.

Question 10: What did he eat? Answer 10: The young pig.

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B.2.2. Naitong Kok Borok text Title: Thieves in My House Location: Khagrapur, Khagrachari Date: 24 April 2007 Language: Naitong Kok Borok

\n 1 \p dʒɛpʰugo ani bojoʂ biʂi ʂini aipʰugo̯ dagai ̯ pʰaijoi̯ ̯ \g when my age year seven then thief come-PP \p horʂani horo tʃuŋno luti pʰaika̯ \g one-night night-at us robbed come-PAST \b আমার বয়স যখন সাত বছর তখন eক রােত ডাকােতরা আমােদরেক লুট কেরিছল। \e One night when I was seven years old, thieves came to rob us.

Question 1: How old was he? Answer 1: Seven years old.

\n 2 \p dagairok̯ duar̯ pʰijokni naikʰai̯ ̯ pa duarsuŋgoi̯ ̯ duar̯ pʰijok \g thieves door break-to want father door push-PP door break \p manjatoi ̯ kʰaijoi̯ ̯ tondʒak \g cannot do-PP keep-PAST \b ডাকােতরা যােত দরজা খুলেত না পাের েসজn বাবা দরজায় চাপা িদেয় েরেখিছেলন। \e My father pressed against the door so that the thieves could not open it.

\n 3 \p dagairok̯ duar̯ pʰijok manjakʰai̯ duarno̯ bakʂa kʰajai̯ latʰi rogoi ̯ duar̯ pʰijokkʰa \g thieves door break get-NEG door-at together do-PP kick give-PP door break-PAST \b ডাকােতরা দরজা খুলেত না েপের সবাi িমেল eকসােথ দরজায় লািথেমের দরজা খুেলিছল। \e The thieves couldn’t open the door so they all kicked together and opened it.

Question 2: How did the thieves open the door? Answer 2: By kicking.

\n 4 \p duar̯ pʰiji paikʰai̯ ̯ pano bok ʂilai̯ kokkʰa \g door break-PP come-PP father-to they gun do-PAST \b দরজা খুেল যাবার পর তারা বাবােক gিল করল। \e When the door opened, they shot my father.

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\n 5 \p ʂilai ̯ kokkʰai ̯ pani jaktogːo dʒaga kɨrɨŋtʰam naŋkʰa \g gun do-PAST father-POSS hand place three hit-PAST \b gিল করেল পের বাবার হােতর িতনিট জায়গায় েলেগিছল। \e Bullets hit my father’s arm in three places.

\n 6 \p kɨrɨŋʂa oŋkʰa jaktok dʒoraar kɨrɨŋʂajaʂuku dʒora ʂaka ar kɨrɨŋʂa pʰarakuŋ \g one be-PAST hand joint and one elbow joint above and one shoulder \b eকটা হেচ্ছ হােতর কিb, আর eকটা হেচ্ছ কni-eর uপর আর আেরকটা হেচ্ছ কাঁধ। \e One hit the wrist, another hit just above the elbow, and the other hit the shoulder.

\n 7 \p o dʒaga kɨrɨŋtʰam daijo̯ guli naŋkʰa \g that place three at-that bullet hit-PAST \b ei িতনিট জায়গায় gিল েলেগিছল। \e Bullets hit in those three places.

Question 3: In how many places did the bullets hit? Answer 3: In three places.

\n 8 \p pano dʒokʰon ʂilai̯ kokkʰai ̯ ʂilaini̯ ʂobdo bai ̯ \g father-to when gun do-PAST gun-POSS sound get-PP \p aŋ tʃɛtɛr manai ̯ tʃurujoi ̯ batʃagoi ̯ pano kabakkʰa \g I come-to-know get-PP shout-PP stand-PP father-to hug-PAST \b বাবােক যখন gিল করা হল gিলর শb শুেন েটরেপেয় uেঠ আিম বাবােক জিরেয় ধেরিছলাম। \e When my father was shot, I heard the sound of the gun and shouted and went and hugged him.

Question 4: How did he come to know something was happening? Answer 4: Heard the sound of the gun.

\n 9 \p aŋ dʒodi aipʰugo̯ pano kabakdʒɛbakʰai ̯ ani ʂiŋdaiʂɛ̯ guli naŋgoi ̯ \g I if then father-to did-not-hug my backbone-at bullet hit-PP \p aŋʂɛ tʰui ̯ paikʰamuŋ̯ \g I die would-go \b আিম যিদ বাবােক জিড়েয় না ধরতাম তাহেল আমার িপেঠ gিল েলেগ আিম মারা েযতাম। \e If I hadn’t hugged my father, the bullet would have hit my back, and I would have died.

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Question 5: What would have happened if the bullet had hit his back? Answer 5: He would have died.

\n 10 \p dagairok̯ tʃini goina̯ raŋtʃak rupʰai̯ raŋ tilaŋkʰa \g thieves our ornament gold silver money take-PAST \b ডাকােতরা আমােদর গয়না, েসানা, rপা, টাকা িনেয় িগেয়িছল। \e The thieves took our ornaments, gold, silver, and money.

\n 11 \p raŋ tilaŋgo tʃiʂa hadʒar \g money take-PAST eleven thousand \b ১১ হাজার টাকা িনেয় িগেয়িছল। \e They took 11,000 taka.

\n 12 \p ma hui ̯ larukdʒak hadʒar kaidok̯ raŋ \g mother hide keep-PAST thousand six money \b মা ছয় হাজার টাকা লুিকেয় েরেখিছল। \e Mother had hid 6000 taka.

Question 6: What had mother done with the money? Answer 6: Hid it.

\n 13 \p ma agaitːa̯ budːi ganaŋ \g mother a-lot-of intelligent have-PAST \b মা aেনক বুিdমিত িছল। \e Mother was very intelligent.

\n 14 \p o budːi ganaŋni bagoiʂɛ̯ ma raŋ hui̯ larok mano \g that talent have-PP because-of mother money hid-PP keep-PP can-PAST \b ei বুিd থাকার কারেণi মা টাকাgেলা লুিকেয় রাখেত েপেরিছল। \e Because she was intelligent, she had thought to hide the money.

Question 7: Why could his mother hide the money? Answer 7: Because of her intelligence.

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\n 15 \p o raŋ hui laruk naibai̯ ʂɛ̯ pano tʃikitʂa kʰajoi ̯ ʂalamo \g that money hide keep with father-to treatment do-PP recover \b ঐ লুিকেয় রাখা টাকা িদেয় বাবােক কের ss করা হেয়িছল। \e With that hidden money, my father was treated and recovered.

Question 8: With what was father treated? Answer 8: With the hidden money.

\n 16 \p aipʰugo̯ pa dʒokʰon kokdʒakʰa aŋ bakʰa kadʒak dʒɛ \g then father while shoot-to I think do-PAST that \p pa tʰuikai̯ puŋ̯ tʰuimano-hinɛi̯ ̯ \g father would-die will-die \b বাবােক যখন gিল েলেগিছল তখন আিম মেন কেরিছলাম েয বাবা হয়েতা মারা যােবন। \e First when my father was shot I thought he would die.

\n 17 \p pa tʰuilja̯ tʃini dʒotoni baigːo toŋgoi̯ \g father die-not-PAST our all luck have \b আমােদর সকেলর ভােগয্ িছল বেল বাবা মারা যানিন। \e We were fortunate that father didn’t die.

\n 18 \p pa haŋmoi ̯ tʃuŋno lɛkʰapora pʰuruŋga \g father recover us-to study teach-PAST \b বাবা ss হেয় আমােদরেক েলখাপড়া িশখােলন। \e After recovering, father taught us.

Question 9: What did father do after recovering? Answer 9: Taught them.

\n 19 \p lɛkʰapora pʰuroi ̯ ano bi ɛ paʂ kʰairokʰa̯ \g study do-PP I B A pass do-PAST \b েলখাপড়া িশিখেয় আমােক িব e পাশ করােলন। \e He sent me to school until I got my BA degree.

\n 20 \p ao̯ hirɛn kotoibono̯ ɛm ɛ paʂ kʰairokʰa̯ \g and Hiren younger-brother M A pass do-PAST \b আর আমার েছাট হীেরনেকo eম e পাশ করােলন। \e He also sent my younger brother Hiren until he got his MA.

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\n 21 \p tʃɨŋno burui ̯ kaikʰa̯ \g we marriage do-PAST \b আমােদর িবেয় িদেলন। \e He married us off.

\n 22 \p tʃɨŋni kormoʂoŋʂtʰan oŋkʰa \g our job be-PAST \b আমােদর কমর্সংsান হেয়েছ। \e We were employed. n 23 \p pʰajoŋ girabo propʰɛsar aŋ tʃiarmɛn waitʰam̯ \g younger-brother small professor I chairman three-times \b েছাট ভাi pেফসার হল, আিম িতনবার েচয়ারময্ান হলাম। \e My younger brother become a professor, and I became chairman three times.

Question 10: Who became a professor? Answer 10: My younger brother.

\n 24 \p oboni biʂi kabaŋ toŋgoi ̯ nui ̯ hadʒar nui ̯ ʂon dajoʂɛ \g that-POSS year many have-PP two thousand two year time-at \p biʂi kuruk brui̯ biʂi dok bojoʂ dajoʂɛ pa tʰuijo̯ \g year score four year six age time-at father die-PAST \b eর aেনক বছর পর ২০০২ সেন ৮৬ বছর বয়েস বাবা মারা েগেলন। \e Many years after that, in 2002, my father died at the age of 86.

B.2.3. Khali Kok Borok text Title: Hironmoy Location: Beltolipara, Khagrachari Date: 10 June 2007 Language: Khali Kok Borok

\n 1 \p hironmoi ̯ kroŋʃa paɽadaijo̯ toŋgo \g Hironmoy one village-at have-PAST \b িহরNয় eকিট gােম বাস করত। \e Hironmoy lived in a village.

Question 1: Where did Hironmoy live? Answer 1: In a village.

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\n 2 \p bini bɔpʰa kaiʃ̯ a bɛbʃai \g his father one businessman \b তার বাবা eকজন বয্বসায়ী িছেলন। \e His father was a businessman.

\n 3 \p bo ma bokni paradaijo̯ pratʰomɪk iskulo pʰuruŋnai \g his mother their village-at primary school-in teach-PAST \b তার মা তােদর gােম pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় িশkকতা করেতন। \e There was a primary school at their village, and his mother was teaching there.

\n 4 \p hironmoi ̯ kuruŋdog̚ ʃrɛni daijo̯ pɔrijo \g Hironmoy six class in studied \b িহরNয় ষ েণীেত পড়ত। \e Hironmoy was studying in class six.

\n 5 \p bou̯k̚ni parani dʒimi iskulo dʒɔɾa kɔrɔŋba kilomitar \g his village-POSS from school-to until five kilometer \p katʃalo paharʃori juniɔn̯ daijo̯ \g far Paharchari union at \b তার gাম েথেক sুলিট ৫ িকেলািমটার দূের পাহাড়ছিড় iuিনয়েন aবিsত। \e His school was in Paharchari union, which was 5 kilometers away from his village.

\n 6 \p gari tʰani pʰaini̯ bagoi̯ bo dʒonom himoi̯ iskulo matʰaŋo \g van go-PP come-PP for he everyday walk school had-to-go \b গািড় চলাচেলর বয্বsা না থাকায় তােক pিতিদন পাঁেয় েহঁেট sুেল েযেত হত। \e Since there was no transportation, he would walk to school every day.

Question 2: How did Hironmoy go to school? Answer 2: By walking.

\n 7 \p lama katʃalni himoi ̯ pʰajoi ̯ nugo bo lɛŋdʒago \g road long-for walk come home he be-tired \b sুল েথেক দীঘর্ পথ েহঁেট বািড় িফের eেস েস kাn হেয় পড়ত। \e He had to walk a long way to return home, and he hecame tired.

Question 3: Why did he become tired? Answer 3: Because he had to walk a lot.

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\n 8 \p watoini̯ molo bo ʃati lagoi ̯ iskulo tʰaŋgo \g rainy time he umbrella take-PP school-to go-PAST \b বষর্ার িদেন েস ছাতা িনেয় sুেল েযত। \e On rainy days he took an umbrella to school.

Question 4: What did he take to school on rainy days? Answer 4: An umbrella.

\n 9 \p watoini̯ dʒorodaijo̯ lama kʰub tʃaija̯ ɔŋo \g rainy time road very bad become-PAST \b বষর্ার সময় রাsার aবsা খুব খারাপ হেয় েযত। \e In rainy season the road became very bad.

Question 5: When did the the road become very bad? Answer 5: During rainy season.

\n 10 \p iskulni nugo pʰaini̯ waiʃa-wai̯ nɔi̯ ̯ hɔr ɔŋgo \g school-from home come-to sometimes evening become-PAST \b sুল েথেক বািড় িফরেত মােঝ-মােঝ সেnয্ হেয় েযত। \e Sometimes it became dark when he was returning home from school.

\n 11 \p bini bagəi ̯ bopʰa bomani kʰub wanʃuk̚ma toŋo \g his for mother father-POSS very worried have-PAST \b েসজn তার মা-বাবা তােক িনেয় খুব িচnা করত। \e Then his parents were very worried about him.

\n 12 \p kintu hironmoi ̯ kʰub gam ʃatro \g but Hironmoy very good student \b িকnt িহরNয় খুব ভাল ছাt িছল। \e But Hironmoy was a very good student.

Question 6: How was Hironmoy as a student? Answer 6: Very good.

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\n 13 \p pʰoroŋnairo̯ k bono hamdʒago kaɾon bo pʰorɔŋnairoŋni̯ \g teachers him love because he teacher-POSS \p kɔk gamkʰalai ̯ kʰənago \g word well listened \b িশkকরা তােক ভালবাসত কারন েস িশkকেদর কথা মেনােযাগ িদেয় শুনত। \e Teachers loved him because he listened to them attentively.

Question 7: Why did the teachers love him? Answer 7: Because he listened to them attentively.

B.2.4. Aslong Kok Borok text Title: My First Day of School Location: Mildhanpara, Khagrachari Date: 11 June 2007 Language: Aslong Kok Borok

\n 1 \p protʰom din aŋ takʰubrui̯ okrabai ̯ logɛjo ʂkulgo tʰaŋkʰa \g first day I sibling-girl big with school-to go-PAST \b pথম িদন আিম আমার বড় েবােনর সােথ sুেল িগেয়িছলাম। \e On my first day of school, I went to school with my older sister.

Question 1: With whom did he go to school? Answer 1: His older sister.

\n 2 \p bo tinkla porɛjo \g she three-class read-PAST \b েস তৃতীয় েণীেত পড়ত। \e She was in class three.

\n 3 \p ʂkul tʰaŋgoi ̯ maʂtɔ ani bɔmɨŋ ani bojoʂ ani mani bani \g school-to go-CONT my name my age my mother father POSS \p bɔmiŋ ʂuŋni naikʰa̯ \g name know-to want-PAST \b sুেল যাবার পর িশkক আমার নাম, আমার বয়স o মা-বাবার নাম জানেত চাiেলন। \e After I got to school, the teacher asked my name, my age, and my mother’s and father’s names.

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\n 4 \p ɛrpor aŋ klaʂgo tlaŋjagoi̯ tʰaŋkʰa \g then I class-in go-PP go-PAST \b eরপর আিম েণী কেk চেল েগলাম। \e Then I went to the classroom.

Question 2: Where did he go? Answer 2: To the classroom.

\n 5 \p oro tʰaŋgoi ̯ aŋ kitʃiŋno nuŋkʰa \g there having-gone I friend-to see-PAST \b েসখােন িগেয় আিম আমার eকজন বnুেক েদখেত েপলাম। \e In the classroom, I saw one of my friends.

\n 6 \p bo aŋno nugoi ̯ rihokʰa \g he me-to see-PP call-PAST \b েস আমােক েদেখ ডাক িদল। \e Seeing me, he called me.

Question 3: What did his friend do? Answer 3: He called him.

\n 7 \p aŋno aŋni kitʃiŋ kok ʂalaino̯ maʂtɔ tʃini klaʂgo dakʰa \g I my friend speech say-CONT-PAST teacher our class-in enter-PAST \b আিম o আমার বnু যখন কথা বলিছলাম তখন eকজন িশkক আমােদর kােশ eেস ঢুকেলন। \e While my friend and I were talking, a teacher came into our classroom.

Question 4: Who came into the classroom? Answer 4: A teacher.

\n 8 \p bo tʃɨŋbai ̯ bakʂa baŋla kok ʂaka \g he our with Bangla language talk-PAST \b িতিন আমােদর সােথ বাংলা ভাষা িদেয় কথা বলিছেলন। \e He was talking to us in Bangla.

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\n 9 \p kintu tʃɨŋ nuŋgo tʃini kokburu rugoi̯ kok ʂanai̯ \g but we house-in our Kok Borok with language say-PAST-HAB \b িকnt আমরা বািড়েত আমােদর ককবরক ভাষা িদেয় কথা বলতাম। \e But we spoke Kok Borok at home.

Question 5: In what language did they speak at home? Answer 5: Kok Borok.

\n 10 \p bo tʃini kainui̯ no̯ tɨma ʂuidʒakʰa̯ kintu tʃɨŋ bɨno utto rumalia ̯ \g he our two-people-to what ask-PAST but we him-to answer could-not \b িতিন আমােদর dজনেক কী েযন িজjাসা কেরিছেলন, িকnt আমরা তাঁেক utর িদেত পািরিন। \e He asked both of us something, but we couldn’t answer him.

\n 11 \p boni bruŋno tʃɨŋ uttor rijagoi̯ bo tʃɨŋno kainui̯ no̯ aʂtɛ kʰaigoi̯ ̯bukʰa \g his question we answer for he us two-people-to slowly do-PP beat-PAST \b তাঁর কথার utর না েদoয়াi িতিন আমােদর dজনেক আেsকের মারেলন। \e Because we didn’t answer him, he slowly beat both of us.

\n 12 \p kintu ɔnɛk̚bruŋno tʃla bruiʂa̯ biʂkaŋgo bumini karongoi ̯ tʃɨŋ \g but many boys girls in-front-of beat because-of we \p latʃigoi ̯ makakʰa \g embarrass cry-PAST \b িকnt aেনকgেলা েছেল-েমেয়েদর সামেন মারার কারেণ আমরা লjা েপেয় কাঁদলাম। \e We were embarrassed and cried because he beat us in front of many boys and girls.

Question 6: What did they do because they were embarrased? Answer 6: They cried.

\n 13 \p haipʰuni̯ ʂkul ʂuti oŋmuni porɛjo aŋ ani aboini̯ urgo tʰaŋkʰa \g then school vacation be-CONT after I my sister-POSS near go-PAST \p aboino̯ ʂakʰa aboi ̯ aŋ ai ̯ ʂkulgo porini pʰailia̯ ̯ \g sister-to say-PAST sister I this school-in read-to not-come-FUT \b eরপর, sুল ছুিট হেল পের আিম আমার িদিদর কােছ েগলাম, আর তােক বললাম, “িদিদ আিম আর ei sুেল পড়েত আসব না”। \e When school was over for the day, I went to my sister and told her, “Sister, I won’t come to school again.”

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Question 7: When did he go to his sister? Answer 7: At the end of the school day.

\n 14 \p ani aboi ̯ aŋno ʂuŋkʰa tɨmani maʂtɔ tɨmani nono bulaŋ \g my sister me-to ask-PAST why teacher why you-to beat-PAST \b আমার িদিদ আমােক িজেjস করেলা, “েকন, মাsার কী েতামােক েমেরেছন”? \e My sister asked me, “Why? Did the teacher beat you?”

\n 15 \p aŋ bukʰruk nagoi ̯ buno uttor rɨkʰa \g I head shake-PP her-to answer give-PAST \b আিম মাথা নািড়েয় তােক utর িদেয়িছলাম। \e I answered her by nodding my head.

Question 8: How did he answer her? Answer 8: By nodding/shaking head.

B.2.5. Anok Kok Borok text Title: Hironmoy Location: Laiphu Karbaripara, Khagrachari Date: 11 June 2007 Language: Anok Kok Borok

\n 1 \p hironmoini̯ nɔk toiʃa̯ kɔɾɛjo \g Hironmoy-POSS home river next-to \b িহরNেয়র বািড়িট িছল eকিট নদীর পােশ। \e Hironmoy’s house was by a river.

Question 1: Where was Hironmoy’s house? Answer 1: By a river.

\n 2 \p bini bopʰa patʰorni kam kʰalaijo̯ \g his father field-POSS work do-PAST \b তার বাবা জিম চাষ করেতন। \e His father was a farmer.

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Question 2: What did his father do? Answer 2: Farming.

\n 3 \p hironmoi ̯ kəlas sik daijo̯ porijo \g Hironmoy class six in studied \b িহরNয় ষ েণীেত পড়ত। \e Hironmoy was studying in class six.

\n 4 \p bokni nok bai̯ iskul pas kilomitar kasal paharsori junion̯ tɔŋo \g his home from school five kilometer far Paharchari union have-PAST \b তার gাম েথেক sুলিট ৫ িকেলািমটার দূের পাহাড়ছিড় iuিনয়েন aবিsত। \e His school was in Paharchari union, which was 5 kilometers away from his village.

\n 5 \p gari ʃoliani̯ baoi̯ bo dʒonom jakuŋbai ̯ \g van run-NEG-PP therefore he everyday foot-on \p huŋmoi ̯ iskulo tʰaŋo \g walk-PP school-to go-PAST \b গািড় চলাচেলর বয্বsা না থাকায় তােক pিতিদন পােয় েহঁেট sুেল েযেত হত। \e Since there was no transportation, he would walk to school every day.

Question 3: How did Hironmoy go to school? Answer 3: By walking.

\n 6 \p watoini̯ dino bo ʃati tilaŋgoi̯ iskulo tʰaŋo \g rainy day he umbrella take-PP school-to go-PAST \b বষর্ার িদেন েস ছাতা িনেয় sুেল েযত। \e On rainy days, he took an umbrella to school.

