Asia and Oceania Joshua Castellino, Irwin Loy, AsiaMatthew Naumann, Maruscaand Perazzi Oceaniaand Jacqui Zalcberg Michael Caster, Shikha Dilawri, Nicole Girard, Hanna Hindstrom, Matthew Naumann and Jacqui Zalcberg ARCTIC OCEAN

RUSSIA

JAPAN KAZAKHSTAN NORTH MONGOLIA KOREA UZBEKISTAN SOUTH TURKMENISTAN KOREA KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN PACIFIC Jammu and AFGHANIS- Kashmir CHINA TAN OCEAN

PAKISTAN TIBET TAIWAN NEPAL BHUTAN BANGLADESH Hong Kong INDIA BURMA LAOS PHILIPPINES THAILAND VIETNAM CAMBODIA Andaman and Nicobar BRUNEI SRI LANKA Islands Bougainville PAPUA NEW MALAYSIA SOLOMON ISLANDS MALDIVES GUINEA SINGAPORE Borneo Sulawesi Wallis and Futuna (FR.) Sumatra INDONESIA TIMOR-LESTE FIJI ISLANDS French Polynesia (FR.) Java New Caledonia (FR.) INDIAN

OCEAN AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND Central Asia has been mixed. In the main, rural– urban migration has occurred in recent decades Central among majority ethnic populations. This was partly a result of previous Soviet policies that had made it difficult for rural residents to move to Asia cities, while encouraging or in some cases forcing migration of specialists to Central Asia from Matthew Naumann more industrialized parts of the Soviet Union. This ensured that in many cities residents who he year 2014 in Central Asia was were ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, Germans and overshadowed by the conflict in Jews – locally known as ‘European ethnicities’ T Ukraine, as well as the economic – were the majority, working as administrators, downturn caused to the regional economy by technical specialists and factory workers, while international sanctions on Russia and the sharp rural areas were predominantly inhabited by the falls in the price of oil. Besides contributing to a titular ethnicity. slowdown in the region’s economies, the conflict Many of these ‘Europeans’ emigrated from also had a significant geopolitical impact across Central Asia in the last years of the Soviet the region as the implications of the Russian Union and in the decades since independence. Federation’s support for ethnic Russians and Urbanization has subsequently been shaped Russian speakers were absorbed. An April 2014 by incomers replacing those who had left the offer by President Vladimir Putin for any fluent urban workforce, driven also by the chronic Russian speaker in the former Soviet Union to become a Russian citizen if they renounced their current citizenship reportedly led to a surge in Below: A group of Uyghur youth pick interest among minority ethnic groups. mulberries near the Baraholka bazaar in The effect of urbanization on minorities in Kazakhstan. Panos/Carolyn Drake

138 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 and endemic poverty that affected many rural sidelined from political decision making. Their areas, particularly in the 1990s. However, some representation at a senior level in politics cities had large ethnic minority populations reportedly remains limited, though Vladimir who were historical residents of the area and did Shkolnik, an ethnic Russian, was reappointed not emigrate at the end of Soviet rule. These as energy minister in August 2014 and their included Osh, Jalalabad and Uzgen in Kyrgyzstan share of seats in Kazakhstan’s lower legislative (with large ethnic Uzbek populations), as well chamber, the Mazhilis, is roughly proportional as Samarkand and Bukhara in Uzbekistan (with to their demographic. This is not necessarily large numbers of ethnic Tajiks). the case for many of Kazakhstan’s non-Russian Resentment against minorities is sometimes minorities, who together make up more than 13 fuelled by registration requirements that are per cent of the population. The UN Committee often still in place in urban areas. These can for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination exclude many city residents from essential public (CERD) had expressed concern earlier in the services and social security, creating a new year about the under-representation of non- group of socially marginalized people who face Kazakh ethnic groups in general in political life discrimination and are vulnerable to harassment and the civil service. One notable exception is by the authorities. In some cases, internal Karim Massimov, an ethnic Uyghur, who was migrants from majority groups may resent the reappointed as prime minister in April 2014. fact that minorities in urban areas, particularly However, some analysts have suggested that his those well established in larger towns and cities, appointment is due in part due to the fact that, have better access to resources such as land or as a member of an ethnic minority, he is not housing – a major source of ethnic tension in seen as a potential successor to the president and certain countries, such as Kyrgyzstan. therefore does not threaten the balance of power among Kazakhstan’s elite. Kazakhstan Kazakhstan has not suffered the large-scale Kazakhstan has a variety of ethnic minorities, ethnic violence that affected its neighbour including Uzbeks (2.9 per cent), Ukrainians Kyrgyzstan, most notably in 2010. Nevertheless, (2.1 per cent), Uyghurs (1.4 per cent) and two people were hospitalized and four detained Tatars (1.3 per cent). The largest of these is the by police after clashes on 27 August in ethnic Russian minority, who make up almost a Qaramurat, a southern village where the majority quarter (23.7 per cent) of the population. Under of residents are ethnic Uzbeks. A group of ethnic Kazakhstan’s Constitution, while Kazakh is the Kazakhs from a nearby village reportedly stormed state language, Russian has equal official status the community, attacking residents and breaking for all levels of administrative and institutional into shops. The interior minister stated that the purposes. However, nationalist groups are now incident was not ethnicity-related, but a news pushing for a more aggressive promotion of blackout in the area, including the blocking of the Kazakh language. Several municipalities mobile phone connections, indicated that the have even taken down Russian-language public authorities feared a possible escalation. A second signs or refused to provide Russian translations incident occurred in another village in southern for official communications, such as court Kazakhstan on 5 February 2015, between Kazakh proceedings. This concern was raised with the and Tajik communities, after the alleged murder Organization for Security and Co-operation of a Kazakh man by a Tajik man in a dispute in Europe’s High Commissioner for National over a greenhouse. Severe security and internet Minorities in June 2014. However, in August restrictions were also imposed following this 2014 President Nursultan Nazarbaev told state incident. broadcaster Khabar Television that he wanted Kazakhstan is continuing its attempts to bring to ensure that any policies promoting the all publicly accessible mosques under the control Kazakh language remained moderate to avoid of the state-backed Muslim Board, thereby encouraging the divisions evident in Ukraine. limiting worshippers’ right to exist as a religious There have been reports of Russians feeling community and exercise their freedom of religion