Question 4: What did he take to school on rainy days? Answer 4: An umbrella.

\n 7 \p watoi-nəbarni̯ dʒəwo lama bari ʃaija̯ ɔŋoi ̯ tʰaŋo \g rain-storm happens road very bad be-PP go-PAST \b ঝর-বৃির সময় রাsার aবsা খুব খারাপ হেয় েযত। \e During rainy season, the road became very bad.

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Question 5: When did the the road become very bad? Answer 5: During rainy season.

\n 8 \p iskulni nou̯o pʰiloi̯ tʰani oaiha̯ wainoi̯ ̯ andar oŋoi ̯ tʰaŋo \g school-from home-to return go-PP one-time two-time dark be go-PAST \b sুল েথেক বািড় িফরেত মােঝ-মােঝ সেnয্ হেয় েযত। \e Sometimes it became dark when he was returning home from school.

\n 9 \p bini baoi ̯ boma bopʰa bari wanaoi ̯ toŋo \g his for mother father very worried have-PAST \b েসজn তার মা-বাবা তােক িনেয় খুব িচnা করত। \e Then his parents were very worried about him.

\n 10 \p mastɔrɔk bono hamdʒakwo karɔn hirɔnmoi ̯ bari ʃatro gam \g teachers him loved because Hironmoy very student good \b িশkকরা তােক ভালবাসত কারন িহরNয় খুব ভাল ছাt িছল। \e Teachers loved Hironmoy because he was a very good student.

Question 6: Why did the teachers love Hironmoy? Answer 6: Because he was a very good student.

\n 11 \p hirɔnmoi ̯ gordʒa oŋoi ̯ bokaiha̯ mastɔr oŋha \g Hironmoy big be-PP he one teacher become-PAST

\b িহরNয় বড় হেয় eকজন িশkক হেলন। \e Hironmoy became a teacher when he grew up.

Question 7: What did Hironmoy become when he grew up? Answer 7: A teacher.

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B.2.6. Phatung Kok Borok text Title: Topon Location: Jarichandrapara, Khagrachari Date: 14 June 2007 Language: Phatung Kok Borok

\n 1 \p toponːi nou̯k toi ̯ kandau̯go toŋo \g Topon-POSS house water bank-of have-PAST \b তপেনর বািড়টা িছল eকিট নদীর পােশ। \e Topon’s house was by river.

Question 1: Where was Topon’s house? Answer 1: By a river.

\n 2 \p bini bopʰa haram kʰolaijo̯ \g his father land cultivate-PAST \b তার বাবা জিম চাষ করত। \e Topon’s father was a farmer.

Question 2: What did his father do? Answer 2: Farming.

\n 3 \p topon kaidou̯ ̯k klaʂo porijo \g Topon six class-in read-PAST \b তপন ষ েণীেত পড়ত। \e Topon was studying in class six.

\n 4 \p gari tʰaŋpʰai ̯ ŋai ̯ bo dʒonom ɪskulo jatʰibai ̯ homi tʰaŋo \g van come-and-go have-not he daily school-to leg-with walk-PP go-PAST \b গািড় চলাচেলর বয্বsা না থাকায় তােক pিতিদন পােয় েহঁেট sুেল েযেত হত। \e Since there was no transportation, he would walk to school every day.

Question 3: How did he go to school? Answer 3: By walking.

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\n 5 \p jatoini̯ molo bo sati lai̯ ɪskulo tʰaŋo \g rain-POSS time he umbrella take-PP school-to go-PAST \b বষর্ার িদেন েস ছাতা িনেয় sুেল েযত। \e On rainy days he took an umbrella to school.

Question 4: What did he take to school on rainy days? Answer 4: An umbrella.

\n 6 \p jatoini̯ molo lamba bari tʃaija̯ uŋkʰa \g rain-POSS time road very bad be-PAST \b বষর্ার সময় রাsার aবsা খুব খারাপ হেয় েযত। \e During rainy season the road became very bad.

Question 5: When did the road become very bad? Answer 5: During rainy season.

\n 7 \p ɪskulni pʰaikɨla̯ ʂola-ʂola ʂiŋdal oŋo \g school-from come-back-to sometimes evening be-PAST \b sুল েথেক বািড় িফরেত মােঝ-মােঝ সেnয্ হেয় েযত। \e Sometimes it became dark when he was returning home from school.

\n 8 \p otʰanibai ̯ bini boma bopʰa bari tʃinta kʰolajo \g that-for his mother father very worry do-PAST \b েস জn তার মা-বাবা তােক িনেয় খুব িচnা করত। \e Then his parents were very worried about him.

\n 9 \p topon bari gam satro toŋo otʰanibai̯ bono maʂtarokba gam mantʃago \g Topon very good student have-PAST that-for him teacher-PL good get-PAST \b তপন খুব ভাল ছাt িছল, েস জn িশkেকরা তােক ভাল বাসত। \e The teachers loved Topon because he was a very good student.

Question 6: Why did the teachers love Topon? Answer 6: He was a very good student.

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\n 10 \p topon gara oŋkʰlɛ kia ̯ maʂtar oŋkʰa \g Topon big be-PP one teacher be-PAST \b তপন বড় হেয় eকজন িশkক হল। \e Topon became a teacher when he grew up.

Question 7: What did Topon become when he grew up? Answer 7: A teacher.

B.2.7. Mukchak Kok Borok text Title: Hironmoy Location: Barbakpur, Rajbari Date: 04 July 2007 Language: Mukchak Kok Borok

\n 1 \p hironmoini̯ nok ugːa Gaŋli logɛ toŋmani \g Hironmoy-POSS house one river-POSS with have-PAST \b িহরNেয়র বািড়টা িছল eকিট নদীর পােশ। \e Hironmoy’s house was by a river.

Question 1: Where was Hironmoy’s house? Answer 1: By a river.

\n 2 \p boni bupʰa ha sʷainai̯ ̯ kʰulaito̯ \g his father land farming do-HAB \b তার বাবা জিম চাষ করত। \e His father was a farmer.

Question 2: What did his father do? Answer 2: Farming.

\n 3 \p hironmoi ̯ sosʈʰo klaso poraimani̯ \g Hironmoy six class-in read-PAST \b িহরNয় ষ েণীেত পড়ত। \e Hironmoy was studying in class six.

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\n 4 \p gari tʃʰalani obostʰa na toŋgoi̯ boni dʒotːo ʃal \g van driving situation no be-PAST him-to every day \p latoi ̯ himui ̯ ɪskulo tʰaŋmani naŋgu \g foot-on walk-PP school-to go-to need \b গািড় চলাচেলর বয্বsা না থাকায় তােক pিতিদন পােয় েহঁেট sুেল েযেত হত। \e Since there was no transportation, he would walk to school every day.

Question 3: How did he go to school? Answer 3: By walking.

\n 5 \p atoini̯ ʃalːo bo ʃati toi̯ ɪskulo tʰaŋmani \g rainy day he umbrella with school-to go-PAST \b বষর্ার িদেন েস ছাতা িনেয় sুেল েযত। \e On rainy days he took an umbrella to school.

Question 4: What did he take with him to go to school? Answer 4: An umbrella.

\n 6 \p atoini̯ ʃomoi ̯ lamani obostʰa gaham toiŋja̯ \g rainy time road-POSS condition good be-NEG-PAST \b বষর্ার সময় রাsার aবsা খুব খারাপ হেয় েযত। \e In rainy season the road became very bad.

Question 5: When did the road become very bad? Answer 5: During rainy season.

\n 7 \p ɪskulni pʰaitʰɛ̯ maɖʒɛ madʒɛ sandʒa oŋgu \g school-from come-back-to sometimes evening be-PAST \b sুল েথেক বািড় িফরেত মােঝ-মােঝ সেnয্ হেয় েযত। \e Sometimes it became dark when he was returning home from school.

\n 8 \p ibonibai ̯ boni buma bupʰa bono tui̯ tʃinta kʰolaito̯ \g therefore his mother father him-to for worry used-to-do \b েস জn তার মা-বাবা তােক িনেয় খুব িচnা করত। \e Then his parents were very worried about him.

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\n 9 \p hironmoi ̯ gaham tʃatro toŋmani \g Hironmoy good student have-PAST \p ibonibai ̯ ʃikːokrok bono gaham hamdʒagu \g therefore teachers him-to good loved \b িহরNয় খুব ভাল ছাt িছল, েস জn িশkেকরা তােক ভাল বাসত। \e The teachers loved Hironmoy because he was a very good student.

Question 6: Why did the teachers love Hironmoy? Answer 6: He was a very good student.

\n 10 \p bo koʈor oŋgoi ̯ ugːa maʈar oŋkʰa \g he big becoming one teacher be-PAST \b িহরNয় বড় হেয় eকজন িশkক হল। \e Hironmoy became a teacher when he grew up.

Question 7: What did Hironmoy become when he grew up? Answer 7: A teacher.

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C. RECORDED TEXT TEST RESPONSES

The following tables display the answers given by HTT/RTT subjects. They are displayed according to subject location and text location. The following abbreviations and scoring codes are used in the tables in section C.1: • A1 – A10 = Answers given to questions 1–10 about the content of the text. Actual questions and accepted answers are given within the texts shown in appendix B.2. • Score = Total score for the given subject; the maximum score of a test is 100. The scores are then turned into percentages, 100 points being 100%, 85 points 85%, and so on. Correct answer: Full credit Partially correct answer: Half credit Incorrect answer: No credit

The tables in section C.2. display post-HTT/RTT responses. The post-HTT/RTT questionnaires are given in appendices D.2 and D.3. The following abbreviations are used throughout appendix C: • DK = does not know • ND = no data • lg = language • w/ = with • N = no • Y = yes • NA = not applicable

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C.1. Recorded Text Test answers and scores

C.1.1. Kok Borok (Agartala) HTT validation: Agartala subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score because rice- bamboo covering rice 2 R1 widow girls pounding DK tube of priest pig 90 mouth cake days laughed tools alcohol rice- widow covering because rice 2 head young R2 pounding women alcohol 100 mother mouth of girls cake days priest pig tools rice- bamboo widow covering rice 2 village head R3 laughed pounding tube of pig 100 mother mouth cake days women priest tools alcohol because rice- bamboo widow covering rice 2 village R4 girls pounding women tube of pig 90 mother mouth cake days people laughed tools alcohol rice- all the bamboo widow covering women rice 2 head young R5 pounding village tube of 95 mother mouth laughed cake days priest pig tools women alcohol rice- bamboo widow covering girls rice 2 village head young R6 pounding tube of 100 mother mouth laughed cake days women priest pig tools alcohol because rice- bamboo widow covering rice 2 village head young R7 they pounding tube of 100 mother mouth cake days women priest pig laughed tools alcohol looking rice- bamboo village widow girls rice young R8 at pounding DK women tube of head 80 mother laughed cake pig Ranjit tools alcohol priest “ha ha- rice- bamboo his girls rice 3 village R9 hee pounding tube of priest pig 80 mother laughed cake days women hee” tools alcohol rice- R covering they rice 3 mother pounding women alcohol DK pig 80 10 mouth laughed cake days tools Average = 92, Standard Deviation = 8.8, Sample Size = 10

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C.1.2. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Lombapara (Naitong) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score girls bamboo widow covering rice young N1 laughed at DK 2 days DK tube of to the chief 70 mother mouth cake pig him alcohol bamboo widow covering girls rice village young N2 DK 2 days tube of to the chief 70 mother mouth laughed cake people pig alcohol

rice widow because of rice village bamboo pouring N3 "ha-ha" pounding 2 days pork 60 mother laughing cake people tube water tools rice covering because of bamboo N4 mother pounding DK 2 days DK DK pig 60 mouth laughing tube tools rice widow covering girls rice N5 pounding 2 days women alcohol DK pig 90 mother mouth laughed cake tools village because of bamboo rice young N6 head- "hee-hee" girls’ women 2 days DK tube of DK 50 cake pig man laughing alcohol rice bamboo widow covering because of rice village young N7 pounding DK villagers tube of 70 mother mouth laughing cake priest pig tools water because of covering all the rice bamboo young N8 mother girls’ 2 days women to the chief 70 mouth women cake tube pig laughing because of covering rice N9 mother girls’ girls 2 days women bamboo to the priest pig 80 mouth cake laughing because rice bamboo covering rice village young N10 mother girls pounding 2 days Ranjit tube of 80 mouth cake headman pig laughed tools alcohol Average = 70, Standard Deviation = 11.5, Sample Size = 10

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C.1.3. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Beltolipara (Khali) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score girls rice bamboo widow covering few 2 K1 laughed pounding DK tube of DK pig 60 mother mouth things days at him tools alcohol the girls 2 long K2 wife DK women rice cake DK DK pig 40 laughed days bamboo young rice rice widow covering 2 village K3 woman pounding pounding wine priest pig 80 mother mouth days leader laughed tools tools girls rice rice bamboo widow 2 K4 DK laughed pounding pounding DK tube of DK pig 60 mother days at him tools tools alcohol young bamboo young covering 2 K5 woman women rice cake DK tube of village pig 60 girl mouth days laughed alcohol rice widow girls 2 bamboo young K6 DK pounding rice cake DK DK 60 mother laughed days tube pig tools rice girls widow girls 2 K7 mouth pounding DK & DK DK pig 50 mother laughed days tools boys bamboo widow covering girls 2 K8 DK DK DK tube of priest DK 60 mother mouth laughed days alcohol rice widow girls 2 K9 DK pounding rice cake DK alcohol priest pig 80 mother laughed days tools "hee- K girls 2 bamboo young mother hee ha- girls rice cake DK DK 50 10 laughed days tube pig ha" he rice bamboo K widow girls 2 who young DK pounding rice cake girls tube of 70 11 mother laughed days hid pig tools alcohol tools Average = 61, Standard Deviation = 12.2, Sample Size = 11

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C.1.4. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Mildhanpara (Aslong) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score young rice bamboo his rice 2 S1 "ha-ha" woman pounding DK tube of DK pig 70 mother cake days laughed tools alcohol young rice bamboo 2 S2 mother lovingly woman pounding DK DK tube of DK pig 60 days laughed tools alcohol rice bamboo widow girls rice 2 fortune young S3 sweetly pounding women tube of 80 mother laughed cake days teller pig tools alcohol rice bamboo widow covering girls rice 2 young S4 pounding DK tube of DK 80 mother mouth laughed cake days pig tools alcohol rice all covering girls rice 2 bamboo S5 mother pounding village DK rice 70 mouth laughed cake days tube tools women bamboo young girls rice 2 young S6 DK DK village tube of priest 60 sister laughed cake days pig alcohol girls mother rice bamboo widow didn’t rice 2 and young S7 DK pounding women tube of 70 mother love cake days father- pig tools alcohol him in-law Average = 70, Standard Deviation = 8.2 , Sample Size = 7

C.1.5. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Laifu Karbaripara (Anok) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score young rice bamboo rice 2 A1 mother DK woman pounding women tube of DK pig 80 cake days laughed tools alcohol clapping girls rice young bamboo young rice 2 A2 mother their laughed pounding village tube of men & pig 70 cake days hands at him tools girls alcohol women covering girls rice 2 young A3 DK DK Ranjit alcohol DK 60 mouth laughed cake days pig young rice bamboo covering rice 2 A4 mother woman pounding girls tube of killed pig 80 mouth cake days laughed tools alcohol rice bamboo girls rice 2 young A5 DK DK pounding Ranjit tube of village 60 laughed cake days pig tools alcohol rice bamboo widow covering girls rice 2 fortune young A6 pounding women tube of 90 mother mouth laughed cake days teller pig tools alcohol clapping girls rice widow rice 2 young A7 their laughed pounding women bamboo priest 80 mother cake days pig hands at him tools widow covering girls rice 2 village young A8 DK alcohol priest 90 mother mouth laughed cake days women pig Average = 76, Standard Deviation = 11.9, Sample Size = 8

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C.1.6. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Jarichandrapara (Phatung) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score young widow with young rice 2 a tube of P1 women DK DK pig 50 mother sound girls cake days bamboo laughed rice widow was 2 a tube of P2 DK pounding DK DK DK DK 40 mother laughed days bamboo tools young his young rice 2 village P3 DK women alcohol priest rice 70 mother girls cake days women laughed girls widow covering young 2 honorable a tube of P4 laughed DK women DK 40 mother mouth girls days persons bamboo at him girls rice 2 P5 DK DK laughed DK Ranjit DK DK water 30 cake days at him girls widow rice 2 village little P6 DK laughed iron bamboo priest 50 mother cake days girls one at him girls widow rice 2 boys & a tube of P7 DK laughed DK DK pig 50 mother cake days girls bamboo at him young young widow covering young rice 2 a tube full P8 women village village pig 65 mother mouth girls cake days of water laughed women girls widow covering rice 2 village a tube full village P9 laughed DK pig 70 mother mouth cake days women of money leader at him young wine 2 long P10 DK DK women DK DK priest DK 40 cake days bamboo laughed young rice young widow covering rice 2 P11 women pounding village DK DK DK 65 mother mouth cake days laughed tools women young widow covering young rice 2 working a tube of P12 women priest pig 70 mother mouth girls cake days people bamboo laughed Average = 53, Standard Deviation = 14.2, Sample Size = 12

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C.1.7. Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Barbakpur (Mukchak) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score girls widow covering rice 2 Z1 laughed DK DK alcohol DK pig 70 mother mouth cake days at him they rice "ha-ha- rice 2 the young Z2 mother laughed pounding DK DK 60 ha" cake days girls pig at him tools a youth covering alco- 2 young Z3 young laughed DK bamboo priest pig 50 mouth hol days people woman at him girls rice Ranjit bamboo his covering rice 2 Z4 laughed pounding and tube of priest pig 80 wife mouth cake days at him tools girls alcohol girls rice covering 2 Z5 DK laughed DK wine DK DK DK pig 50 mouth days at him cake people girls old rice 2 from Z6 DK DK laughed women DK per- pig 40 cake days other at him son places rice covering they rice 2 Z7 DK pounding DK DK DK pig 60 mouth laughed cake days tools mom girls 2 Z8 DK DK DK DK DK DK pig 35 & dad laughed days girls rice old a 5-6 village Z9 DK laughed a girl & bullet per- pig 20 woman days people at him curry son girls Z covering 2 the hus- a girl laughed DK DK DK pig 40 10 mouth days girls band at him rice Z covering girls alco- 2 young mother pounding women DK DK 70 11 mouth laughed hol days pig tools Average = 52, Standard Deviation = 17.7, Sample Size = 11

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C.1.8. Naitong HTT validation: Lombapara subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score from would with 7 by because of taught younger N1 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N2 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N3 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would hid with 7 by because of taught younger N4 3 sound have tk. hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died 6000 money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N5 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 80 by because of taught younger N6 3 sound have hid it hidden 90 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N7 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money heard would hid with 7 by because of taught younger N8 3 shout- have tk. hidden 90 years kicking intelligence them brother ing died 6000 money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N9 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger N10 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money Average = 98, Standard Deviation= 4.2, Sample Size= 10

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C.1.9. Naitong RTT: Beltolipara (Khali) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score would from kept 15-16 by have because of with taught younger K1 3 sound for 65 years kicking hurt his intelligence money them brother of gun future back from would with by because of taught younger K2 DK 3 sound have DK hidden 80 kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger K3 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger K4 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money heard with 7 by because of taught younger K5 3 mom's DK hid it hidden 70 years pushing intelligence them brother shout money heard would with 16 by because of taught younger K6 3 door have hid it hidden 80 years kicking intelligence them brother open died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger K7 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by because of taught younger K8 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money heard would with 7 by because of taught younger K9 3 kicking have hid it hidden 90 years kicking intelligence them brother of door died money from would with K 7 by because of taught younger 3 sound have hid it hidden 100 10 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died money heard would with K 7 by because of taught younger 3 kicking have hid it hidden 90 11 years kicking intelligence them brother of door died money Average = 89, Standard Deviation = 13.1, Sample Size = 11

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C.1.10. Naitong RTT: Mildhanpara (Aslong) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score from would with 6 by hid because of taught younger S1 3 sound have hidden 90 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money would with 7 by hid because of taught S2 3 DK have hidden DK 80 years kicking it intelligence them died money forced from would with 7 hid because of taught younger S3 door 3 sound have hidden 90 years it intelligence them brother open of gun died money from would with 7 by hid because of taught S4 3 sound have hidden brother 95 years kicking it intelligence them of gun died money would with 7 by hid because of taught S5 3 DK have hidden DK 80 years kicking it intelligence them died money when took with 4 by gotten because of taught S6 3 he was & that DK 70 years kicking hurt intelligence them shot kept money forced from would with hid because of taught younger S7 DK door 3 sound have hidden 80 it intelligence them brother open of gun died money Average = 84, Standard Deviation = 8.5, Sample Size = 7

C.1.11. Naitong RTT: Laifu Karbaripara (Anok) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score caught would with 7 by father hid because of taught younger A1 3 have hidden 90 years kicking by it intelligence them brother died money shouting from would with 7 by hid because of taught younger A2 3 sound have hidden 100 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money would with by heard taught A3 DK 3 have DK DK that DK 50 kicking yelling them died money from would lost with 7 by because of taught younger A4 3 sound have it to hidden 90 years kicking intelligence them brother of gun died thief money from would with by hid taught A5 DK 3 sound have DK hidden Hironmoy kicking it them 70 of gun died money from hid with by because of taught A6 DK 3 sound DK tk. hidden DK 70 kicking intelligence them of gun 6000 money thieves would with by hid because of taught A7 DK 4 shot have hidden DK 60 kicking it intelligence them him died money would hid with 7 by heard because of taught younger A8 3 have tk. hidden 90 years kicking yelling intelligence them brother died 6000 money Average = 78, Standard Deviation = 17.5, Sample Size = 8

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C.1.12. Naitong RTT: Jarichandrapara (Phatung) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score from would with by hid because of taught younger P1 DK 3 sound have hidden 90 kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money heard would with by hid because of taught younger P2 DK 3 shout- have hidden 80 kicking it intelligence them brother ing died money would with hid so nobody taught younger P3 DK DK 3 DK have hidden 60 it could see them brother died money from would with 18 by hid did younger P4 3 sound have DK hidden 70 years kicking it well brother of gun died money from would with 10 by hid because of taught younger P5 3 sound have hidden 90 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with by hid because of taught younger P6 DK 3 sound have hidden 90 kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money heard would with by hid because of taught younger P7 DK 3 door have hidden 80 kicking it intelligence them brother open died money from would with 8 by hid because of taught younger P8 3 sound have hidden 90 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by hid because of taught younger P9 3 sound have hidden 100 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by hid because of taught younger P10 3 sound have hidden years kicking it intelligence them brother 100 of gun died money from would with 7 by hid because of taught younger P11 3 sound have hidden 100 years kicking it intelligence them brother of gun died money from would with 7 by hid because of taught younger P12 3 sound have hidden years kicking it intelligence them brother 100 of gun died money Average = 88, Standard Deviation = 12.9, Sample Size = 12

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C.1.13. Naitong RTT: Barbakpur (Mukchak) subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 Score would with 21 by hid because of taught younger Z1 2 DK have hidden 70 years kicking it intelligence them brother died money would so it with by heard hid taught older Z2 DK 3 have wouldn't hidden 60 kicking shout it them son died be stolen money by from would with hid because of taught younger Z3 DK kicking 3 sound have hidden 90 it intelligence them brother door of gun died money by from would with hid because of taught younger Z4 DK kicking 3 sound have hidden 90 it intelligence them brother door of gun died money from would with by hid taught Z5 DK 3 sound have DK hidden DK 60 kicking it them of gun yelled money took from would with by hid because of care Z6 DK DK sound have hidden DK 60 kicking it intelligence of of gun died money them would with by hid because of taught younger Z7 DK DK DK have hidden 70 kicking it intelligence them brother died money would with hid because of taught Z8 DK DK DK DK have hidden DK 50 it intelligence them died money from would with by hid taught Z9 DK 4 sound have DK hidden DK 60 kicking it them of gun died money by would with 20 father hid she was taught Z10 kicking 4 have hidden DK 60 years yelled it very smart them door died money by from would with because of taught Z11 DK kicking 3 sound have DK hidden DK 70 intelligence them door of gun died money Average = 67, Standard Deviation = 12.7, Sample Size = 11

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C.1.14. Khali HTT validation: Beltolipara subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 Score in by had to walk rainy very K1 umbrella paid attention village walking long way season good 100 from in by rainy very K2 coming umbrella good in study 93 village walking season good from school good student in by had to walk rainy very K3 umbrella & listened to 100 village walking long way season good all in Bel- by from rainy very very good K4 umbrella 86 tolipara walking walking season good student in by from rainy very K5 umbrella good student 100 village walking walking far season good in by had to walk rainy he was a good K6 umbrella good 100 village walking far season student in by from rainy he paid K7 umbrella good 100 village walking walking far season attention in by had to walk rainy he listened K8 umbrella good 100 village walking far season well in by rainy he listened K9 walked umbrella good 100 village walking season well in by from rainy he was a good K10 umbrella good village walking walking season student 100 in by had to walk rainy he was a good K11 umbrella good 100 village walking far season student Average = 98, Standard Deviation= 4.5, Sample Size= 11

C.1.15. Aslong HTT validation: Mildhanpara subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 Score older called Kok nodding S1 school teacher cried DK 88 sister him Borok head S2 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND older class- called older Kok after he nodding S3 cried 75 sister room him brother borok was hit head S4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND older called Kok after school nodding S5 school teacher cried 100 sister him Borok was over head older school called Kok nodding S6 teacher cried "now" 88 sister room him Borok head older called Kok got more S7 school teacher DK DK 63 sister him borok embarrased Average = 83, Standard Deviation = 14.2, Sample Size = 5

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C.1.16. Anok HTT validation: Laifu Karbaripara subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 Score by rainy A1 by river farming umbrella good student teacher 100 walking season by rainy A2 by river farming umbrella good student teacher 100 walking season by when it he could read & A3 near river farming umbrella teacher walking stormed write 100 when it A4 by river farming by car umbrella good student teacher 86 rained by when it A5 by river farming umbrella DK teacher 86 walking stormed by when it very good A6 by river farming umbrella teacher 100 walking stormed student by when it very good A7 by river farming umbrella teacher 100 walking stormed student by rainy A8 by river farming umbrella good student teacher walking season 100 Average = 97, Standard Deviation = 6.5, Sample Size = 8

C.1.17. Phatung HTT validation: Jarichandrapara subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 Score P1 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season good student teacher 100 studied well in P2 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 class P3 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season studied well teacher 100 P4 by river farming walking umbrella when it rained studied well teacher 100 P5 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season studied a lot teacher 100 P6 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season studied well teacher 100 P7 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season he was good teacher 100 P8 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season very good teacher 100 very brilliant P9 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student P10 by river farming walking umbrella when it rained studied well teacher 100 he was good P11 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student he was good P12 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student Average = 100, Standard Deviation = 0, Sample Size = 12

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C.1.18. Mukchak HTT validation: Barbakpur subjects ID A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 Score he was a good Z1 by river farming walking umbrella when it rained teacher student 100 he was a good Z2 by river farming DK umbrella rainy season teacher 86 student he was a good Z3 by river farming by car umbrella rainy season teacher 86 student he was a good Z4 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student he was a good Z5 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student he was a good Z6 by river farming walking umbrella when it rained teacher 100 student Z7 by river farming by car umbrella rainy season good student teacher 86 Z8 by river farming DK umbrella rainy season good student teacher 86 he was good in Z9 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 study he was a good Z10 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher student 100 he was a good Z11 by river farming walking umbrella rainy season teacher 100 student Average = 95, Standard Deviation = 7.1, Sample Size = 11

C.2. Post-HTT/ RTT responses

C.2.1. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) HTT validation: Agartala subjects 1a. Lg. 1b. Why 2. How much ID 3. What lg.? 4. Similarity pure? not? understand? D1 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D2 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D3 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D4 Y NA almost all Kok Borok no difference D5 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D6 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D7 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D8 Y NA 80% Kok Borok little difference D9 Y NA all Kok Borok no difference D10 Y NA ND ND no difference

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C.2.2. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Lombapara (Naitong) subjects 2. How much 4. Easiest ID 1. What lg? 3. Similarity 5. Hardest story understand? story N1 Aslong half much differenceNaitong Debbarma Kok Borok N2 Aslong most much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok N3 Aslong little much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok N4 Dendak most much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok Gabing from N5 half much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok India N6 Jomatia little much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok N7 Jomatia half much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok N8 Dendak half much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok N9 Aslong more than half little difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok Debbarma & N10 all much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok Jomatia

C.2.3. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Beltolipara (Khali) subjects 1. What 2. How much ID 3. Similarity 4. Easiest story 5. Hardest story lg? understand? K1 Debbarma little much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok K2 Debbarma little much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok Tripura K3 half much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok from India K4 Riang little much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok K5 Riang half little difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok K6 Debbarma most little difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok K7 Aslong little much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok K8 Riang most little difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok K9 Usoi half little difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok Khali & Naitong K10 Usoi little much difference Debbarma Kok Borok equally K11 Aslong little much difference Khali Debbarma Kok Borok

C.2.4. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Mildhanpara (Aslong) subjects 1. What 2. How much ID 3. Similarity 4. Easiest story 5. Hardest story lg? understand? S1 Debbarma little much difference Aslong Debbarma Kok Borok Naitong & S2 Debbarma most no difference Debbarma Kok none Borok equally S3 Debbarma all little difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok S4 Debbarma less than half half different ND ND S5 Riang half much difference Aslong Debbarma Kok Borok S6 Debbarma all little difference Aslong Naitong S7 Aslong all little difference Debbarma Kok Borok Naitong

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C.2.5. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Laifu Karbaripara (Anok) subjects 1. What 2. How much ID 3. Similarity 4. Easiest story 5. Hardest story lg? understand? A1 Debbarma half little difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok A2 Jomatia most little difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok A3 Jomatia half much difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok A4 Riang most little difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok A5 Debbarma all no difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok A6 Jomatia all much difference Anok Naitong A7 Jomatia half little difference Anok Debbarma Kok Borok Riang or Anok & Naitong A8 most little difference Debbarma Kok Borok Debbarma equally

C.2.6. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Jarichandrapara (Phatung) subjects 2. How much 4. Easiest ID 1. What lg? 3. Similarity 5. Hardest story understand? story P1 Gabing little much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P2 Indian Tripura most half different Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P3 Naitong half half different Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P4 DK little much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P5 Dendak little little difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P6 DK little little difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P7 Naitong little little difference Phatung Naitong P8 Naitong all much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok P9 Kewa & Naitong little much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P10 Debbarma little much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P11 Gabing little much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok P12 Usoi half much difference Phatung Debbarma Kok Borok

C.2.7. Post-Kok Borok (Agartala) RTT: Barbakpur (Mukchak) subjects 1. What 2. How much ID 3. Similarity 4. Easiest story 5. Hardest story lg? understand? Z1 Tripura half little difference Mukchak Debbarma Kok Borok Z2 Tripura little little difference Mukchak Naitong Z3 Tripura half little difference Mukchak Naitong Mukchak & Z4 Tripura most much difference Debbarma Kok Borok Naitong equally Z5 Tripura half much difference Mukchak Debbarma Kok Borok Z6 Tripura most little difference all are easy none Z7 Tripura little much difference Mukchak Debbarma Kok Borok Z8 Tripura little much difference Naitong Debbarma Kok Borok Z9 Tripura most much difference Mukchak Debbarma Kok Borok Z10 Tripura half much difference Mukchak Debbarma Kok Borok Z11 Tripura most little difference Mukchak Naitong

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C.2.8. Post-Naitong HTT validation: Lombapara subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? N1 Y NA all N2 Y NA all N3 Y NA all N4 Y NA all N5 Y NA almost all N6 Y NA most N7 Y NA all N8 Y NA all N9 Y NA all N10 Y NA all

C.2.9. Post-Naitong RTT: Beltolipara (Khali) subjects ID 1. What lg? 2. How much understand? 3. Similarity K1 Naitong all little difference K2 Naitong all little difference K3 Naitong all little difference K4 Dendak all much difference K5 Naitong half little difference K6 Naitong all little difference K7 Naitong all little difference K8 Naitong all no difference K9 Naitong all little difference K10 Dendak all little difference K11 Khali all no difference

C.2.10. Post-Naitong RTT: Mildhanpara (Aslong) subjects ID 1. What lg? 2. How much understand? 3. Similarity S1 Dendak half much difference S2 Aslong all no difference S3 Naitong all little difference S4 Aslong half half different S5 Dendak half half different S6 Aslong all no difference S7 Aslong all no difference

C.2.11. Post-Naitong RTT: Laifu Karbaripara (Anok) subjects ID 1. What lg? 2. How much understand? 3. Similarity A1 Naitong all little difference A2 Naitong all little difference A3 Debbarma little much difference A4 Anok most little difference A5 Naitong all much difference A6 Naitong most much difference A7 Naitong half much difference A8 Naitong most much difference

194

C.2.12. Post-Naitong RTT: Jarichandrapara (Phatung) subjects ID 1. What lg? 2. How much understand? 3. Similarity P1 Khali most much difference P2 Naitong all little difference P3 Phatung all much difference P4 Tongpai most much difference P5 Naitong all much difference P6 Naitong all much difference P7 Naitong all much difference P8 Naitong all much difference P9 Naitong almost all much difference P10 Naitong all little difference P11 Naitong most little difference P12 Naitong almost all little difference

C.2.13. Post-Naitong RTT: Barbakpur (Mukchak) subjects ID 1. What lg? 2. How much understand? 3. Similarity Z1 Tripura most little difference Z2 Tripura half little difference Z3 Tripura all no difference Z4 Tripura all little difference Z5 Tripura most little difference Z6 Tripura most much difference Z7 Tripura little much difference Z8 Tripura half much difference Z9 Tripura little little difference Z10 Tripura most little difference Z11 Tripura most little difference

C.2.14. Post-Khali HTT validation: Beltolipara subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? K1 N mixed most K2 Y NA all K3 Y NA all K4 Y NA all K5 Y NA almost all K6 Y NA all K7 Y NA all K8 Y NA all K9 Y NA all K10 Y NA all K11 Y NA all

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C.2.15. Post-Aslong HTT validation: Mildhanpara subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? S1 Y NA most S2 ND ND ND S3 N There's a little difference with how they speak. all S4 ND ND ND S5 Y NA all S6 Y NA all S7 Y NA all

C.2.16. Post-Anok HTT validation: Laifu Karbaripara subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? A1 Y NA all A2 Y NA all A3 Y NA all A4 Y NA all A5 Y NA all A6 Y NA all A7 Y NA all A8 Y NA all

C.2.17. Post-Phatung HTT validation: Jarichandrapara subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? P1 Y NA all P2 Y NA most P3 Y NA all P4 Y NA all P5 Y NA all P6 Y NA all P7 Y NA all P8 Y NA all P9 Y NA all P10 Y NA all P11 Y NA all P12 Y NA all

C.2.18. Post-Mukchak HTT validation: Barbakpur subjects ID 1a. Lg. pure? 1b. Why not? 2. How much understand? Z1 Y NA all Z2 Y NA all Z3 N mixed all Z4 N spoken with Barisal accent almost all Z5 Y NA almost all Z6 Y NA most Z7 Y NA all Z8 Y NA most Z9 Y NA all Z10 N mixed with Bangla all Z11 Y NA all

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D. QUESTIONNAIRES D.1. Sociolinguistic questionnaire 1. In each of the following places and activities, what language do you use most of the time? ১। িনেm বিনর্ত sান eবং কাযর্েkেt, েবশীরভাগ সময় আপিন েকান ভাষািট বয্বহার কেরন? 1a. At home. ১ক। বািড়েত।

1b. With your mother tongue friends. ১খ। আপনার মাতৃভাষা বnুেদর সােথ।

1c. At church/temple. ১গ। গীজর্ায়/মিnের।

1d. With shopkeepers in the market. ১ঘ। বাজাের েদাকানদারেদর সােথ।

2a. Besides your mother tongue, what languages are you able to speak? ২ক। আপনার মাতৃভাষা ছাড়া আপিন েকান েকান ভাষা বলেত পােরন?

2b. At what age did you begin to learn each? ২খ। কত বছর বয়েস আপিন ei ভাষাgেলা িশখেত শুr কেরিছেলন?

3. What language do you speak best? ৩। েকান ভাষািট আপিন সবেচেয় ভালভােব বলেত পােরন?

4. What language do you speak second best? ৪। eরপর েকান ভাষািট আপিন ভালভােব বলেত পােরন?

5. Can you always say what you want to say in [answer 4]? ৫। [ utর ৪] ভাষা িদেয় কী সবসময় যা বলেত চান তাi বলেত পােরন?

6. In a typical week, which language do you use most? ৬। eকিট সাধারণ সpােহ আপিন েকান ভাষািট সবেচেয় েবশী বয্বহার কেরন?

7a. Are there any Tripura people who speak differently than you? ৭ক। eমন েকান িtপুরা েলাক আেছ যারা আপনার েথেক আলাদাভােব কথা বেল?

7b. If yes, what do these people call their language? ৭খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, েলােকরা তােদর ভাষােক কী বেল?

7c. When you speak with someone from (each of) these places, what language(s) do you use? ৭গ। আপিন যখন ঐসব িtপুরা eলাকার েলাকেদর সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন েকান ভাষা বয্বহার কেরন?

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7d. When you speak with someone from (each of) these places, how much do you understand (little, half, most, all)? ৭ঘ। আপিন যখন ঐসব eলাকার েলাকেদর সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন কতটুk বুঝেত পােরন (al, aেধর্ক, েবশীরভাগ, সব)?

7e. Among these types of Tripura, which is the easiest for you to understand? ৭ঙ। ei িtপুরা ভাষাgেলার মেধয্ েকানিট আপনার কােছ বুঝেত েবিশ সহজ?

8a. [If the person has not mentioned “Debbarma” in questions 2 or 7] Do you know anybody who speaks Debbarma? ৮ক। [যিদ েলাকিট ২ নং বা ৭ নং pের utের েদববমর্া uেlখ না কেরন] আপিন কী কাuেক জােনন েয েদববমর্া ভাষা বেল?

8b. If yes, where does this person live? ৮খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, েলাকটা েকাথায় থােকন?

8c. When you speak with this Debbarma person, what language do you use? ৮গ। আপিন যখন ei েদববমর্া েলাকটার সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন েকান ভাষা বয্বহার কেরন?

8d. When you speak with this Debbarma person, how much do you understand (little, half, most, all)? ৮ঘ। আপিন যখন ei েদববমর্া েলাকটার সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন কতটুk বুঝেত পােরন (al, aেধর্ক, েবশীরভাগ, সব)?

9a. [If the person has not mentioned “Usoi” in questions 2 or 7] Do you know anybody who speaks Usoi? ৯ক। [যিদ েলাকিট ২ নং বা ৭ নং pের utের uসi uেlখ না কেরন] আপিন কী কাuেক জােনন েয uসi ভাষা বেল?

9b. If yes, where does this person live? ৯খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, েলাকটা েকাথায় থােকন?

9c. When you speak with this Usoi person, what language do you use? ৯গ। আপিন যখন ei uসi েলাকটার সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন েকান ভাষা বয্বহার কেরন?

9d. When you speak with this Usoi person, how much do you understand (little, half, most, all)? ৯ঘ। আপিন যখন ei uসi েলাকটার সােথ কথা বেলন, তখন কতটুk বুঝেত পােরন (al, aেধর্ক, েবশীরভাগ, সব)?

10. What language do children in your village speak first? ১০। আপনার gােমর িশশুরা pথেম েকান ভাষায় কথা বেল?

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11a. Before starting school, do many children in your village speak any language besides [answer 10]? ১১ক। আপনার gােমর aেনক েছেল-েমেয়রাi কী sুেল যাoয়ার আেগ [utর ১0] ছাড়া an ভাষায় কথা বেল?

11b. If yes, which one(s)? ১১খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, েকানিট (gেলা)?

12. What language do young people (age 10) in your village speak best? ১২। আপনার gােম েছেল-েমেয়রা (১০ বছর বয়সী) েকান ভাষা সবেচেয় ভাল কের বলেত পাের?

13. Do young people (age 10) in your village speak [their Kok Borok variety] well, the way it ought to be spoken? ১৩। আপনার gােম েছেল-েমেয়রা (১০ বছর বয়সী) েযমন কের তােদর বলা uিচত েতমন ভালকের [তােদর কক বরক ভাষা] বলেত পাের কী?

14. What language do Tripura children (age 10) in your village speak with each other? ১৪। আপনার gােম িtপুরা েছেল-েমেয়রা (১০ বছর বয়সী) eেক-aপেরর সােথ েকান ভাষায় কথা বেল?

15. In about 30 years, when the children in this village grow up and have children of their own, what language do you think those children will speak? ১৫। আজ েথেক pায় িtশ বছর পের, ei gােমর িশশুরা যখন বড় হেব eবং তােদর িনেজেদর েছেল- েমেয় হেব, তখন ঐ েছেল-েমেয়রা েকান ভাষায় কথা বলেব বেল আপিন মেন কেরন?

16. What language do you think a mother in your language group should speak with her children? ১৬। আপনার ভাষাভাষী মােয়রা তােদর িশশুেদর সােথ েকান ভাষায় কথা বলা uিচত বেল আপিন মেন কেরন?

17. What language should be used as the medium of education in primary school? ১৭। িশkার মাধয্ম িহেসেব pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় েকান ভাষািট বয্বহার করা uিচত বেল আপিন মেন কেরন?

18a. Are you able to read and write letters and notices in any language? ১৮ক। আপিন কী েয েকান ভাষায় িচিঠ eবং েনািটশ পড়েত পােরন?

18b. If yes, which script should be used to write your mother tongue? ১৮খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, আপনার মাতৃভাষা িলখেত েকান বণর্ বয্বহার করা uিচত?

[If there is a mother tongue literacy program in the village, ask question 19. If there is not, ask question 20.] [gােম যিদ মাতৃভাষা িশkা কাযর্kম চালু থােক, তেব ১৯ নং pিট িজjাসা কrন, যিদ না থােক তেব ২০ নং pিট িজjাসা কrন।]

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19a. I have been told there is a mother tongue literacy program here. Do you know any children who go to these classes? ১৯ক। আিম শুেনিছ েয আপনার gােম মাতৃভাষা িশkা কাযর্kম চালু আেছ। আপিন িক েকান েছেল- েমেয়েদরেক িচেনন যারা eরকম kােশ যায়?

19b. If yes, how successful do you think these classes are? ১৯খ। যিদ hাঁ হয়, eরকম kাশgেলা কতটুk সফল হেচ্ছ বেল আপিন মেন কেরন?

20a. If your community leaders set up a class to teach young children first how to read and write Kok Borok and then how to read and write Bangla, would you send your children? ২০ক। আপনার সmpদােয়র েনতারা যিদ pথেম েকাক েবারক ভাষায় eবং তারপর বাংলা ভাষায় িকভােব িলখেত o পড়েত হয় তা িশখােনার জn eকটা kাশ চালু কেরন, তেব আপিন কী আপনার েছেল-েমেয়েদরেক েসখােন পাঠােবন?

20b. Why or why not? ২০খ। েকন পাঠােবন বা েকন পাঠােবন না?

D.2. Post-HTT questionnaire 1a. Is the storyteller’s language pure? ১ক। িযিন গlটা বেলেছন, তাঁর ভাষা িক শুd?

1b. If not, in what way(s)? ১খ। যিদ না হয়, তাহেল িকভােব?