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 139 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 or belief. All other Muslim communities and Below: Uzbek woman and child in a village in organizations – including Ahmadi Muslim Kyrgystan, 2014. Jonny Duncan congregations as well as mosques catering to specific ethnic communities such as Azerbaijanis, However, there has been limited political Chechens or Uyghurs – are banned. Permission opposition to the Oralman project as it has been to exist is gained via state registration. However, seen as a part of the nation-building process for reportedly even religious communities who try independent Kazakhstan. to register or have registered are in some cases prevented by officials from exercising their Kyrgyzstan freedom of religion or belief. According to the About a quarter of Kyrgyzstan’s 5.6 million NGO Forum 18, by July 12 people had been inhabitants are members of minority ethnic jailed and 45 fined in relation to state restrictions groups. Ethnic Uzbeks make up the most on freedom of worship. These have been used sizeable minority, at roughly 14 per cent of the repeatedly against individuals who have refused population, and primarily live in the southern to fall in line with the government’s policies. In regions of Osh and Jalalabad. The second largest January 2015, Forum 18 reported the case of one ethnic minority is Russians at 8 per cent of the Baptist man in his thirties who, having already population, primarily in the capital Bishkek, and received three fines and a five-day sentence over the surrounding area in the north. Dungans (Han the previous two years, now faced the prospect of Muslims known as Hui in China), Meskhetian his garage being seized. Turks, Tajiks and Uyghurs each make up around Kazakhstan is an increasingly urbanized society, with more than half (55 per cent) of residents now based in urban areas. It has large minority urban populations, particularly ethnic Russians, and Russian is still commonly used as a lingua franca in most cities outside the south and west, including among many ethnic Kazakhs. All road infrastructure, public transport facilities, streets, avenues and other facilities in urban areas are legally required to be marked in both Russian and Kazakh. Kazakhstan’s policy of attracting Oralmans, or ethnic Kazakhs, to immigrate from outside the country has in part been intended to replace the outflow of non-Kazakhs from the country’s cities since independence. By 2012, 860,000 Oralmans were registered in Kazakhstan, making up more than 5 per cent of the population. Many, having initially settled in remote rural areas with poorly paid jobs, have since migrated again to urban centres such as Almaty or Astana in search of better opportunities. Oralmans from countries such as China and Mongolia, who previously had no need to speak Russian, can find it difficult to integrate in the country’s Russian-speaking cities. Reportedly some Kazakh-speaking immigrants consider that Russified urban Kazakhs are not genuine Kazakhs, while some of the urban population resent the privileges enjoyed by Oralmans that they do not enjoy themselves.