2. How much did you understand (little, half, most, all)? ২। আপিন কতটুk বুঝেত েপেরেছন (al, আেধর্ক, েবিশরভাগ, সব)?

3. In what language did the storyteller speak?* ৩। িযিন গlটা বেলেছন, তাঁর ভাষা িক িছল?*

4. How similar was the storyteller’s speech to the way you speak (no difference, a little difference, much difference)?* ৪। িযিন গlটা বেলেছন, তার কথার সােথ আপনার কথার কতটুk িমল িছল (েকান পাথর্কয্ িছল না, al পাথর্কয্, aেনক পাথর্কয্)?*

*These questions were used only in the post-HTT questionnaire in Agartala because that story was “written Kok Borok” read from a book.

D.3. Post-RTT questionnaire 1. In what language did the storyteller speak? ১। িযিন গlটা বেলেছন, তাঁর ভাষা িক িছল?

2. How much did you understand (little, half, most, all)? ২। আপিন কতটুk বুঝেত েপেরেছন (al, আেধর্ক, েবিশরভাগ, সব)?

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3. How similar was the storyteller’s speech to the way you speak (no difference, a little difference, much difference) ? ৩। িযিন গlটা বেলেছন, তার কথার সােথ আপনার কথার কতটুk িমল িছল (েকান পাথর্কয্ িছল না, al পাথর্কয্, aেনক পাথর্কয্)?

4. [Asked after only the final story] Which story was easiest for you to understand? ৪। [ শুধুমাt চুড়াn গেlর পের িজjাসা কrন] আপনার জn েকান গlিট বুঝেত সবেচেয় সহজ িছল?

5. [Asked after only the final story] Which story was most difficult for you to understand? ৫। [ শুধুমাt চুড়াn গেlর পের িজjাসা কrন] আপনার জn েকান গlিট বুঝেত সবেচেয় কিঠন িছল?

D.4. Subject biodata questionnaire Number of interview: সাkাৎকােরর kিমক নং: Date of interview: সাkাৎকােরর তািরখ: Location of interview: সাkাৎকােরর sান: 1. What is your name? ১। আপনার নাম িক?

2. How old are you? ২। আপনার বয়স কত?

3. Sex of interviewee: ৩। utরদাতার িলঙ্গ পিরচয়:

4. Up to what standard have you studied? ৪। আপিন েকান েণী পযর্n পড়ােলখা কেরেছন?

5. What is your occupation? ৫। আপনার েপশা িক?

6. What is the name of the village you are now living in? ৬। আপিন েয gােম বাস কেরন তার নাম িক?

7. What do you call your mother tongue? ৭। আপনার মাতৃভাষার নাম িক?

8a. What is your mother’s mother tongue? ৮ক। আপনার মােয়র মাতৃভাষা িক?

8b. What is your father’s mother tongue? ৮খ। আপনার বাবার মাতৃভাষা িক?

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9. Where else have you lived and for how long? ৯। eর আেগ আপিন an েকাথায় বসবাস কেরেছন?

10. What is your religion? ১০। আপিন েকান ধমর্ পালন কেরন?

D.5. Community Information Questionnaire Name of village: gােমর নাম: Transportation to village: যাতায়ােতর মাধয্ম:

1. What is the location of your village by subdistrict and district? ১। আপনার gামিট েকান থানায় আর েকান েজলায় aবিsত?

2. Which languages are spoken as mother tongues in your village? ২। মাতৃভাষা িহেসেব েকান েকান ভাষািট আপনার gােমর েলাকজন বয্বহার কের?

3. What languages are spoken as mother tongues in neighboring villages? ৩। আপনার পাশব্র্বতর্ী gােম েকান ভাষািট মাতৃভাষা িহেসেব বয্বhত হেচ্ছ?

4a. How many people and families live in this village? ৪ক। ei gােম কতজন েলাক eবং কয়িট পিরবার বসবাস কের?

4b. What percentage or number of these families are of each mother tongue mentioned in question 2? ৪খ। ২ নং pের utের uেlিখত পিরবারgেলার মেধয্ pিতিট মাতৃভাষার পিরবােরর সংখয্া কত বা শতকরা aংশ কত?

5. What religions do the Tripura in this village follow? ৫। e gােমর িtপুরা েলােকরা েকান েকান ধমর্ পালন কের?

6. What jobs do people in your village typically do? ৬। আপনার gােমর েলােকরা সাধারণত িক িক কাজ কের?

7. Where is the nearest post office? ৭। সবেচেয় কােছর েপাs aিফসিট েকাথায় aবিsত?

8a. Can you make TNT calls from your village? ৮ক। আপনার gাম েথেক কী িট eন িট েফান করেত পােরন?

8b. Can you make mobile calls from your village? ৮খ। আপনার gাম েথেক আপিন কী েমাবাiল েফান করেত পােরন?

8c. If not, where is the nearest place you can make phone calls? ৮গ। যিদ না পােরন, সবেচেয় কােছর েকান জায়গা েথেক আপিন েফান করেত পােরন?

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9a. Where is the nearest hospital? ৯ক। সবেচেয় কােছর হাসপাতালিট েকাথায়?

9b. Where is the nearest clinic? ৯খ। সবেচেয় কােছর িkিনকিট (িচিকৎসা েকnd) েকাথায়?

10a. Are there government schools in your village? ১০ক। আপনার gােম কী েকান সরকারী sুল আেছ?

10b. If yes, what kinds? ১০খ। যিদ থােক, েসিট কী ধরেণর?

11a. Are there any other types of schools or non-formal educational institutions in your village? ১১ক। আপনার gােম কী an েকান ধরেণর sুল aথবা uপ-আnািনক িশkা pিতান আেছ?

11b. If yes, what kinds? ১১খ। যিদ থােক, েসিট কী ধরেণর?

12. In this village how many of the primary school-aged Tripura children go to school (all, most, half, few)? ১২। ei gােমর pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় যাবার uপেযাগী বয়সী িtপুরা েছেলেমেয়েদর মেধয্ কতজন িবদয্ালেয় যােচ্ছ (সবাi, েবশীরভাগ, aেধর্ক, কেয়কজন)?

13. In this village how many of the primary school-aged Tripura girls go to school (all, most, half, few)? ১৩। ei gােমর pাথিমক িবদয্ালেয় যাবার uপেযাগী বয়সী িtপুরা েমেয়েদর মেধয্ কতজন িবদয্ালেয় যাচেচ্ছ (সবাi, েবশীরভাগ, aেধর্ক, কেয়কজন)?

14. At which standard do most Tripura children in your village stop going to school? ১৪। আপনার gােমর েবশীর ভাগ িtপুরা েছেলেমেয়রা েকান েণী পযর্n িগেয় sুেল যাoয়া বn কের েদয়?

15. What are the main reasons Tripura children in your village stop going to school? ১৫। আপনার gােমর িtপুরা েছেলেমেয়েদর sুেল যাoয়া বn করার pধান কারণgেলা িক িক?

16. In your village, how many Tripura students who begin school end up finishing 5th standard (all, most, half, few)? ১৬। আপনার gােম, কতজন িtপুরা ছাt-ছাtীরা যারা িবদয্ালেয় যােচ্ছ তারা ৫ম েণী েশষ করেছ (সবাi, েবশীরভাগ, aেধর্ক, কেয়কজন)?

17. In your village, how many Tripura students who begin school end up finishing 10th standard (all, most, half, few)? ১৭। আপনার gােম, কতজন িtপুরা ছাt-ছাtীরা যারা িবদয্ালেয় যােচ্ছ তারা ১০ম েণী েশষ করেছ (সবাi, েবশীরভাগ, aেধর্ক, কেয়কজন)?

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18. How many Tripura in your village have completed BA or higher? ১৮। আপনার gােম কতজন িtপুরা িব e aথবা তার েচেয় uচ্চতর িডgী লাভ কেরেছ?

19. Is there electricity in your village? ১৯। আপনার gােম িক িবdয্ৎ আেছ?

20. What is your water source? ২০। আপনােদর পািনর uৎs কী?

21a. Do Tripura people in your village listen to radio programs? ২১ক। আপনার gােমর িtপুরা েলােকরা কী েরিডo েpাgাম শুেনন?

21b. If yes, in what language(s)? ২১খ। যিদ hাঁ, তাহেল েকান ভাষায়?

21c. About how many Tripura households in this village have a radio? ২১গ। ei gােমর pায় কয়িট িtপুরা ঘের েরিডo আেছ?

22a. Do Tripura people in your village watch TV programs? ২২ক। আপনার gােমর িtপুরা েলােকরা কী িটিভ anান েদেখ?

22b. If yes, in what language(s)? ২২খ। যিদ hাঁ, তাহেল েকান ভাষায়?

22c. About how many Tripura households in this village have a TV? ২১গ। ei gােমর pায় কয়িট িtপুরা ঘের িটিভ আেছ?

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E. SOCIOLINGUISTIC QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES

The following tables display subjects’ responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire. The questionnaire itself is in appendix D.1, and the question numbers there correspond with the numbers given at the top of each table in this appendix. Subject biodata is given in appendix F.3, and the ID numbers given in the biodata correspond to those in this appendix.

The following abbreviations are used in these tables:

Languages and people groups: Other: A = Anok DK = does not know As = Aslong lg = language B = Bangla (script) MLE = multilingual education Br = Beri MT = mother tongue Bm = Bawm N = no C = Chakma NA = not applicable Ct = Chittagonian ND = no data D = Dendak R = Roman script Db = Debbarma w/ = with Dn = Dona Y = yes Dp = Daspa E = English G = Gabing H = Harbang J = Joloi Jt = Jomatia K = Khali KB = Kok Borok Km = Kema Kw = Kewa M = Marma Mr = Murung N = Naitong Pj = Panji P = Phatung R = Riang T = Tongpai Tp = Tripura U = Usoi

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E.1. Language-use responses 1a. Lg use at 1b. Lg use w/ 1c. Lg use at ID 1d. Lg use w/ shopkeepers home MT friends worship place S1 G G G G S2 G G G NA S3 G G B T w/ T, B w/ B S4 G G G G w/ G, B w/ B S5 G G G G w/ G, B w/ B S6 G G G B S7 G G G B w/ B, C w/ C S8 G G G G S9 G G G G w/ G, B w/ B S10 G G B T w/ T, B w/ B S11 G G G G S12 G G G B L1 N N N C w/ C, B w/ B L2 N N N B L3 N N N B L4 N N N local B L5 N N N B L6 N N N B L7 N N N C w/ C, B w/ B L8 N N N C w/ C, B w/ B, T w/ T L9 N N N B L10 N N N B w/ B, C w/ C P1 Km Km Km B w/ B, C w/ C, M w/ M, T w/ T P2 Km Km Km B P3 Km Km Km little B P4 Km Km Km Km P5 Km Km Km Km P6 Km Km Km Km P7 Km Km Km Km P8 Km Km Km B P9 Km Km Km Km&B P10 Km Km Km little B T1 T T T T T2 T T T T T3 T T T T&B mixed T4 T T T T T5 T T T B T6 T T T B T7 T T T B T8 T T T B T9 T T T B T10 T T T T w/ T, B w/ B M1 As As As As&B mixed M2 As As As As M3 As As As B M4 As As As As M5 As As As As M6 As As As As M7 As As As B

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E.1. Language-use responses (continued): 1a. Lg use at 1b. Lg use w/ 1c. Lg use at ID 1d. Lg use w/ shopkeepers home MT friends worship place M8 As As As B M9 As As As B M10 As As As B N1 D D D Ct N2 D D D NA N3 D D D B N4 D D D B N5 D D D T w/ T, C w/ C N6 D D D D w/ D, C w/ C, B w/ B N7 D D D B N8 D D D B N9 D D D B N10 D D D B N11 D D D B N12 D D D gestures E1 K K B&K equally Ct E2 K K K B E3 K K K B E4 K K K B E5 K K K B E6 K K K C E7 K K K C E8 K K K B E9 K K K B E10 K K K B A1 A A A B A2 A A A B A3 A A A B A4 A A A B A5 A A A B A6 A A A NA A7 A A A NA A8 A A A B A9 A A A A A10 A A A A D1 Kw Kw Kw B D2 Kw Kw Kw B D3 Kw Kw Kw Kw&B D4 Kw Kw Kw B D5 Kw Kw Kw B D6 Kw Kw Kw B D7 Kw Kw Kw B D8 Kw Kw Kw B D9 Kw Kw Kw NA J1 P P P B J2 P P P B J3 P P P B J4 P P P B J5 P P P B J6 P P P B

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E.1. Language-use responses (continued): 1a. Lg use at 1b. Lg use w/ 1c. Lg use at ID 1d. Lg use w/ shopkeepers home MT friends worship place J7 P P P P J8 P P P P J9 P P P&B equally B J10 P P P&B B G1 mixed Tp mixed Tp mixed Tp B G2 mixed Tp mixed Tp mixed Tp B G3 G G NA G G4 N N N B G5 G G G B G6 D D D B G7 G G G B G8 G G G G&little B G9 K K K B G10 mixed Tp mixed Tp mixed Tp B I1 U U U B I2 U U U very little B I3 U U U little B I4 U U U very little B I5 U U U little B I6 U U U&B B&Ct I7 U U U B&Ct I8 U U U B&Ct I9 U U U B&Ct I10 U U U B&Ct R1 U U U B R2 U U U Ct R3 U U U B R4 U U B B R5 U U U little Ct R6 U U U Ct R7 U U U NA R8 U U U B R9 U U U&B B R10 U U U B R11 U U B B B1 U U U&B B B2 U U U B B3 U U U U B4 U U U U B5 U U U B B6 U U B B B7 U U NA NA B8 U U U NA B9 U U U B B10 U U U little M K1 U U U&B B K2 U U U B&M K3 U U U B K4 U U U B K5 U U U gestures

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E.1. Language-use responses (continued): 1a. Lg use at 1b. Lg use w/ 1c. Lg use at ID 1d. Lg use w/ shopkeepers home MT friends worship place K6 U U U B K7 U U U little Ct K8 U U U little B K9 U U U B K10 U U U M C1 Dp Dp Dp B C2 Dp Dp Dp&B Dp&B C3 Dp Dp Dp&B B C4 Dp Dp Dp&B B C5 Dp Dp Dp B C6 Dp Dp Dp B C7 Dp Dp NA B C8 Dp Dp B B C9 Dp Dp NA B C10 Dp Dp B B H1 Dn Dn Dn&B B H2 Br Br Br&B B H3 Dn Dn Dn B H4 Dn Dn Dn&B B H5 Dn Dn Dn B H6 Br Br Br B H7 KB KB KB&B B H8 Dn Dn Dn&B NA H9 Dp Dp Dp B H10 Dp Dp Dp B H11 Dn Dn Dn NA Z1 B B B B Z2 B B B B Z3 B B B B Z4 B B B B Z5 B B B B Z6 B B B B Z7 B B B B Z8 B B B B Z9 B B B B Z10 B B B B Z11 B B B B F1 G R G B F2 R R Pangkhua Pangkhua

E.2. Language-attitudes responses E.2.1. Regarding language use 16. Mother should 17. Primary school 18b. Script to use ID 18a. Literate? speak with kids medium for MT S1 G KB Y DK S2 G DK N NA S3 G B N NA S4 G G Y B

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E.2.1. Language-attitudes responses regarding language use (continued): 16. Mother should 17. Primary school 18b. Script to use ID 18a. Literate? speak with kids medium for MT S5 G G N NA S6 G G N NA S7 G&B B Y B S8 G B N NA S9 G B Y R S10 G B Y DK S11 G G N NA S12 G G Y R L1 N B Y B L2 N B N NA L3 N B Y B L4 N N N NA L5 B B Y R L6 N N Y R L7 N B Y B L8 N B,Tp&C Y B L9 N N&B Y B L10 N B Y R P1 Km Tp N NA P2 Km B Y B P3 Km Km N NA P4 Km Km N NA P5 Km Km N NA P6 Km DK N NA P7 Km Km N NA P8 Km B N NA P9 Km DK N NA P10 Km B&Km N NA T1 T T N NA T2 T Tp N NA T3 T T&B N NA T4 T B N NA T5 T B Y B T6 T T N NA T7 T T N NA T8 T T Y B T9 T B Y B T10 T Tp Y B M1 As As N NA M2 As As N NA M3 As As N NA M4 As As N NA M5 As As N NA M6 As As N NA M7 As As Y B M8 As As N NA M9 As As N NA M10 As As N NA N1 D B N NA N2 D D N NA

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E.2.1. Language-attitudes responses regarding language use (continued): 16. Mother should 17. Primary school 18b. Script to use ID 18a. Literate? speak with kids medium for MT N3 D Tp&B Y R N4 D D Y B N5 D Tp Y R N6 D B Y R N7 D D Y R N8 D B Y R N9 D D Y B N10 D B Y B N11 D D&B Y B N12 D D N NA E1 K First K, then B Y R E2 DK DK N NA E3 K K Y R E4 K K Y DK E5 K K Y R E6 K Tp Y R E7 K Tp N NA E8 K B Y R E9 K K Y R E10 K K Y B A1 A A Y R A2 A A N NA A3 A B Y B A4 A B Y B A5 A B Y B A6 A A&B N NA A7 A B Y B A8 A&B A&B Y B A9 A A N NA A10 A B N NA D1 Kw Kw N NA D2 Kw B Y B D3 Kw B N NA D4 Kw Kw Y B D5 Kw Kw N NA D6 Kw Kw N NA D7 Kw B N NA D8 Kw Kw N NA D9 Kw Kw N NA J1 P B Y B J2 P P N NA J3 P B Y R J4 P B N NA J5 P B N NA J6 P B Y DK J7 P P N NA J8 P&B P&B Y DK J9 P&B B Y B J10 P B Y B G1 Tp B Y B

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E.2.1. Language-attitudes responses regarding language use (continued): 16. Mother should 17. Primary school 18b. Script name ID 18a. Literate? speak with kids medium for MT? G2 Tp B Y B G3 G G Y B G4 Tp B Y B G5 Tp B&MT Y B G6 Tp B Y DK G7 G G&B Y DK G8 G G&B together N NA G9 Tp B N NA G10 Tp Tp&B Y R I1 B B Y B I2 DK B N NA I3 U DK N NA I4 U U&B N NA I5 U U N NA I6 U B Y R I7 U B Y B I8 U U N NA I9 U U&B N NA I10 U U&B Y B R1 U&B B Y B R2 U B N NA R3 B B Y B R4 B B Y B R5 B B N NA R6 B B N NA R7 U B N NA R8 U U Y R R9 U B Y B R10 U U N NA R11 U B Y R B1 U B Y R B2 U B N NA B3 U U N NA B4 U U N NA B5 U B Y R B6 U B Y R B7 U U N NA B8 U B N NA B9 U B N NA B10 U&B B N NA K1 U U Y B K2 U B Y R K3 U B N NA K4 U B N NA K5 U B N NA K6 U U N NA K7 U B N NA K8 U U&B N NA K9 U B Y B K10 U B Y B

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E.2.1. Language-attitudes responses regarding language use (continued): 16. Mother should 17. Primary school 18b. Script name ID 18a. Literate? speak with kids medium for MT? C1 Dp B Y R C2 Dp Dp N NA C3 Dp B Y B C4 Dp B N NA C5 Dp B Y B C6 Dp B Y R C7 Dp B Y DK C8 Dp B Y R C9 Dp Dp Y R C10 Dp both Dp&B N NA H1 Dn B Y B H2 Br B N NA H3 Dn B Y R H4 Dn B Y B H5 Dn B Y B H6 Br B N NA H7 KB KB Y R H8 Dn Dn Y B H9 Dp B N NA H10 Dp B Y R H11 Dn Dn N NA Z1 B B N NA Z2 Tp B Y B Z3 Tp Tp Y B Z4 Tp B Y B Z5 Tp B Y R Z6 Tp B N NA Z7 Tp B N NA Z8 Tp Tp&B Y B Z9 Tp B Y B Z10 Tp B N NA Z11 B Tp Y B F1 D B N NA F2 R B&R N NA

E.2.2. Towards language classes 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? S1 NA NA Y We need to learn our own lg, not just B. S2 NA NA DK NA They must learn. It's important to learn their own lg. S3 NA NA Y Their KB lg. needs a sign. Even adults don't know how to write their MT, but S4 NA NA Y they need to know. S5 NA NA Y If they learn, this will be good. S6 NA NA DK NA S7 NA NA N It's more important to learn B. S8 NA NA Y To learn both lgs.

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E.2.2. Language-attitudes responses towards language classes (continued): 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? So they can know KB better; even he doesn't know S9 NA NA Y the names of everything. S10 NA NA DK NA Without education they can't get ahead. They need to S11 NA NA Y know all lgs. If they understand their own lg, this is better. Also to preserve their lg. S12 NA NA Y To preserve their MT, keep it going. L1 NA NA Y To learn both lgs. L2 NA NA Y To gain understanding in another lg. L3 NA NA Y It will help with their development. L4 NA NA Y It's good to learn B but even better to learn KB. L5 NA NA Y For learning; to learn the KB alphabet. So they can learn more about their people; if it's in L6 NA NA Y their own lg. they'll learn more. L7 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their own lg. If they 1st learn in their MT, they'll then learn in B L8 NA NA Y more quickly. L9 NA NA Y This would be good for them & for the lg. This will be good for the children & help to develop L10 NA NA Y the Tripura people. P1 NA NA Y There's no other school here; it’ll help to get jobs. P2 NA NA Y For education. Then they can speak B with visitors who come to P3 NA NA Y their village. If they first learn to read & write in Km, then they'll P4 NA NA Y be able to learn B & C. P5 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. P6 NA NA Y Of course she'd send them to a MT literacy class! P7 NA NA Y For a better life. P8 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. If they learn in their own lg, they'll have more interest P9 NA NA Y in learning. P10 NA NA Y To learn to read & write. They'll gain education and more knowledge about T1 NA NA Y their people group. T2 NA NA Y For the development of their MT. T3 NA NA Y To learn their MT. T4 NA NA Y To learn to read & write. T5 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. T6 NA NA Y So they can know Tripura lg. better. T7 NA NA Y To learn their MT & to be more educated. T8 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. T9 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. T10 NA NA Y To learn to read, write & preserve their MT. It would very good for them and may help them M1 NA NA Y advance financially. This kind of opportunity would be very good for them M2 NA NA Y because the nearest school is far. M3 NA NA Y Their children have no other opportunity to learn. This would be a great opportunity because the school M4 NA NA Y is far & we don't have money to hire our own teacher.

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E.2.2. Language-attitudes responses towards language classes (continued): 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? M5 NA NA Y For their education. M6 NA NA Y For their education. If they learn to read & write in their MT, then they'll M7 NA NA Y be able to learn B well. M8 NA NA Y For education. M9 NA NA Y If they learn in their MT, they'll learn better. M For their education & to be able to learn to read & NA NA Y 10 write in their MT.

19a. Know 20a. Send kids 20b. ID kids in MT 19b. Classes successful? to MLE class? Why? class? N1 Y It's a good program. NA NA N2 N NA NA NA They started just 2 months ago and need a N3 Y classroom of their own because they are disrupted NA NA by other classes that share the place. N4 Y It's going well. NA NA N5 Y They’re understanding better in Tp lg. NA NA It's good because this should help the kids do N6 Y NA NA better in govt. primary school in B. N7 Y Good. NA NA N8 Y Good. NA NA N9 Y Very good. NA NA N10 Y Very good. NA NA N11 Y Fairly good. NA NA N12 Y Very good. NA NA E1 Y DK NA NA E2 N NA NA NA E3 Y Going well in N. NA NA E4 Y well NA NA E5 Y well NA NA E6 N NA NA NA E7 N NA NA NA E8 N NA NA NA He's happy about it, but the parents need to give it E9 Y NA NA more importance. E10 Y Going well. NA NA

19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? A1 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. A2 NA NA Y To learn to read & write KB. A3 NA NA Y So they won't forget their MT. A4 NA NA Y So they won't forget their MT. A5 NA NA Y So they won't forget their MT. A6 NA NA Y To learn to read & write in KB. A7 NA NA Y DK

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E.2.2. Language-attitudes responses towards language classes (continued): 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? This would make them proud of their lg. Also, it A8 NA NA Y would be easy since they don't know B. A9 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. A10 NA NA Y For their education. D1 NA NA Y To become a good student. D2 NA NA Y To be able to learn KB. D3 NA NA Y To be able to learn their MT. D4 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. D5 NA NA Y To learn their MT. D6 NA NA Y To learn to read & write KB. D7 NA NA Y To know their MT better. D8 NA NA Y This would be much easier for them. D9 NA NA Y To better understand their MT. J1 NA NA Y To gain knowledge about their MT. J2 NA NA Y To develop their MT. J3 NA NA Y To learn their MT script. J4 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. J5 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. J6 NA NA Y So they can learn KB better. J7 NA NA Y To better understand KB. To learn to read & write in a lg. that's familiar to J8 NA NA Y them, the lg. they learned from their Mom. J9 NA NA Y So they can 1st learn to read & write in their MT. J10 NA NA Y It's important. If they don't have this kind of school, they'll fall G1 NA NA Y behind. G2 NA NA Y This will help her know Tp better. G3 NA NA Y It would ensure MT will be used in 100–200 yrs. G4 NA NA Y To learn their MT. G5 NA NA Y We need to know how to read & write our MT. G6 NA NA Y To preserve our MT. G7 NA NA Y So their KB lg. won't be lost. G8 NA NA Y It will be good to learn their MT (along with B). It would be good in one way, but actually it's not that G9 NA NA N important because Tp is a local lg. They need to learn national & international lgs. To learn more about their own origin & culture; this G10 NA NA Y is their right. I1 NA NA Y DK I2 NA NA Y So they can learn more. I3 NA NA Y So that their U lg. won't be lost. She wants to give the children the opportunity to I4 NA NA Y learn whatever they can. I5 NA NA Y For education. I6 Y good NA NA I7 Y good NA NA I8 Y very good NA NA I9 Y good NA NA I10 Y very good NA NA This would help the kids learn B better and also help R1 NA NA Y preserve U among the educated.

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E.2.2. Language-attitudes responses towards language classes (continued): 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? R2 NA NA Y DK R3 NA NA Y So they can start learning when they are young. R4 NA NA Y DK R5 NA NA Y For good education. R6 NA NA Y For education. R7 NA NA Y For education. R8 NA NA Y So they can read & write MT & develop MT. R9 NA NA Y So they can read & write both their MT & B. R10 NA NA Y They will be able to read & write their MT. R11 NA NA Y They will be able to write their MT. B1 NA NA Y So they can read & write both their MT & B. B2 NA NA Y So they can read & write their MT. B3 NA NA Y So they can better understand their MT. B4 NA NA Y So that they can read & write their MT. So they’ll know their MT well enough in any B5 NA NA Y situation. B6 NA NA Y It's our own lg. & should be developed & learned. B7 NA NA Y DK B8 NA NA Y This would be good because it's their own lg. B9 NA NA N It's more important for them to learn B. B10 NA NA Y To learn in their own lg. K1 NA NA Y They will be able to read & write their MT. K2 NA NA Y They will be able to read & write their MT. K3 NA NA Y They will be able to read & write their MT. K4 NA NA Y They will be able to read & write their MT. K5 NA NA Y If they can learn MT, their knowledge will increase. K6 NA NA Y I would be happy to have my children learn this. K7 NA NA Y To learn to read & write their MT. K8 NA NA Y For good education. K9 NA NA Y It's their own MT, so this is important.. K10 NA NA Y In the future they'll then be able to learn better. C1 NA NA Y To learn & to protect their own lg. C2 NA NA Y To learn their own KB lg. C3 NA NA Y To learn their MT. C4 NA NA Y To learn KB. C5 NA NA Y To gain opportunities by learning their MT. C6 NA NA Y So they can learn to read & write KB. C7 NA NA Y It's important for the children to know their MT well. C8 NA NA Y Our lg. is important, too. C9 NA NA Y To learn more about their MT. C10 NA NA Y To learn their MT better. H1 NA NA Y To learn KB. H2 NA NA Y To learn their own lg. H3 NA NA Y To learn both B and KB. H4 NA NA Y To have a better life. H5 NA NA Y To learn both B and KB. H6 NA NA Y The more lgs. they know the better. They could learn so much more easily in their MT; to H7 NA NA Y learn in B is difficult. It will be good for them to learn to read & write their H8 NA NA Y own lg. and another lg.

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E.2.2. Language-attitudes responses towards language classes (continued): 19a. Know 19b. 20a. Send ID kids in MT Classes kids to 20b. Why? class? successful? MLE class? H9 NA NA Y It would be good. H10 NA NA Y To learn something new & this is their MT. H11 NA NA Y It would be good. Z1 NA NA Y To learn the Tp lg. Z2 NA NA Y To learn their own lg. and be able to write it. Z3 NA NA Y To learn and correctly pronounce their own lg. Z4 NA NA Y To save their own lg. Z5 NA NA Y To save their own lg. Z6 NA NA Y To learn their own lg. more. Z7 NA NA Y To learn their Tp lg. Z8 NA NA Y To learn both Tp and B. Z9 NA NA Y To know the Tp lg. Z10 NA NA Y To learn both Tp and B. Z11 NA NA Y To preserve their own lg. F1 NA NA Y To learn their MT. To practice their MT so that it is not lost in the F2 NA NA Y future. E.3. Language-vitality responses 10. 11a. Other 13. Kids 14. Kids 11b. 12. Kids 15. Lg. in 30 ID Kids’ lg. before speak MT speak w/ Which? speak best yrs. first lg.? school? well? each other S1 G N NA G Y G G S2 G N NA G Y G G S3 G N NA G Y G G&B S4 G Y B G Y G G S5 G N NA G Y G G S6 G Y N G Y G G S7 G N NA G Y G G S8 G N NA G Y G G&B S9 G N NA G Y G G S10 G Y B G Y G G S11 G N NA G Y G G S12 G N NA G Y G Tp,C,B L1 N N NA B Y N N L2 N N NA N Y N N L3 N N NA N Y N N L4 N N NA N Y N N L5 N N NA N Y N N L6 N N NA N Y N N L7 N N NA N Y N N L8 N N NA N Y N N L9 N N NA N Y N N L10 N N NA N Y N N P1 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P2 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P3 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P4 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P5 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P6 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P7 Km N NA Km Y Km Km

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E.3. Language-vitality responses (continued): 10. 11a. Other 13. Kids 14. Kids 11b. 12. Kids 15. Lg. in 30 ID Kids’ lg. before speak MT speak w/ Which? speak best yrs. first lg.? school? well? each other P8 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P9 Km N NA Km Y Km Km P10 Km N NA Km Y Km Km T1 T N NA T Y T T T2 T N NA T Y T T T3 T Y N T Y T T T4 T N NA T Y T T T5 T Y N T Y T T T6 T Y B T Y T T T7 T N NA T Y T T T8 T N NA T Y T T T9 T N NA T Y T T T10 T N NA T&N Y T DK M1 As N NA As Y As As M2 As N NA As Y As As M3 As N NA As Y As As M4 As N NA As Y As As M5 As N NA As Y As As M6 As N NA As Y As As M7 As N NA As Y As As M8 As Y D As Y As As M9 As N NA As Y As As M10 As N NA As Y As As N1 D N NA D Y D D N2 D N NA D Y D D N3 D N NA D Y D D N4 D Y B D Y D D N5 D N NA D Y D D N6 D N NA D Y D&B D N7 D N NA D Y D D N8 D N NA D Y D D N9 D N NA D Y D D N10 D N NA D Y D D N11 D N NA D Y D D N12 D N NA D Y D D E1 K N NA K Y K K E2 K N NA K Y K K E3 K N NA K Y K K E4 K N NA K Y K K E5 K N NA K Y K K E6 K Y B&C K Y K K E7 K N NA K Y K K E8 K Y B&C K Y K K E9 K N NA K Y K K E10 K N NA K Y K K A1 A N NA A Y A A A2 A N NA A Y A A A3 A N NA A Y A A A4 A N NA A Y A A A5 A N NA A Y A A A6 A Y N&K A Y A A

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E.3. Language-vitality responses (continued): 10. 11a. Other 13. Kids 14. Kids 11b. 12. Kids 15. Lg. in 30 ID Kids’ lg. before speak MT speak w/ Which? speak best yrs. first lg.? school? well? each other A7 A N NA A Y A A A8 A N NA A Y A B A9 A N NA A Y A A A10 A N NA A Y A A D1 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D2 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D3 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D4 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D5 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D6 Kw Y B Kw Y Kw Kw D7 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D8 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw D9 Kw N NA Kw Y Kw Kw J1 P N NA P Y P P J2 P N NA P Y P P J3 P N NA P Y P P&B J4 P N NA P Y P P J5 P N NA P Y P P J6 P N NA P Y P P J7 P N NA P Y P P J8 P N NA P Y P mixed Tp J9 P N NA P Y P P&B J10 P Y B B N P P G1 Tp Y B&C Tp Y B Tp Tp&B G2 Tp Y B Y Tp Tp,B&C equally G3 G N NA G Y G G G4 Tp N NA Tp, esp. G Y Tp Tp G5 G Y B Tp Y Tp B G6 Tp Y B Tp Y Tp B G7 G N NA G Y G B G8 G N NA G Y G G G9 Tp Y B Tp Y Tp Tp G10 Tp Y B Tp Y Tp Tp I1 U N NA U Y U B I2 U N NA U Y U B I3 U N NA U Y U U I4 U N NA U Y U U I5 U N NA U Y U U I6 U N NA U Y U U I7 U N NA U Y U U I8 ND N NA U Y U U I9 U N NA U Y U U I10 U N NA U Y U U R1 U N NA U Y U U R2 U N NA U Y U U R3 U N NA U Y U U R4 U N NA U Y U B R5 U N NA U Y U U R6 U N NA U Y U U R7 U N NA U Y U B

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E.3. Language-vitality responses (continued): 10. 11a. Other 13. Kids 14. Kids 11b. 12. Kids 15. Lg. in ID Kids’ lg. before speak MT speak w/ Which? speak best 30 yrs. first lg.? school? well? each other R8 U N NA U Y U U R9 U N NA U Y U B R10 U N NA U Y U U R11 U N NA U Y U U B1 U N NA U Y U U B2 U N NA U Y U U B3 U ND ND U Y U U B4 U N NA U Y U U B5 U N NA U Y U B B6 U N NA B Y U U B7 U N NA U Y U U B8 U N NA U Y U U B9 U N NA U Y U U B10 U N NA U Y U U K1 U N NA U Y U B K2 U Y B U Y U B K3 U N NA U Y U U K4 U N NA U Y U B K5 U N NA U Y U DK K6 U Y B U Y U U&B K7 U Y B U Y U U&B K8 U N NA U Y U U K9 U N NA U Y U U K10 U N NA U Y U U C1 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp Dp C2 Dp Y B Dp Y Dp Dp C3 Dp Y B Dp Y B B C4 Dp Y B Dp Y Dp Dp C5 Dp Y B Dp Y Dp Dp C6 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp Dp C7 Dp Y B Dp Y Dp Dp C8 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp Dp C9 Dp Y B Dp Y Dp Dp C10 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp&B mixed Dp H1 Dn N NA Dn Y Dn Dn H2 Br N NA Br Y Br Br H3 Dn N NA Dn Y Dn&B B H4 Dn N NA Dn N Dn&B Dn H5 Dn N NA Dn N Dn Dn H6 Br Y B Br Y Br B KB&B H7 KB Y B Y KB KB equally H8 Dn Y B Dn Y Dn Dn H9 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp Dp H10 Dp N NA Dp Y Dp Dp&B H11 Dn Y B Dn Y Dn Dn Z1 B N NA B N B B Z2 B Y Tp B N B B Z3 B Y Tp B N B B Z4 B Y Tp Tp&B Y Tp B Z5 B Y Tp B N B B

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E.3. Language-vitality responses (continued): 10. 11a. Other 13. Kids 14. Kids 11b. 12. Kids 15. Lg. in ID Kids’ lg. before speak MT speak w/ Which? speak best 30 yrs. first lg.? school? well? each other Z6 B Y Tp Tp N Tp Tp Z7 B Y Tp B Y B&Tp B Z8 B Y Tp B N B B Z9 B Y Tp B N B B Z10 B N NA B N B B Z11 B Y Tp B N B B F1 G Y D D&G Y G&D D F2 D Y Pangkhua R Y R R E.4. Bilingualism responses 4. 2nd- 5. Always 6. Lg. use ID 2a&b. Other lg. speak & age 3. Best lg. best lg. say in 2nd? most S1 K:2, N:2, P:2, B:6, T:2, C:6 G P Y G S2 NA G NA NA G S3 B:8 G B N G S4 B:6, C:3 G B Y B S5 B:6 G B Y G S6 B:6, N:6, D:6, P:6 G N,D,P Y G S7 B:6, C:14 G B Y G S8 B:16, N:18, P:18, K:18 G B Y G S9 B:5, little C:9, little Hindi:18 G&B NA Y G S10 B:5 G B Y G S11 B:6, little Santali:30 G B Y G S12 B:8, little C:23 G B Y G L1 B:5, C:5, M:2 N C Y N L2 B:11 N B N N L3 B:9, little C:6 N B Y N L4 little B:DK N B N N L5 B:12, C:2 N B&C Y B L6 B:9, C:6 N B Y N L7 B:6, C:6 N B Y N L8 C:2, B:6 N,C,B NA Y N L9 B:4 N B Y N L10 B:9, C:35, M:2 N C N N P1 B:9, C:16, little M:11 Km B N Km P2 B:9, P:20 Km B Y Km P3 little B:20 Km B N Km P4 NA Km NA NA Km P5 little B:3 Km B N Km P6 NA Km NA NA Km P7 B:11, C:13 Km B Y Km P8 B:12, P:20, N:25, G:30 Km P Y Km P9 B:15 Km B N Km P10 little B:15 Km B Y Km T1 NA T NA NA T T2 NA T NA NA T T3 little B:DK T B N T T4 little B:4 T B N T T5 B:5 T B Y T T6 B:7, N:7 T B N T

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E.4 Bilingualism responses (continued): 4. 2nd- 5. Always 6. Lg. use ID 2a&b. Other lg. speak & age 3. Best lg. best lg. say in 2nd? most T7 B:9, N:13 T N Y T T8 B:15, G:15, D:15, N:15 T N N T T9 B:6, N:5, D:10 T N Y N T10 B:6 T B N T M1 little B:DK As B N As M2 NA As NA NA As M3 B:12 As B N As M4 NA As NA NA As M5 little K:5, little D:9 As K&D Y As M6 NA As NA NA As M7 B:6, D:8, C:8 As D Y As M8 B:12, D:7, K:7, N:7 As D N As M9 B:20, C:20 As B&C N As M10 B:12, C:12 As C N As N1 Ct:10 D Ct N D N2 NA D NA NA D N3 B:9, C:9 D B N D N4 B:6, C:6, N:2, G:2 D B Y D N5 B:6, C:14, N:10 D B Y D N6 C:10, B:10, G:12, N:14, K:16 D N Y D N7 B:8, C:15 D B N D N8 B:9, C:7 D C N D N9 B:10, C:12 D B N D N10 B:8, C:10 D B N D N11 B:7, C:8, M:12 D B Y D N12 NA D NA NA D B:7, Ct:7, C:7, little Mandi:24, little E1 K B Y B E:12 E2 B:30, little U:40 K B N K E3 B:5, C:14 K B&C N K E4 B:5 K B N K E5 B:5, little C:12 K B N K E6 B:6, C:13 K B N K E7 C:25 K C Y K E8 B:6, little C:6, little U:9 K B N B E9 B:6, C:12 K B Y K E10 B:12 K B N K A1 B:6, C:15 A B N A A2 B:6, C:5 A B&C Y A A3 B:5, C:5, N:5, D:5 A D Y A A4 B:8, K:6, Kw:6, N:6, D:6 A K Y A A5 B:7, K:5, D:5 A K Y A A6 B:12 A B N A A7 B:10 A B N A A8 B:6 A B N A A9 little B:12 A B N A A10 little B:15, little C:9 A C Y A D1 B:5 Kw B Y B D2 B:9, C:9, K:9, N:9 Kw B N Kw D3 B:6, C:6 Kw B N Kw D4 B:6, C:4, M:19 Kw B&C Y B D5 B:12 Kw B N Kw

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E.4 Bilingualism responses (continued): 4. 2nd- 5. Always 6. Lg. use ID 2a&b. Other lg. speak & age 3. Best lg. best lg. say in 2nd? most D6 B:20 Kw B N Kw D7 B:12 Kw B N Kw D8 B:10 Kw B N Kw D9 NA Kw NA NA Kw J1 B:8, M:11 P B Y B J2 B:5 P B N P J3 B:8 P B Y P J4 B:12 P B N P J5 B:7 P B Y P J6 B:5 P&B NA Y P J7 NA P NA NA P J8 B:6, little C:17, little M:14 P B Y B J9 B:8, little M:12, little C:14 P B Y P J10 B:8 P B N P G1 B:12 Tp B Y Tp G2 B:5, little C:10 Tp&B NA Y Tp G3 B:6, little M:16, little C:25 G B Y B G4 B:6, little C:12 N B Y N B:6, little M:14, little C:14, little G5 B G N B Hindi:16 G6 B:6, little C:10 D&B NA N D G7 B:6 G&B NA Y G G8 little B:6 G B N G G9 B:20, C:2 K C Y K B:5, C:5, Bm:24, little Hindi:10, G10 Tp&B NA Y Tp little U:24 I1 B:5 U B Y U I2 little B:10 U B N U I3 little B:DK U B N U I4 little B:40 U B N U I5 little B:15 U B N U I6 M:12, B:6, Mr:20 U B N U I7 Ct:6, Mr:15, B:6, M:25, Bm: 18 U B&Ct Y U I8 M:25, B:15, Ct:10 U B&M N U I9 B:15, M:20, Ct:15 U Ct Y U I10 B:15, Ct:15, M:15, Bm:20 U Ct Y U R1 B:5, M:12 U B Y U R2 Ct:20, M:15, Mr:20 U M Y U R3 B:10 B U Y B R4 B:6, M:6, little C:6 U B Y U R5 little M:16, little Ct:20 U M N U R6 Ct:20, M:15 U M Y U R7 M:25 U M Y U R8 B:8, C:5, Ct:16, M:16 U B Y U B:12, M:15, E:24, Mr:21, Ct:13, R9 U B Y U C:50 R10 B:25, Ct:15, M:10 U M Y U R11 B:7 U B Y B B1 B:6, M:8 U B Y U B2 B:15, M:15, Bm:15, Lusai:12 U M Y U B3 M:28 U M Y U B4 NA U NA NA U

224

E.4 Bilingualism responses (continued): 4. 2nd- 5. Always 6. Lg. use ID 2a&b. Other lg. speak & age 3. Best lg. best lg. say in 2nd? most B5 B:9, M:9 U B Y U B6 B:10, M:4 U B Y B B7 NA U NA NA U B8 NA U NA NA U B9 B:12, M:12 U B Y U B10 M:DK U M N U K1 B:6, M:15, Bm:14 U M Y U K2 B:13, M:27,E:20 U B N U K3 B:12, M:12 U B N U K4 B:7, M:5 U M N U K5 NA U NA NA U K6 B:6, M:12 U B N U K7 Ct:20 U Ct N U K8 little B:18 U B N U K9 B:10 U B Y U K10 little B:8, little M:13 U M Y U B:4, E:7, Jongli:18, Mondi:20, C1 Dp B Y Dp Hindi:20 C2 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C3 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C4 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C5 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C6 B:8 Dp B Y B C7 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C8 B:5 Dp B Y Dp C9 B:6 Dp B Y Dp C10 B:5 Dp B Y Dp H1 B:6, Santali:15 Dn B Y B H2 B:5 Br B N Br H3 B:5 Dn B Y B H4 B:7 Dn B N Dn H5 B:4, Hindi:10 Dn B Y Dn H6 B:6 Br B Y B H7 B:4, little E:12 KB&B NA Y B H8 B:5 Dn B Y Dn H9 B:5 Dp B Y Dp H10 B:4, little Hindi:14, little E:12 Dp B Y B H11 B:6 Dn B N Dn Z1 B:3 Tp&B NA Y B Z2 B:3 Tp&B NA Y B Z3 B:3 B Tp Y B Z4 B:3 Tp&B NA Y B Z5 Tp:9, E:15 B Tp N B Z6 B:7 B Tp N B Z7 B:5 B Tp N B Z8 B:3 B Tp N B Z9 B:3 B Tp N B Z10 B:9 B Tp Y B Z11 Tp:3 B Tp N B F1 G:18, B:18, C:18 G R N G R & F2 B:10, Pangkhua:5, C:5, N:10 NA ND Pangkhua Pangkhua

225

E.5. Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] 7a. 7e. Easiest 7d. How much ID Different 7b. Lg. names 7c. Lg. use w/ them to under- understand? speaking? stand? all are S1 Y K, N, P, T, D G one-third equal S2 Y N, P G N:half, P:none ND S3 Y N, D, K, T, P G most ND U:little, N:all, D:all, S4 Y U, N, D, P, A, T G ND P:most, A:most, T:most D:D, P:D&P, D:half, P:little, N:little, S5 Y D, P, N, K N N:little N, K:little K K:little S6 Y N, D, P N:N, D:D, P:P all ND S7 Y N, P, H G N:half, P:most, H:half N&P S8 Y N, P, T, K N:N, P:P, T:G, K:K all N &P N:G, P:G, T:G, K:G, N:all, P:all, T:all, K:all, S9 Y N, P, T, K, U N, P, T, K U:B U:none N:less than half, D:little, S10 Y N, D, T, K, U G ND T:none, K:half; U:little N:all, P:Less than half, S11 Y N, P, D G D D:all N:70%, P:40%, Km:10%, S12 Y N, P, Km, D, K, T G ND D:60%, K:50%, T:20% L1 Y D, P, K N D:all, P:40%, K:all K D:two-thirds, K:two - D, K, P, T, L2 Y N thirds, P: 40%, T:less than K Mongbai half, Mongbai:little D:most, P:all, G:half, D, P, G, As, Km, As:little, Km: little, L3 Y N D&T K, T, Moiching K:most, T:all, Moiching:all T:less than half, K:most L4 Y T, K, Kw, P N K Kw:most, P:most, L5 Y D, K, P N D:all, K:all, P:most D L6 Y D, U N D:half, U:little D D, K, L7 Y N half D P, H D:half, P:little, Kw:little, L8 Y D, P, Kw, K N D K:half D:all, G:half, P:little, D, G, P, A, R, K, D:N, R:B, Db:B, L9 Y A:little, R:very little, K Db, Jt Jt:B K:most, Db:10%, JT:10% L10 Y D, K N most D N, G, P, D, K, T, N:all, G:half, P:all, D:all, P1 Y Km D, N&K Mongbai K:all, T:all, Mongbai:all, P:half, G:half, K:half, P2 Y P, G, K, N, T Km G N:half, T:half P:Km, N:Km P, N, Mongbai, P:half, Mongbai:half, P3 Y Mongbai:Km, D K, D K:none, D:most, N:little K:Km&K, D:D P4 Y DK NA NA NA P:half, G:little, N:little, P5 Y P, G, N, D Km DK D:little P6 Y DK NA NA NA

226

E.5. Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] (continued): 7a. 7e. Easiest ID Different 7b. Lg. names 7c. Lg. use w/ them 7d. How much understand? to under- speaking? stand? P: P&Km, P7 Y P, D all P D: D&Km N, P, G, N:little, P:little, G:little, Youngai, P8 Y Km Youngai:all, Landa:all, Youngai Landa, Hapang, Hapang:all, R:little R N, D, K, N:one-third, Youngai& P9 Y Youngai, Km D:one-third, K:little, Hapang Hapang Youngai:all, Hapang:all P, D, Hapang, P10 Y Km all H H T1 Y N T all N T2 N NA NA NA NA T3 Y N T all N T4 N NA NA NA NA T5 Y N, D, G, K T N:all, D:all, G:all, K:none N T6 Y N N all N T7 Y N N all N T8 Y N, G, D N:N, G:G, D:D most D T9 Y N N:N all N N:T, K:T, K:B, P:T, N:most, K:less than half, T10 Y N, K, Km, P, U N U:B Km:none, P:half, U:none M1 Y N, D, K As all N&D N:most, D:most, K: most, A: M2 Y N, D, K, A, U As K most, U:half M3 Y N, D, K, Db, U As all all R, K, Kw, A, R:all, K:all, Kw:all, A:all, A:A&As, N:N&As, M4 Y Db, U, Jt, Db:most, U:all, Jt:all, K all others:As Gurpai, N Gurpai:little, N:all M5 Y K, D K:K&As, D:D&As K:little, D:half D M6 N NA NA NA NA G:G&As, G, Hapang, N, G:half, Hapang:30%, N:half, M7 Y Hapang:As, N:As, D D D:all D:D&As M8 Y D As most D M9 Y D, G, N As half D M10 Y D As half D N&G N1 Y N, G, K D N:all, G:all, K:most equally N:half, P:little, G:less than N2 Y N, P, G, K, T D N half, K:half, T:none N:D&little N, G:D, N:nearly all, G:nearly all, N3 Y N, G, P, As N P:D, As:D P:most, As:little N:N, G:D&G, N4 Y N, G, P, K N:all, G:most, P:most, K:half N P:D&N, K:D N:N, K:D, G:D, N:most, K:half, G:most, N5 Y N, K, G, P N&G P:D P:half N6 Y N, G, K N:N, G:D, K:D all N G:G&D,N:N&D, N7 Y G, N, K all N K:K&D N8 Y G, N, P, K D most K

227

E.5. Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] (continued): 7e. Easiest 7a. Different 7c. Lg. use w/ 7d. How much ID 7b. Lg. names to under- speaking? them understand? stand? G:most, K:all, P:most, N9 Y G, K, P, N D N N:most N10 Y G, P, N D G:half, P:little, N:half N G:most, N:half, P:half, N11 Y G, N, P, K D N K:most N12 Y G, K, P, N D half N E1 Y N, P, D, G K all DK N:K, P:K, D:K, N:all, P:all, D:all, G:all, E2 Y N, P, D, G, U N,P,D,G G:K, U:U U:less than half E3 Y N, P, G, D K half D&N N:half, D:half, E4 Y N, D, Moiching K Moiching Moiching:more than half E5 Y G, P K most all P Db:K, U:K&B, Db:80%, U:little, Db, U, Km, Jt, Km:K, JT:K, Km:almost all, R:little, E6 Y R, N, G, P, D, R:K&B, N:K, JT:80%, N:most, G:most, Db As, Kw G:K, P:K, D:K, P:most, D:most, A:80%, A:K, Kw:K Kw:most E7 Y G K half G E8 Y N, G K N:70%, G:60% N E9 Y N, P, G K all N P:half, G:half, D:less than E10 Y P, G, D K P half Kw:half, K:half, N:little, A1 Y Kw, K, N, P A Kw P:half N, D, K, N:half, D:little, K:half, A2 Y A K Mongbai, Kw Mongbai:none, Kw:little N, D, K, P, N:A, D:D, K:A, N:all, D:all, K:all, P:half, A3 Y D Kw, R P:A, Kw:A, R:A Kw:half, R:half K:all, Kw:half, N:half, A4 Y K, Kw, N, D, R A K D:half, R:half K:K, D:A, N:A, A5 Y K, D, N, P K:all, D:all, N:half, P:half K P:A N&K A6 Y D, N, K, Kw A all equally A7 Y K A half K A8 Y N, P, D, Kw A half N Kw:half, K:half, N:little, A9 Y Kw, K, N, D A K D:little A10 Y K, P A K:more than half, P:little K D1 N NA NA NA NA K, N, A, D, R, K:half, N:little, A:little, D2 Y Kw K Db D:little, R:half, Db:little N:N&Kw, G:G&Kw, N:most, G:half, P:half, D3 Y N, G, P, A N P:P&Kw, A:half A:A&Kw A:A, G:G, N:N, A:most, G:most, N:all, D4 Y A, G, N, D, P N D:D, P:P D:most, P:most D5 Y A, N, K Kw A:little, N:little, K:all K H, G, K, N, P, N&D D6 Y Kw all D equally

228

E.5. Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] (continued): 7a. 7e. Easiest 7c. Lg. use w/ 7d. How much ID Different 7b. Lg. names to under- them understand? speaking? stand? D7 Y A, D, P, N Kw half N D8 Y N, D, A Kw little N D9 Y N, P Kw half N N, G, Km, D, N:70%, G:85%, Km:90%, J1 Y P Km Db D:90%, Db:40% G:half, N:most, K:half, J2 Y G, N, K, D P N D:little J3 Y N, T, G P N:half, T:most, G:most T J4 Y G, N G:G&P, N:N&P G:half, N:little N J5 Y N, G, D P N:most, G:little, D:little N J6 Y D, H, N P all all J7 Y N, G, T, Km P none DK N, G, Kw, T, N:most, G:most, T:most, J8 Y mixed Tp D Km, D Km:most, Kw:half, D:most N:most, T:most, G:most, J9 Y N, T, G, U P N U:little N:half, D:little, K:little, J10 Y N, D, K, T P N T:little G1 Y D, N, G, A Tp D:all, N:all, G:all, A:most N G2 Y G, D, P, N Tp&B all all are easy D:almost all, N:all, P:most, G3 Y D, N, P, T G N T:most D&G G4 Y D, G N all equally D:D&G, N:N&G, G5 Y D, N, P, K all D P:P&G, K:K&G P:almost all, K:almost all, P, K&N G6 Y P, K, N, H D N:almost all, H:half equally N:almost all, D:almost all, G7 Y N, D, P, K G K P:most, K:all G8 Y N, P, D G N:half, P:little, D:most D G, D, N, U, R, G:K, D:K, N:K, G:all, D:all, N:all, U:none, G,D,N,P G9 Y P U:B, R:K&B, P:K R:little, P:all equally N:mixed Tp, D:mixed Tp, N&D G10 Y N, D, P, U N:all, D:all, P:most, U:80% P:mixed Tp, equally U:U&G mixed I1 Y DK NA NA NA I2 Y DK NA NA NA I3 N NA NA NA NA I4 N NA NA NA NA I5 N NA NA NA NA I6 N NA NA NA NA I7 Y J, Pj, R U&B J:none, Pj:none, R:little R I8 Y R U none NA I9 Y R U little R I10 N NA NA NA NA R1 N NA NA NA NA R2 N NA NA NA NA R3 N NA NA NA NA R4 N NA NA NA NA R5 N NA NA NA NA

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E.5. Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] (continued): 7a. 7e. Easiest 7b. Lg. 7c. Lg. use w/ 7d. How much ID Different to under- names them understand? speaking? stand? R6 N NA NA NA NA R7 N NA NA NA NA Db, R, Koloi, Db:all, R:all, Koloi:half, R8 Y all: U ND Jt, Morasing JT:half, Morasing:half Db:Db&U, R:R, Db, R, As, As:As, JT:JT&U Db:half, R:most, As:half, Gurpai, Kata, Gurpai:Gurpai, Gurpai:half, Kata:half, R9 Y R Khakulu, Kata:Kata&U, Khakulu:half, Kw:half, Kw, Jt Khakulu:Khakulu JT:most &U, Kw:Kw&U, R10 N NA NA NA NA R11 N NA NA NA NA B1 N NA NA NA NA B2 N NA NA NA NA B3 N NA NA NA NA B4 N NA NA NA NA B5 N NA NA NA NA B6 N NA NA NA NA B7 Y R R:U little R B8 N NA NA NA NA B9 N NA NA NA NA B10 N NA NA NA NA K1 Y D U half D K2 N NA NA NA NA K3 N NA NA NA NA K4 N NA NA NA NA K5 N NA NA NA NA K6 Y DK NA NA NA K7 N NA NA NA NA K8 N NA NA NA NA K9 N NA NA NA NA K10 Y DK NA NA NA Beri, Dona, Br:Dp, Dn:Dn&Dp C1 Y all all Suri Suri:Suri&Dp, C2 Y Beri, Dona Dp all Dn Br:Br&Dp, Beri, Dona, C3 Y Dn:Dn&Dp, all all Suri Suri:Suri&Dp C4 Y Beri, Dona Dp most Dn C5 Y Beri Br:Dp all Br those in Mainly KB & C6 Y half Khagrachari Khagrachari some B KB from KB from Khagrachari, Khagrachari:K, KB from Khagrachari:half, KB of C7 Y KB from KB from KB from Bandarban:little Khagrachari Bandarban Bandarban:B KB from KB from KB from C8 Y KB from Khagrachari:half Khagrachari Khagrachari:KB Khagrachari C9 N NA NA NA NA C10 N NA NA NA NA H1 Y Daspa, Beri Dn all Br

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E.5 Language variation responses, part A [questions 7a–7e] (continued): 7e. Easiest 7a. Different 7c. Lg. use w/ 7d. How much ID 7b. Lg. names to under- speaking? them understand? stand? H2 N NA NA NA NA H3 N NA NA NA NA H4 N NA NA NA NA H5 N NA NA NA NA those from H6 Y B half Khagrachari Khagrachari those who live Those who live in H7 Y in Rangamati, KB&B Dp Rangamati:70%, Dp:most Daspa H8 N NA NA NA NA H9 N NA NA NA NA H10 Y DK Dp little NA H11 Y DK Dn little NA Z1 N NA NA NA NA Z2 Y H Tp all H Z3 N NA NA NA NA Z4 N NA NA NA NA Z5 Y KB Tp most KB Z6 N NA NA NA NA Z7 N NA NA NA NA Z8 N NA NA NA NA Z9 N NA NA NA NA Z10 N NA NA NA NA Z11 Y DK B&Tp most NA F1 Y G, N, D G:G, N:N, D:D G:most, N:half, D:half G F2 Y N, D, G N:N, D:D, G:G N:half, D:most, G:most D

E.6. Language variation responses, part B [questions 8a–9d] 8a. 8c. Lg. 8d. How 9a. 9c. Lg. 9d. How ID Know 8b. Place use with much Know 9b. Place? use with much Db? Db? understand? U? U? understand? S1 Y Matiranga G little N NA NA NA S2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S4 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA S5 N NA N NA N NA NA NA S6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S9 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA S10 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA S11 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA S12 N NA NA NA Y ND B none L1 Y Sylhet N little Y Bandarban B very little L2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA L3 Y India N none Y Chittagong B none L4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA L5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA L6 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA L7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA

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E.6. Language variation responses, part B [questions 8a–9d] (continued): 8a. 8c. Lg. 8d. How 9a. 9c. Lg. 9d. How 8b. 9b. ID Know use with much Know use with much Place Place? Db? Db? understand? U? U? understand? L8 Y DK N 20-30% Y Bandarban B none Cox's L9 NA NA NA NA Y B very little Bazar L10 Y India N little N NA NA NA P1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P2 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA P3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P9 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA P10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T5 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban T none T6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA T9 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban B none T10 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA M1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA M2 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA M3 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA M4 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Thakurn M5 Y -bari, As little Y DK As little India M6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Tripura M7 Y As half N NA NA NA state M8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA M9 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA M10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N6 Y India D little N NA NA NA N7 Y DK D little Y Bandarban D half N8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N9 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban D none N10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N11 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA N12 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA

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E.6. Language variation responses, part B [questions 8a–9d] (continued): 8a. 8c. Lg. 8d. How 9a. 9c. Lg. 9d. How 8b. 9b. ID Know use with much Know use with much Place Place? Db? Db? understand? U? U? understand? Sylhet, more than E1 Y Comilla, K Y Bandarban K&B less than half half India E2 Y India B none NA NA NA NA E3 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban K little E4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA E5 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban B little E6 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA E7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA K&U E8 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban little mixed E9 Y India K&B 70% Y Bandarban K less than half E10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA A1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA A2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA A3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Tripura Tripura A4 Y A little Y A little State state A5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Tripura A6 N NA NA NA Y A less than half state A7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA A8 Y India A one-third N NA NA NA A9 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA A10 Y India A little N NA NA NA D1 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA D2 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA D3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA D4 Y India D 60% N NA NA NA D5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA D6 N NA NA NA Y India Kw little D7 Y India Kw little N NA NA NA D8 Y India Kw little Y India Kw less than half D9 Y India Kw very little N NA NA NA J1 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA J2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA J3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA J4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA J5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA J6 Y India P half N NA NA NA J7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA J8 Y Comilla P most Y Bandarban P&B half J9 Y India B little NA NA NA NA J10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA G1 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban B half Khag- G2 Y Tp all Y Bandarban Tp little rapur G3 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban G&B little G4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA G5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA G6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA

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E.6. Language variation responses, part B [questions 8a-9d] (continued): 8a. 8c. Lg. 8d. How 9a. 9c. Lg. 9d. How 8b. 9b. ID Know use with much Know use with much Place Place? Db? Db? understand? U? U? understand? G7 Y DK G little N NA NA NA G8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA G9 Y India K&B little NA NA NA NA Sylhet & G10 Y Tripura slow G most NA NA NA NA state I1 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I2 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I3 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I4 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I5 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I6 DK NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Molon- pur, I7 Y B none NA NA NA NA Khag- rachari I8 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I9 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA I10 Y Thanchi U little NA NA NA NA R1 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R2 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R3 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R4 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R5 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R6 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R7 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R8 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R9 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R10 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA R11 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B1 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B2 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B3 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B4 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B5 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B6 Y India B little NA NA NA NA B7 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B8 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B9 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA B10 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Khag- K1 Y U half NA NA NA NA rachari K2 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K3 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K4 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K5 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K6 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K7 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K8 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA K9 N NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Karna- K10 Y B little NA NA NA NA phuli

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E.6. Language variation responses, part B [questions 8a–9d] (continued): 8a. 8c. Lg. 8d. How 9a. 9c. Lg. 9d. How 8b. 9b. ID Know use with much Know use with much Place Place? Db? Db? understand? U? U? understand? C1 NA NA NA NA Y Bandarban Dp half C2 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C3 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C4 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C5 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA Dp&B C6 NA NA NA NA Y Bandarban less than half mixed C7 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C8 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C9 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA C10 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H1 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H2 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H3 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H4 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H5 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H6 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H7 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H8 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H9 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H10 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA H11 NA NA NA NA N NA NA NA Khag- Z1 Y B little N NA NA NA rachari Z2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z3 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z4 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z5 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z6 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z7 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z8 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z9 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z10 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA Z11 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA F1 N NA NA NA Y Bandarban U half F2 N NA NA NA N NA NA NA

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F. SUBJECT BIODATA

The following abbreviations are used in the following biodata tables:

Column heading: Language: WL = wordlist A = Anok CIQ = Community Information Questionnaire As = Aslong Educ = education 13 B = Bangla MT = mother tongue M’s MT = mother’s mother tongue Br = Beri F’s MT = father’s mother tongue D = Dendak Rel = religion Db = Debbarma Dn = Dona Education: Dp = Daspa PG = playgroup G = Gabing SSC = secondary school certificate K = Khali HSC = higher secondary certificate KB = Kok Borok 10 = completed class 10 but did not pass SSC Km = Kema exam BA = bachelor’s degree Kw = Kewa MA = master’s degree N = Naitong Pj = Panji Religion: P = Phatung B = Buddhist R = Riang C = Christian T = Tongpai H = Hindu Tp = Tripura S = Sonaton U = Usoi Note: Dates are given as MM/DD/YY

13 A subject’s mother tongue is defined in this report as the language a subject first learned as a child. It is not necessarily their best language or their mother’s first or best language.

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F.1. Wordlist and CIQ informant biodata C A S W M’s F’s Other residences and I Date Location g e Educ MT Rel L MT MT length (in years) Q e x Boro Alikadam:15; X X 3/26/07 37 M HSC U U U C Pharangsia Bandarban:2 Rawangchari:1; Choto X X 3/26/07 65 M 7 U U U Narengpara:40; H Madhuk Ruma:6 X 3/29/07 Sapmara 29 M SSC G G G Dhaka:4; Gazipur:2 S X X 3/29/07 Dolchari 29 M SSC G G G Matiranga:5 C X 3/30/07 Lombapara 75 M 2 N N N none S X X 3/30/07 Lombapara 52 M 8 N N N none S X 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 55 M 0 Km Km Km none S X X 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 50 M 0 Km Km Km none S X 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 60 M 0 T T T none S X 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 45 M 6 T T T none S X 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 55 M 0 As As As none S Taindang:7; X 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 56 M 0 D D D Punnomohanpara:10- S 15; Rohindapara:10-12 Noimail X 4/5/07 30 M 5 D D D Betchari:18 S Gutchagram Noimail X 4/5/07 40 M 1 D D D Betchari:19 S Gutchagram India:1; X X 4/5/07 Beltolipara 75 M 6 K K K C Khagrachari:4 X X 4/16/07 Robertpara 48 M 6 U U U none C Ruma:10; X 4/18/07 Bethanipara 42 M SSC U U U Mrongkhyongpara:15; C Mungyohapara:5 Alikadam:6; Sadhu Headmanpara:15; X 4/21/07 Katchaptali 59 M 1 U U U Mittiashar, Kaptai:3; C Thongkhyongpara:13; Tulahchari:15 Hatibhangapara, X 4/21/07 Katchaptali 30 M 10 U U U C Bandarban:25 Rambabudeba:14; Laiphu X 4/25/07 35 M 9 A A A Karbu Natun Bazar, S Karbaripara India:12 Laiphu Rambabudeba:23; X 4/25/07 43 M 43 A A A S Karbaripara India:12 Krishna Karbu Natun Bazar, X 4/25/07 33 M 2 Kw Kw Kw S Dayalpara India:11 Jarichandra- Sabrum, South Tripura X 4/26/07 54 M 1 P P P S para state:10 Narayanpara:15; Jarichandra- X 4/26/07 42 M BA P P P Maizdi, Noakhali:5; S para Dhaka:1; Gazipur:1 X 5/13/07 Doluchara 60 M 4 Db Db Db none S X 5/13/07 Doluchara 18 F HSC KB KB KB none S Satchari X 5/14/07 35 F 1 Db Db Db India:2 S Tripura Basti

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F.1. Wordlist and CIQ informant biodata (continued): C A S W M’s F’s Other residences and I Date Location g e Educ MT Rel L MT MT length (in years) Q e x Satchari X X 5/14/07 40 F 0 Db Db Db Belchara:14 S Tripura Basti X 5/16/07 Khumulung 32 M 10 Db Db Db none C X 7/4/07 Barbakpur 35 F 0 Tp Tp Tp none S X 7/4/07 Barbakpur 51 M SSC Tp Tp Tp Noakhali:5 S X 7/29/07 Oldlankar 35 M 0 R R R Dargon, India:2 C X 7/29/07 Oldlankar 33 M 3 R R R none C X 7/29/07 Thalchara 35 M 3 R R R none S F.2. HTT/RTT subject biodata F.2.1. Debbarma subject biodata A S M's F's Other residences and ID Date Location g e Educ MT MT MT length (in years) e x Basurampara (22 km R1 5/17/07 Agartala 48 M HSC KB KB KB away):15 Bisramganj R2 5/17/07 Agartala 38 M BA KB KB KB (35 km away):22 R3 5/17/07 Agartala 54 M SSC KB KB KB Odaipur (62 km away):40 R4 5/17/07 Agartala 15 F SSC KB KB KB none Telianura (45 km east):10; R5 5/17/07 Agartala 45 F MA KB KB KB Shillong:10; North Mohanpur (37 km north):10 Bisramganj:16; R6 5/17/07 Agartala 42 F 6 KB KB KB Rangamatia:4 R7 5/17/07 Agartala 47 M BA KB KB KB Mohanpur:17; Shillong:6 R8 5/18/07 Agartala 32 M 0 KB KB KB Simna (37 km away):32 R9 5/18/07 Agartala 40 F 0 KB KB KB Kwai, Kolanpur:18 R10 5/18/07 Agartala 22 M 6 KB KB KB Jiraniya:21; Shillong:1

F.2.2. Naitong subject biodata M's F's Other residences and ID Date Location Age Sex Educ MT Rel MT MT length (in years) N1 6/9/07 Lombapara 53 M 8 N N N none S N2 6/9/07 Lombapara 42 M SSC N N N Tripura state:2 S N3 6/9/07 Lombapara 36 F 4 N N N Matiranga:7 S N4 6/9/07 Lombapara 34 M 10 N N N Khagrachari:4 S N5 6/9/07 Lombapara 30 M 7 N N N none S N6 6/9/07 Lombapara 37 F 2 N N N Khagrachari:7 S N7 6/9/07 Lombapara 19 F 7 N N N none S N8 6/9/07 Lombapara 24 M 9 N N N none S Bamboopara, N9 6/9/07 Lombapara 23 F 10 N N N S Panchari:18 N10 6/9/07 Lombapara 76 F 0 N N N none S

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F.2.3. Khali subject biodata A S Ed M M's F's Other residences and ID Date Location g e Rel uc T MT MT length (in years) e x K1 6/10/07 Beltolipara 40 M HSC K K A none S K2 6/10/07 Beltolipara 19 F 10 K K K none S K3 6/10/07 Beltolipara 30 M SSC K K K Dhaka:3; Chittagong:2½ S K4 6/10/07 Beltolipara 64 M 6 K K K Joloya:2; Taindong:5 S K5 6/10/07 Beltolipara 60 F 4 K K K Gasban:17 S K6 6/10/07 Beltolipara 38 F 8 K K K none S K7 6/10/07 Beltolipara 24 F SSC K K K Dubaora, Mymensingh:7 C Thakurchara:2; K8 6/10/07 Beltolipara 36 M 6 K K K S Pankhaipara:1 K9 6/10/07 Beltolipara 34 F 5 K K D Alutila: 20 S K10 6/10/07 Beltolipara 32 M 10 K P K none C K11 6/10/07 Beltolipara 41 F 0 K K K none S

F.2.4. Aslong subject biodata A S M's F's Other residences ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT and length (in years) e x S1 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 22 M 2 As As As India:12 S S2 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 55 M 0 As As As none S S3 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 48 M 0 As As As Tripura state:8 S S4 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 24 M 0 As As As Tripura state:11 S S5 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 50 F 0 As As As none S S6 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 26 M 4 As As As Tripura state:11 S S7 6/12/07 Mildhanpara 38 M 3 As As As Tripura state:10 S

F.2.5. Anok subject biodata A S M's F's Other residences ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT and length (in years) e x Laiphu A1 6/13/07 18 M 9 A A A Rambabudeba:14 S Karbaripara Laiphu A2 6/13/07 65 M 0 A K K India:12 S Karbaripara Laiphu Rambabudeba:20; A3 6/13/07 45 F 0 A A K S Karbaripara Tripura state:11 Laiphu A4 6/13/07 40 F 0 A A A India:12 S Karbaripara Laiphu A5 6/13/07 15 F 7 A A K India:7 S Karbaripara Laiphu A6 6/13/07 23 F 6 A A A Tripura state:12 S Karbaripara Laiphu A7 6/13/07 26 M 7 A K A Tripura state:11 S Karbaripara Laiphu Rambabudeba:25; A8 6/13/07 44 M 7 A P A S Karbaripara Tripura state:11

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F.2.6. Phatung subject biodata A S M's F's Other residences ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT and length (in years) e x Matiranga:5; P1 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 17 M SSC P P P S Khagrapur:1 Khagrachari:10; P2 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 36 M BA P P P S Dhaka:2; Noakhali:5 P3 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 30 M 2 P P P none S P4 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 36 M 3 P P P none S Nursarypara:16; P5 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 40 M 0 P P P S India:1 P6 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 18 F SSC P P P Khagrachari:2 S P7 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 50 F 0 P P P none S P8 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 18 F 8 P P P none S Golabari, P9 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 45 F 6 P P P S Khagrachari:20 P10 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 32 M BA P P P Narayanpara:15 S Thakurchara:4; P11 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 36 M BA P P P S Ramgar:2 P12 6/14/07 Jarichandrapara 48 F 8 P P P Guimara:2 S

F.2.7. Mukchak subject biodata A S M's F's Other residences ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT and length (in years) e x Z1 7/5/07 Barbakpur 18 F 9 B Tp Tp none C Z2 7/5/07 Barbakpur 60 F 0 Tp Tp Tp Khalicharonpur:18 S Z3 7/5/07 Barbakpur 61 M 7 Tp Tp Tp Mulghar:40 S Z4 7/5/07 Barbakpur 47 M 8 Tp Tp Tp Mulghar:47 S Z5 7/5/07 Barbakpur 21 M 9 B Tp Tp none C Z6 7/5/07 Barbakpur 51 M 0 Tp Tp Tp none S Z7 7/5/07 Barbakpur 19 F 10 Tp Tp Tp none S Z8 7/5/07 Barbakpur 16 F 10 B Tp Tp none S Z9 7/5/07 Barbakpur 25 F 0 Tp Tp Tp Chandpur:2 S Z10 7/5/07 Barbakpur 21 M BA B Tp Tp none S Z11 7/5/07 Barbakpur 65 F 0 Tp Tp Tp none S

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata A S M's Other residences and ID Date Location g e Educ MT F's MT Rel MT length (in years) e x Toikatong:19; S1 3/29/07 Sapmara 32 F 6 G G G S Bangmara:13 S2 3/29/07 Sapmara 50 F 0 G G G none S S3 3/29/07 Sapmara 70 M 3 G G G none S Chittagong city:3; S4 3/29/07 Sapmara 27 M 10 G G G S Tripura state:5 S5 3/29/07 Sapmara 26 F 0 G G G none S S6 3/29/07 Sapmara 48 M 5 G G G Matiranga:18 S S7 3/29/07 Sapmara 20 F 10 G G G none S S8 3/29/07 Sapmara 61 M 1 G G G none S S9 3/29/07 Sapmara 29 M 12 G G G Dhaka:4; Gazipur:2 S S10 3/29/07 Sapmara 18 F 10 G G G none S S11 3/29/07 Sapmara 62 M 1 G G G none S S12 3/29/07 Sapmara 29 M SSC G G G Matiranga:5 C L1 3/30/07 Lombapara 32 F 10 N N N Headmanpara:12 S L2 3/30/07 Lombapara 37 F 1 N N N Mohalchara:6 S L3 3/30/07 Lombapara 37 F 4 N N N none S Toilaipang, L4 3/30/07 Lombapara 65 F 0 N N N S Matiranga:28 L5 3/30/07 Lombapara 17 F 10 N D N none S L6 3/30/07 Lombapara 16 M 10 N N N Rajasthali: 5 S L7 3/30/07 Lombapara 24 M 7 N N N Khagrachari:10 S L8 3/30/07 Lombapara 36 M SSC N N Mongbai none S L9 3/30/07 Lombapara 27 M 10 N N N Matiranga:20 S L10 3/30/07 Lombapara 75 M 2 N N N none S P1 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 55 F 0 Km Km Km Moidompara:18 S P2 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 22 M 7 Km Km Km none S P3 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 25 F 0 Km Km Km none S P4 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 30 F 0 Km Km Km Tholipara:15 S P5 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 22 F 0 Km Km Km Tholipara:18 S P6 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 70 F 0 Km Km Km none S P7 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 40 M 0 Km Km Km none S P8 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 50 M 0 Km Km Km none S P9 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 24 M 0 Km Km Km none S P10 4/2/07 Pakkhipara 45 M 0 Km Km Km none S T1 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 65 F 0 T T T none S T2 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 55 F 0 T T T none S T3 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 23 F 0 T T T none S T4 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 32 F 0 T T T none S T5 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 17 F 0 T T T none S T6 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 33 M 0 T T T none S T7 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 40 M 3 T N T Chittagong city:6 S T8 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 70 M PG T T D none S T9 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 26 M 8 T T T none S T10 4/3/07 Tongpaipara 45 M 6 T T T none S M1 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 55 F 0 As As As Silchara (16 mi away):8 S M2 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 50 F 0 As As As India:1½ S M3 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 56 M 0 As As As none S

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued): A S Other residences M's F's ID Date Location g e Educ MT and length Rel MT MT e x (in years) M4 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 33 F PG As As As Tripura state:10 S M5 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 25 F 0 As As As India:10 S M6 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 20 F 0 As As As Tokiripara:15 S M7 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 36 M 7 As As As none S M8 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 26 M 2 As As As none S Tripura state:5; M9 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 60 M 0 As As As S Horigopalpara:3 M10 4/4/07 Mildhanpara 27 M 0 As As As Horigopalpara:1 S Noimail N1 4/5/07 23 F 0 D D D Boilchari:7 S Gutchagram Simanapara:22; Noimail N2 4/5/07 75 F 0 D D D Bhoiropha:20; S Gutchagram Betchari:3 Noimail N3 4/5/07 28 M 8 D D D Betchari:7 S Gutchagram Noimail Jamtoli, N4 4/5/07 26 F HSC D D D S Gutchagram Dighinala:21 Noimail N5 4/5/07 19 F 10 D D D none S Gutchagram Noimail N6 4/5/07 41 M 10 D D D Betchari:20 S Gutchagram Noimail N7 4/5/07 50 M 8 D D D Sajek, Rangamati:40 S Gutchagram Noimail Betchari, N8 4/5/07 30 M 4 D D D S Gutchagram Khagrachari:15 Noimail Betchari, N9 4/5/07 56 M 7 D D D S Gutchagram Khagrachari:23 Noimail Betchari, N10 4/5/07 28 M 7 D D D S Gutchagram Khagrachari:5 Noimail Pankhaipara, N11 4/5/07 27 F SSC D D D S Gutchagram Khagrachari:7 Noimail Simanapara, N12 4/5/07 35 F 0 D D D S Gutchagram Khagrachari:21 Mymensingh:2; E1 4/23/07 Beltolipara 32 M MA K K K C Dhaka:4 E2 4/23/07 Beltolipara 60F 0 K K K none S E3 4/23/07 Beltolipara 38F 8 K K K none S E4 4/23/07 Beltolipara 30 F 5 K K K Alutila:18 C E5 4/23/07 Beltolipara 19 F SSC K K K Chandraghona:3 C E6 4/23/07 Beltolipara 69 M 6 K K K Tripura state:1 C E7 4/23/07 Beltolipara 65 F 0 K K K Telachara:19 S Bonarhati, E8 4/23/07 Beltolipara 17 M 10 K K K C Rangamati:3 E9 4/23/07 Beltolipara 32M 10 K P K none S E10 4/23/07 Beltolipara 60M 7 K K K none S Laiphu Rambabudeba:14; A1 4/25/07 35 M 9 A A A S Karbaripara India: 12 Laiphu Rambabudeba:28; A2 4/25/07 50 M 1 A A A S Karbaripara India:12

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued): A S Other residences and M's F's ID Date Location g e Educ MT length Rel MT MT e x (in years) Laiphu Rambabudeba:28; A3 4/25/07 23 M 9 A A A S Karbaripara India:12 Laiphu Rambabudeba:20; A4 4/25/07 41 F 4 A A A S Karbaripara India:12 Laiphu A5 4/25/07 19 F 5 A A A Tripura state:10 S Karbaripara Laiphu Rambabudeba:51; A6 4/25/07 72 M PG A A A S Karbaripara Tripura state:12 Laiphu A7 4/25/07 17 F 7 A A A Tripura state:9 S Karbaripara Laiphu Rambabudeba:23; A8 4/25/07 45 M SSC A A A S Karbaripara Tripura state:12 Laiphu A9 4/25/07 30 F 0 A Kw A Rambabudeba:9 S Karbaripara Laiphu Rambabudeba:9; A10 4/25/07 30 F 0 A P A S Karbaripara Tripura state:12 Krishna D1 4/25/07 20 M 0 Kw Kw Kw none S Dayalpara Krishna D2 4/25/07 34 M 7 Kw D Kw India:12 S Dayalpara Krishna D3 4/25/07 70 F 0 Kw Kw Kw Gumti:10 S Dayalpara Krishna D4 4/25/07 24 M SSC Kw Kw Kw India:12; Panchari:3 S Dayalpara Krishna D5 4/25/07 27 F 0 Kw Kw Kw none S Dayalpara Krishna Labonchandropara, D6 4/25/07 65 M 0 Kw Kw Kw S Dayalpara Panchari:25 Krishna D7 4/25/07 30 F 0 Kw Kw Kw Tripura state:20 S Dayalpara Krishna D8 4/25/07 36 M 0 Kw Kw Kw Tripura state:12 S Dayalpara Krishna Komachipanpara:17; D9 4/25/07 55 F 0 Kw Kw Kw S Dayalpara Tripura state:12 J1 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 22M BA P P P Hathajari:3 S J2 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 47M 0 P P P India:1 S J3 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 50M 8 P P P none S Jaykumar J4 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 37 F 0 P P P S Memberpara:25 J5 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 28 F 2 P P P Mosterpara:17 S Posramghat, Ramghar:6; J6 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 31 F BA P P P S Khagrapur:5 J7 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 65 F 0 P P P none S Chittagong city:3; J8 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 32M BA P P P Matiranga:3; S Khagrapur:2 J9 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 48 F 8 P P P Narayanpara:17 S J10 4/26/07 Jarichandrapara 27M 7 P P P none S Gulmara Bazar, G1 4/24/07 Khagrapur 52 F 6 P P P Belaichari:16; C Rangamati:12

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued): A S Other residences M's ID Date Location g e Educ MT F's MT and length Rel MT e x (in years) G2 4/24/07 Khagrapur 27 F SSC K G K none C G3 4/24/07 Khagrapur 28 M HSC G G G Khagrapur:1 S Gumti:16; G4 4/24/07 Khagrapur 52 F 6 N N N S Rangamati:3 Charmail:20; G5 4/24/07 Khagrapur 30 M HSC G G G Dhaka:3; Chittagong S city:3 Paglapara:16; G6 4/24/07 Khagrapur 23 M BA D D P Chittagong city:4; S Dhaka:1 G7 4/24/07 Khagrapur 33 F 7 G G Mongbai none S G8 4/24/07 Khagrapur 50 F 3 G G G Chotto Gazpara:17 S G9 4/24/07 Khagrapur 70 M 0 K K K Bangal Kathi:45 S Comilla:2; Chittagong city:2; G10 4/24/07 Khagrapur 43 M BA G N G C Tripura:2; Ramgar:3; Ruma/Alikadam:6 I1 4/16/07 Sinaipara 22 F 9 U U U Lama:20 C I2 4/16/07 Sinaipara 25 F 0 U U U Thanchi:20 C I3 4/16/07 Sinaipara 37 F 0 U U U Thanchi:20 C I4 4/16/07 Sinaipara 45 F 0 U U U Baklaipara, Ruma:40 C I5 4/16/07 Sinaipara 30 F 0 U U U Pukurpara:25 C Baklaipara, I6 4/16/07 Sinaipara 32 M 7 U Pj Pj C Bandarban:27 Baklaipara, I7 4/16/07 Sinaipara 27 M SSC U U U C Bandarban:20 Baklaipara, I8 4/16/07 Sinaipara 70 M 0 U U U C Bandarban:65 Baklaipara, I9 4/16/07 Sinaipara 55 M 0 U U U C Bandarban:50 Baklaipara, I10 4/16/07 Sinaipara 40 M 2 U U U C Bandarban:35 R1 4/18/07 Robertpara 15 M 10 U U U none C Ruma:7; Myanmar:5; R2 4/18/07 Robertpara 33 F 0 U U U Thanchi:6; C Alikadam:6 Bashirampara, R3 4/18/07 Robertpara 18 F 10 U U U C Thanchi:5 Modhuk, Thanchi:10; R4 4/18/07 Robertpara 17 F 7 U U U C Bolipara, Thanchi:7 R5 4/18/07 Robertpara 40 F 0 U U U none C Bashirampara, R6 4/18/07 Robertpara 37 F 0 U U U C Thanchi:20 Kalapara, Thanchi:10; R7 4/18/07 Robertpara 50 F 0 U U U Pandropara, C Thanchi:12 R8 4/18/07 Robertpara 25 M SSC U U U Tripura state:10 C R9 4/18/07 Robertpara 74 M 8 U U U Tripura state:18 C R10 4/18/07 Robertpara 50 M 0 U U U none C Runajonpara, R11 4/18/07 Robertpara 16 M 8 U U U C Thanchi:7

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued): A S M's F's Other residences and ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT length (in years) e x Bartholipara, B1 4/20/07 Bethanipara 17 M 9 U U U C Rangamati:8 Hatichorapara, B2 4/20/07 Bethanipara 45 M PG U U U C Rangamati:20 Mrongkhyongpara, Bandarban:11; B3 4/20/07 Bethanipara 58 F 0 U U U Rangamati:15; C Autrohapara:1; Bashirampara:4 B4 4/20/07 Bethanipara 18 F 0 U U U none C Sonakhal, Ruma:10; B5 4/20/07 Bethanipara 42 M SSC U U U Mrongkhyongpara: C 15; Mungyohapara:5 Baikhyong, B6 4/20/07 Bethanipara 20 M 9 U U U C Rangamati:2 Shimmochara, B7 4/20/07 Bethanipara 22 F 0 U U U B Mizoram:5 Rahrah, Belaichari:12; B8 4/20/07 Bethanipara 72 F 0 U U U C Lamakri, Thanchi:10 Glichandrapara:13; B9 4/20/07 Bethanipara 65 M 0 U U U Poishakhali:10; C Alikadam:1 Rangamati:4; B10 4/20/07 Bethanipara 30 F 0 U U U Tongyang, C Belaichari:6 Alikadam:5; K1 4/21/07 Katchaptali 61 M 1 U U U C Sadhuheadmanpara:15 Hativangapara, K2 4/21/07 Katchaptali 29 M 10 U U U C Bandarban:25 Thonkhiongpara:1; Rokhinpara:5; K3 4/21/07 Katchaptali 55 M PG U U U C Sonthopara:5; Wabrinpara:20 K4 4/21/07 Katchaptali 26 F 0 U U U Wabrinpara:20 C Amtopara:2; Thongsongpara:13; K5 4/21/07 Katchaptali 62 F 0 U U U C Songtopara:7; Wabrinpara:20 K6 4/21/07 Katchaptali 25 F 3 U U U none C Noapathang:20; K7 4/21/07 Katchaptali 37 F 0 U U U C Tarachari, Kaptai:5 K8 4/21/07 Katchaptali 29 F 0 U U U Wabrinpara:9 C Mohindropara, K9 4/21/07 Katchaptali 16 M 5 U U U Rawangchari:4; C Wabringpara:5 K10 4/21/07 Katchaptali 69 M 1 U U U Kaptai: 3 C C1 5/13/07 Doluchara 32 M HSC Dp Dp Dp none S C2 5/13/07 Doluchara 72 F 0 Dp Dp Dp none S C3 5/13/07 Doluchara 65 M 8 Dp Dp Dp none S C4 5/13/07 Doluchara 40 M 0 Dp Dp Dp none S C5 5/13/07 Doluchara 22 F 7 Dp Dp Dp none S

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F.3. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued): A S M's F's Other residences ID Date Location g e Educ MT Rel MT MT and length (in years) e x C6 5/13/07 Doluchara 29 M 7 Dp Dp Dp none S C7 5/13/07 Doluchara 18 F 12 Dp Dp Dp none S C8 5/13/07 Doluchara 15 F 10 Dp Dp Dp none S C9 5/13/07 Doluchara 46 F 8 Dp Dp Dp none S C10 5/13/07 Doluchara 65 M 2 Dp Dp Dp none S Satchari H1 5/14/07 20 M SSC Dn Dn Dn Tripura state:5 S Tripura Basti Satchari H2 5/14/07 75 M 3 Br Br Br Tripura state:20 S Tripura Basti Satchari H3 5/14/07 72 M 6 Dn Dn Dn Satchari Bordar:30 S Tripura Basti Satchari H4 5/14/07 48 M 3 Dn Dn Dn Tripura state:5 S Tripura Basti Satchari H5 5/14/07 17 M SSC Dn Dn Dn none S Tripura Basti Satchari Kareuga, H6 5/14/07 30 F 5 Br Br Br S Tripura Basti Chinarghat:20 Satchari H7 5/14/07 20 F 12 KB KB KB none S Tripura Basti Satchari H8 5/14/07 25 F 8 Dn Dn Dn none S Tripura Basti Satchari H9 5/14/07 45 F 0 Dp Dp Dp Dolubari:25 S Tripura Basti Satchari H10 5/14/07 15 F 9 Dp Dp Dp none S Tripura Basti Satchari H11 5/14/07 75 F 0 Dn Dn Dn Tripura state:18 S Tripura Basti Z1 7/4/07 Barbakpur 45 M 0 Tp Tp Tp none C Z2 7/4/07 Barbakpur 40 F 4 Tp Tp Tp Kalichandrapur:18 C Z3 7/4/07 Barbakpur 19 F 10 Tp Tp Tp none H Z4 7/4/07 Barbakpur 16 F 10 Tp Tp Tp none C Z5 7/4/07 Barbakpur 51 M SSC Tp Tp Tp Noakhali:5 S Z6 7/4/07 Barbakpur 70 M 0 Tp Tp Tp Rajshahi:1 S Z7 7/4/07 Barbakpur 17 M 3 Tp Tp Tp none S Z8 7/4/07 Barbakpur 16 M 10 Tp Tp Tp Faridpur:5 C Z9 7/4/07 Barbakpur 14 F 5 Tp Tp Tp none S Z10 7/4/07 Barbakpur 37 F 0 Tp Tp Tp Chandpur:20 S Z11 7/4/07 Barbakpur 21 M BA B Tp Tp none S F1 7/29/07 Thalchara 36 M 1 R R R none S F2 7/29/07 Oldlankar 35 M 4 R R R Dargong, Mizoram:2 C

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G. TRIPURA COMMUNITY INFORMATION G.1. Khagrachari District community information

G.1.1. Beltolipara: 23.122183N, 91.964583E Directions: From Khagrachari take rickshaw about 2–3 km on Panchari road, walk west about 1 km, and cross the river. 1. Subdistrict and district: Khagrachari subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongues: Khali, Phatung, Dendak 3. MT of neighbor villages: Chakma 4a. People & families: 400–450 & 85 4b. MT speakers: 80% Khali 5. Religions: Sonaton, Christian 6. Jobs: farming, jum farming, day labor, salaried job 7. Nearest post office: Khagrachari 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Khagrachari 9a. Nearest hospital: Khagrachari 9b. Nearest clinic: Khagrachari 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: UNICEF 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 6–9 15. Reasons they stop: can’t afford costs 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade grade: about half 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 2 BA, 1 MA 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: tube well, deep well 21a. Listen to radio programs: no 21b. Languages: NA 21c. Number of radios: 5–6 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla 22c. Number of TVs: 5–6

G.1.2. Dolchari: 23.08465N, 91.91672E Directions: Take bus from Khagrachari toward Chittagong (15 taka) to Sapmara bus stand. Dolchari is about a half mile walk from Sapmara village. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Gabing 3. MT of neighbor villages: Gabing 4a. People & families: 212 & 29 4b. MT speakers: 100% Gabing 5. Religions: Sonaton, Christian (two people)

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G.1.2. Dolchari (continued): 6. Jobs: jum farming, farming, day labor 7. Nearest post office: Matiranga 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Matiranga 9a. Nearest hospital: Matiranga 9b. Nearest clinic: Matiranga 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: UNICEF pre-primary 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 7–8 15. Reasons they stop: financial problems, lack of guardians’ awareness 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: well, spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura (from Chittagong station in Naitong) 21c. Number of radios: 5 22a.Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: NA

G.1.3. Jarichandrapara: 23.01357N, 91.88155E Directions: Travel by bus up to Bailachari. Then from the main road, walk 5–10 minutes to the south. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongues: Phatung, Marma 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Bengali, Marma, Phatung 4a. People & families: 200 & 45 4b. MT speakers: 99% Phatung, 1% Marma 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: farming, day labor, service, teaching 7. Nearest post office: Matiranga 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Bailachari 9a. Nearest hospital: Matiranga 9b. Nearest clinic: Narayanpara (1 mile east from the village) 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Types: UNICEF primary, BRAC primary 12. Children who attend school: most

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G.1.3. Jarichandrapara (continued): 13. Girls who attend school: most 14. Most students complete: class 9 15. Reasons they stop: financial problems, guardians are not able to guide their children well with regards to education 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 6 19. Electricity: no (although there is a line) 20. Water source: well, tube well 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura (from Chittagong station in Naitong) 21c. Number of radios: 20 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi, and English 22c. Number of TVs: 4

G.1.4. Krishna Dayalpara: 23.28283N, 91.76320E Directions: From Taindong bazaar, go about 3½ km to the west. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Kewa 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Bangla nearby, Chakma 3 km away 4a. People & families: 120 & 21 4b. MT speakers: 100% Kewa 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: farming 7. Nearest post office: Taindong 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Taindong 9a. Nearest hospital: Matiranga 9b. Nearest clinic: Taindong 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girl who attend school: all 14. Most student complete: class 8 15. Reasons they stop: They can’t afford to continue to buy the school books, uniforms, etc. 16. Children who finish 5th grade: most 17. Children who finish 10th grade: 1 person SSC pass, 1 person SSC fail 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: tube well, nearby river 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Debbarma 21c. Number of radios: 3

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G.1.4. Krishna Dayalpara (continued): 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: NA

G.1.5. Laiphu Karbaripara: 23.27885N, 91.81307E Directions: Travel by jeep or bus up to Sattar Chawdhuripara. Then from the main road walk about 10 minutes to the east. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Anok 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Naitong, Dendak, Bangla 4a. People & families: 700 & 130 4b. MT speakers: 99% Kok Borok, 1% Chakma 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming, farming, day labor 7. Nearest post office: Taindong (2 1/2 km north-west of the village) 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Taindong bazaar 9a. Nearest hospital: Tabalchari (about 9 km south of the village) 9b. Nearest clinic: Tabalchari 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: BRAC primary school 12. Children who attend school: half 13. Girls who attend school: half 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reasons they stop: financial problems, distance 16. Children who finish 5th grade: most 17. Children who finish 10th grade grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: none 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: tube well (only 1 tube well for 130 families) 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura (Jomatia, Naitong, and Debbarma) 21c. Number of radios: 10–15 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 22c. Number of TVs: 5

G.1.6. Lombapara: 23.24707N, 91.92520E Directions: Take bus from Khagrachari toward Panchari (18 taka) and get off at Kuradiachari. Then walk east about one kilometer. 1. Subdistrict and district: Khagrachari subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Naitong 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Chakma, Marma 4a. People & families: 112 & 25 4b. MT speakers: 100% Naitong

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G.1.6. Lombapara (continued): 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: farming, service, day labor 7. Nearest post office: Bhaibonchara 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Bhaibonchara 9a. Nearest hospital: Panchari 9b. Nearest clinic: Kuradia (BRAC health center, government health center) 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girl who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reason they stop: financial problem 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: most 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 5 19. Electricity: yes 20. Water source: tube well, well 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura 21c. Number of radios: 5 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Language: Bangla 22c. Number of TVs: 4

G.1.7. Mildhanpara: 23.33603N, 91.84903E Directions: From Khagrachari, take jeep past Panchari 6–7 km to Longor, then go west (left) toward the hills. Stay on the road/path for about 3 km until the path gets too narrow for a jeep. Then walk 2–3 km to the village. 1. Subdistrict and district: Panchari subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongues: Aslong, Dendak 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Gabing, Chakma, Khali, Dendak 4a. People & families: 188 & 33 4b. MT speakers: 90% Aslong, 10% Dendak 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Panchari 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Panchari 9a. Nearest hospital: Panchari 9b. Nearest clinic: Panchari 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: no

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G.1.7. Mildhanpara (continued): 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: none 13. Girls who attend school: none 14. Most students complete: NA 15. Reasons they don’t go: distance, poverty 16. Children who finish 5th grade: few 17. Children who finish 10th grade: none 18. Number who’ve completed BA: none 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: deep well 21a. Listen to radio programs: no 21b. Languages: NA 21c. Number of radios: 0 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla 22c. Number of TVs: 1

G.1.8. Noimail Gutchagram: 23.19960N, 92.0357E Directions: Take bus from Khagrachari toward Dighinala for about 30–45 minutes; get off at Noimail. 1. Subdistrict and district: Dighinala subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Dendak 3. MT of neighbor villages: Dendak 4a. People & families: 450 & 104 4b. MT speakers: 100% Dendak 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming, day labor, service 7. Nearest post office: Dighinala 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Dighinala (5 km north of the village) 9a. Nearest hospital: Dighinala 9b. Nearest clinic: Dighinala 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: primary (registered non-governmental) 12. Children who attend school: most 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 7 15. Reason they stop: financial problems 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 4 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring (1 km from the village) 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi, Tripura (from Chittagong station in Naitong)

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G.1.8. Noimail Gutchagram (continued): 21c. Number of radios: 20 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi, Tripura (Aslong, Debbarma, Riang) 22c. Number of TVs: 5

G.1.9. Pakkhipara: 23.01367N, 91.96892E Directions: Go from Khagrachari toward Mahalchari about 14 kilometers. Get off at Maischari and go west about 5 kilometers to Thalipara (road is passable by jeep). Then walk about 1.8 km up the hill to Pakkhipara. 1. Subdistrict and district: Khagrachari subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Kema 3. MT of neighbor villages: Hapang, Yongwai, Harbang 4a. People & families: 137 & 22 4b. MT speakers: 100% Kema 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming, bamboo work 7. Nearest post office: Maischari (3 km) 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Maischari 9a. Nearest hospital: Khagrachari (18–20 km away) 9b. Nearest clinic: Khagrachari 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: few 13. Girls who attend school: few 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reasons they stop: bad communication, lack of awareness 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: none 18. Number who’ve completed BA: none 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen radio programs: no 21b. Languages: NA 21c. Number of radios: NA 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: NA

G.1.10. Sapmara: 23.07780N, 91.91785E Directions: Take bus from Khagrachari toward Chittagong (15 taka) to Sapmara bus stand. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Gabing 3. MT of neighbor villages: Gabing

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G.1.10. Sapmara (continued): 4a. People & families: 150 – 200 & 26 4b. MT speakers: 100% Gabing 5. Religion: Sonaton, Christian (1 person) 6. Jobs: jum farming, farming, day labor 7. Nearest post office: Matiranga 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Matiranga 9a. Nearest hospital: Matiranga 9b. Nearest clinic: Matiranga 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 8–9 15. Reasons they stop: financial problems, lack of guardians’ awareness 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 2 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura (Chittagong station in Naitong) 21c. Number of radios: 4 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: NA

G.1.11. Tongpaipara: 23.22100N, 91.82248E Directions: From Matiranga, take vehicle on Tanakkapara road about 20 km to Dakbangla. Then go about 2 kilometers east to Tongpaipara. 1. Subdistrict and district: Matiranga subdistrict, Khagrachari district 2. Mother tongue: Naitong 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Bangla, Naitong 4a. People & families: 160 & 25 4b. MT speakers: 100 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Dakbangla 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Dakbangla 9a. Nearest hospital: Tabalchari 9b. Nearest clinic: Tabalchari 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary

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G.1.11. Tongpaipara (continued): 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reason they stop: poverty 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: deep well 21a. Listen to radio programs: very little 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura 21c. Number of radios: 2 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: none

G.2. Usoi community information

G.2.1. Boro Pharangsia Directions: From Lama Bazaar, go by micro or jeep about 5 kilometers. 1. Subdistrict and district: Lama subdistrict, Bandarban district 2. Mother tongue: Usoi 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Bangla, Usoi; Murung is 1 hr away 4a. People & families: 250 & 48 4b. MT speakers: 100% Usoi 5. Religion: Christian 6. Jobs: day labor, jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Lama 8a. TNT: yes 8b. Mobile: yes 8c. Nearest place to make calls: NA 9a. Nearest hospital: Lama 9b. Nearest clinic: Lama 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary (up to 5th) 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 3–4 15. Reasons they stop: Because of their finances, the children (especially girls) stop school to care for younger children. 16. Children who finish 5th grade: 25% 17. Children who finish 10th grade: 2–3 out of 45 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 2 19. Electricity: no

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G.2.1. Boro Pharangsia (continued): 20. Water source: river nearby, 3 tube wells for drinking (but only 1 works) 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Language: Bangla 21c. Number of radios: 16–17 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: 1 TV, but it doesn’t work.

G.2.2. Choto Madhuk 1. Subdistrict and district: Thanchi subdistrict, Bandarban district 2. Mother tongue: Usoi (Joloi) 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Marma, Tripura, Khumi 4a. People & families: 35 & 6 4b. MT speakers: 100% Usoi 5. Religion: Christian 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Thanchi (10 hours by boat) 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: BDR camp just next to the village 9a. Nearest hospital: Thanchi 9b. Nearest clinic: Thanchi 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: BTABC primary (Bangla) currently up to class 3 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reasons they stop: no more school in their area; all can’t afford to be sent out to hostel 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: very few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: river water 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura 21c. Number of radios: 2 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: none

G.2.3. Katchaptali: 22.23437N, 92.35117E Directions: From Rawangchari bazaar travel by jeep about 7 kilometers east to Katchaptali Bazaar. From where the jeep stops, walk up the hill about ½ kilometer. 1. Subdistrict and district: Rowangchari subdistrict, Bandarban district 2. Mother tongues: Usoi, Tanchangya

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G.2.3. Katchaptali (continued): 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Marma, Bawm 4a. People & families: 30 & 7 4b. MT speakers: 98% Usoi 5. Religion: Christian, Buddhist (1 family) 6. Jobs: jum farming, gardening (fruits & botany) 7. Nearest post office: Rawangchari 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Katchaptali bazaar 9a. Nearest hospital: Rawangchari 9b. Nearest clinic: Liragaon (a neighboring village) 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: At present, the girls are not old enough to go to school. 14. Most students complete: class 5 15. Reason they stop: Classes are not available after class 5 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: none 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura 21c. Number of radios: 2 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Language: Bangla 22c. Number of TVs: none (watch in a neighboring village)

G.2.4. Robertpara: 21.83315N, 92.43732E Directions: Walk about 30 minutes to the north from Thanchi bazaar. 1. Subdistrict and district: Thanchi subdistrict, Bandarban district 2. Mother tongue: Usoi 3. MT of neighbor villages: Usoi 4a. People & families: 233 & 23 4b. MT speakers: 100% Usoi 5. Religion: Christian 6. Jobs: farming 7. Nearest post office: Thanchi 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Thanchi bazaar (1.5 km south from the village) 9a. Nearest hospital: Thanchi 9b. Nearest clinic: Thanchi 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA

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G.2.4. Robertpara (continued): 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: pre-primary 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 6–7 15. Reason they stop: financial problems 16. Children who finish 5th grade: most 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 3 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Language: Bangla 21c. Number of radios: 1 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: none

G.2.5. Sinaipara: 21.53922N, 92.25397E Directions: From Idgah, take an auto rickshaw to Baishari bazaar. Then, from Baishari bazaar, take a rickshaw to Daya Maugh Para. Then walk about 3 hours through the jungle, crossing the river several times. 1. Subdistrict and district: Naikhongchari subdistrict, Bandarban district 2. Mother tongue: Usoi 3. MT of neighbor villages: Usoi 4a. People & families: 60 & 10 4b. MT speakers: 100% Usoi 5. Religion: Christian 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Baishari (four hours away on foot) 8a. TNT: no 8b Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Baishari 9a. Nearest hospital: Naikhongchari (five hours away on foot) 9b. Nearest clinic: Naikhongchari 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: primary up to class 3 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 3 15. Reason they stop: classes and teachers are not available 16. Children who finish 5th grade: none 17. Children who finish 10th grade: none 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 1 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring

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G.2.5. Sinaipara (continued): 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Tripura from Agartala in Debbarma & Riang 21c. Number of radios: 1 22a. Watch TV: no 22b. Languages: NA 22c. Number of TVs: none

G.3. Debbarma community information

G.3.1. Doluchara: 24.30385N, 91.77977E Directions: From Srimangal, take an auto rickshaw almost up to the village, which is a few minutes’ walk to the left of the road. 1. Subdistrict and district: Srimangal subdistrict, Moulvi Bazar district 2. Mother tongue: Kok Borok 3. MT of neighbor villages: Bangla 4a. People & families: 500–600 & 70 4b. MT speakers: 100% Kok Borok 5. Religion: Sonaton, few Christians 6. Jobs: lemon farming 7. Nearest post office: Srimangal 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: yes 8c. Nearest place to make calls: NA 9a. Nearest hospital: Srimangal 9b. Nearest clinic: Srimangal 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 9–10 15. Reasons they stop: lack of parents’ awareness, poverty 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: half 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 1 BA 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: tube well 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Hindi, Bangla, English, Tripura from India 21c. Number of radios: 8 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Hindi, Bangla, English, Tripura from India 22c. Number of TVs: 1

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G.3.2. Satchari Tripura Basti: 24.12537N, 91.44215E Directions: Take a bus from Srimangal to Shaistaganj. Then take another bus from Shaistaganj to Satchari. Walk a few minutes to the left from the main road. 1. Subdistrict and district: Chunarughat subdistrict, Habiganj district 2. Mother tongues: Debbarma, Santal, Maulik, Tati, Shing 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Santal, Sadri, Oriya, Garo 4a. People & families: 140 & 21 4b. MT speakers: 90% Debbarma, 10% others 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: farming, day labor, service 7. Nearest post office: Itakhula 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: yes 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Chunarughat (TNT) 9a. Nearest hospital: Chunarughat (12 km east of the village) 9b. Nearest clinic: Madhabpur (15 km west of the village) 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: BRAC up to class 5 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: class 9–10 15. Reasons they stop: poverty 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: most 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: tube well 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Kok Borok (Debbarma from Agartala, India), Bangla 21c. Number of radios: 12–14 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Kok Borok, Hindi 22c. Number of TVs: 9

G.4. Mukchak community information G.4.1. Barbakpur: 23.75258N, 89.64257 (Rajbari Stadium) Directions: Take bus or rickshaw 3–4 kilometers south from the Rajbari main town to Jamai Pagol Majar Shorif. Then take rickshaw about two kilometers to Barbakpur. 1. Subdistrict and district: Rajbari subdistrict, Rajbari district 2. Mother tongues: Bangla, Tripura 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Bangla, Tripura 4a. People & families: 200 & 45 4b. MT speakers: 100% Tripura 5. Religion: Sonaton, few Christians 6. Jobs: farming, service, rickshaw driving 7. Nearest post office: Homdompur

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G.4.1. Barbakpur (continued): 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: yes 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Rajbari (TNT) 9a. Nearest hospital: Rajbari 9b. Nearest clinic: Rajbari 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: KG (up to standard 2) 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all 14. Most students complete: SSC 15. Reasons they stop: financial problems 16. Children who finish 5th grade: all 17. Children who finish 10th grade: all 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 (two currently studying for BA) 19. Electricity: yes 20. Water source: tube well 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 21c. Number of radios: 10 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 22c. Number of TVs: 8 G.5. Riang community information G.5.1. Oldlankar Directions: From Baghaichari, walk about 12 hours to the east. 1. Subdistrict and district: Baghaichari subdistrict, Rangamati district 2. Mother tongues: Riang, Dendak, Gabing, Pangkhua, Chakma 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Riang, Dendak, Gabing, Naitong, Chakma 4a. People & families: 80 & 15 4b. MT speakers: 75% Riang 5. Religions: Christian, Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Baghaichari 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Baghaichari 9a. Nearest hospital: Baghaichari 9b. Nearest clinic: Baghaichari 10a. Government school: yes 10b. Type: primary 11a. Other schools: no 11b. Type: NA 12. Children who attend school: all 13. Girls who attend school: all

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G.5.1. Oldlankar (continued): 14. Most students complete: 5 15. Reasons they stop: financially weak, distance, classes are not available 16. Children who finish 5th grade: few 17. Children who finish 10th grade: very few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Debbarma, Jomatia (India) 21c. Number of radios: 10–12 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 22c. Number of TVs: 3

G.5.2. Thalchara Directions: From Baghaichari, walk about 12 hours to the east. 1. Subdistrict and district: Baghaichari subdistrict, Rangamati district 2. Mother tongues: Riang, Dendak, Gabing, Pangkhua, Chakma 3. MTs of neighbor villages: Riang, Dendak, Gabing, Naitong, Chakma 4a. People & families: 105 & 16 4b. MT speakers: 80% Riang 5. Religion: Sonaton 6. Jobs: jum farming 7. Nearest post office: Baghaichari 8a. TNT: no 8b. Mobile: no 8c. Nearest place to make calls: Baghaichari 9a. Nearest hospital: Baghaichari 9b. Nearest clinic: Baghaichari 10a. Government school: no 10b. Type: NA 11a. Other schools: yes 11b. Type: primary (run by the people of the village) 12. Children who attend school: few (only those whose guardians are able to pay) 13. Girls who attend school: few 14. Most students complete: 5 15. Reasons they stop: financially weak, distance, classes are not available 16. Children who finish 5th grade: few 17. Children who finish 10th grade: few 18. Number who’ve completed BA: 0 19. Electricity: no 20. Water source: spring 21a. Listen to radio programs: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Debbarma, Jomatia (India) 21c. Number of radios: 10–12 22a. Watch TV: yes 22b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 22c. Number of TVs: 2

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