140 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 1 per cent, with dozens of other ethnic groups intensified in the summer of 2014, and was also making up smaller proportions. All the seen by some Osh residents to be in retaliation groups remain politically marginalized, though for the shutting off of gas supplies to southern the country has an ethnic German vice-prime Kyrgyzstan by Uzbekistan – an example of how minister and an ethnic Russian minister of international tensions can have a negative effect finance. on minority communities. There is acknowledgement at the national level The judicial response to the 2010 violence has of the need to invest in building inter-ethnic largely targeted members of the ethnic Uzbek harmony, particularly in light of the violence community, even though they comprised the that occurred between ethnic Kyrgyz and Uzbeks majority of victims. Courts continue to sentence in June 2010 in southern Kyrgyzstan that left ethnic Uzbek community leaders in absentia several hundred people dead, primarily ethnic for inciting inter-ethnic hatred and organizing Uzbeks. The Concept of Development of National clashes between ethnic Uzbeks and Kyrgyz in Unity and Inter-Ethnic Relations, published by 2010. In November 2014, Kadyrjan Batyrov the government in 2013, has the stated aim of and Inom Abdurasulov, two of these leaders, promoting a common civic identity, developing were given life sentences, while a third, Karamat multilingual education to increase knowledge of Abdullaeva, received a 16-year jail term. This the official Kyrgyz language among all citizens followed the Kyrgyzstan’s Supreme Court while at the same time fostering language rejection in September of an appeal by Azimjan diversity by ensuring that citizens can preserve Askarov against his conviction for creating and study their native languages without facing mass disturbances, inciting ethnic hatred and language-based discrimination. The Concept complicity in murder. The detention of the has been characterized as a rare achievement by ethnic Uzbek political activist, who prior to his the ‘moderates’ allied to the president against arrest had worked for years documenting police nationalist politicians, who since 2010 have abuses, has been condemned by Human Rights used ethnic politics as a convenient and effective Watch (HRW), Amnesty International and other tool to gain support among ethnic Kyrgyz. rights organizations. Meanwhile, the Department of Ethnic, Religious The government also continued to crack Policies and Interaction with Civil Society in down on minority activists and human rights the President’s Office and the Agency for Inter- organizations during the year. In September, ethnic Relations are attempting to establish an a criminal case was opened against an NGO early warning and conflict-prevention system at a researching minority rights in southern local level. Kyrgyzstan. The complaint, from the Kyrgyz However, progress at a policy level is not National Security Service, alleged that the matched on the ground. Minorities are still research ‘could again ignite inter-ethnic conflict’ excluded from policy discussions relating to inter- and that it was acting in its capacity ‘to prevent ethnic relations, and are inadequately represented intelligence and subversive activities by foreign in state structures and law-enforcement bodies. special services and organizations’. Though This is particularly true of ethnic minorities charges were rejected by the prosecutor in early living in the south, such as Uzbeks and Tajiks. December, the case highlighted the dangers faced In the face of the ethnic discrimination that by human rights activists working on minority was aggravated by the violence in 2010, many issues. Mahamatjan Abdujaparov, another activist members of the ethnic Uzbek community are working on police torture and extortion of ethnic reportedly adopting documents stating they are Uzbeks, was attacked in his office in Jalalabad on ethnically Kyrgyz in an attempt to keep career 4 September. and social opportunities open. In addition, Under Article 10 of the Constitution, Kyrgyz Uzbek-owned small businesses in southern is the state language and Russian is an official Kyrgyzstan continue to face disproportionate language. Russian-language education continues checks by the authorities, sometimes leading to to be relatively popular among all ethnic groups, business closure or disruption. This reportedly including many Kyrgyz. There is a common

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 141 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 perception that Russian-medium schools are 2015 one of these groups, Kyrk Choro, issued stronger, and that the language will be useful to a manifesto calling for foreigners to be allowed users at home and potentially as labour migrants. to stay only in hotels, and for ethnic Uyghur However, in much of the country the number of traders to be barred from the Madina, Bishkek’s Russian-speaking teachers is declining. This has largest clothing market. They also conducted a particular implications in ethnically mixed areas high-profile vigilante raid in which they filmed such as the border province of Batken, where local women who had allegedly been engaged by tensions over disputed territory between the Chinese migrant workers in commercial sex work. Kyrgyz government and neighbouring Tajikistan Kyrk Choro appears to have at least tacit support are ongoing. While residents in this area have for its actions from government bodies, including in the past been able to communicate by using security forces. It is unclear where these groups Russian as a lingua franca, many ethnic Kyrgyz draw most of their supporters from, but most and Tajik children now only speak mutually of their activities have taken place in Bishkek, unintelligible languages in adjacent villages, Kyrgyzstan’s capital and major urban centre. increasing the potential for future disagreements A Uyghur community organization held between the two communities. a congress in October 2014, after several The challenges faced by the country’s Uzbek meetings had reportedly been prohibited in speakers are particularly acute, however. While recent years. HRW has expressed concern that Uzbek had been used relatively widely in Kyrgyz authorities too often target Uyghurs education and local government in areas with with trumped-up terrorism charges, allegedly as high proportions of ethnic Uzbeks, since 2010 a result of pressure from China as bilateral ties the space for Uzbek language in official life have strengthened between the countries. Uyghur has been shrinking. From 2014–15, university community leaders in Kyrgyzstan do not express entrance examinations will only be available support for Uyghur separatism, but some have in Kyrgyz or Russian. This is part of a broader reportedly raised concerns that the lack of a context in which the educational aspirations of Uyghur-language school in the country violates ethnic Uzbeks appear to be reducing. A January their language rights. 2014 report highlighted sharp declines in the The government took a number of steps number of Uzbek students moving on to high during the year to increase its control over school and completing school in Osh city. religious expression, particularly in the case The reasons for dropping out include financial of Ahmadi Muslims, Bahá’i, Hare Krishna, pressures on families, the need for extra income Jehovah’s Witnesses, Protestants and other ‘non- and favouritism in the allocation of the limited traditional’ groups. In January, the government state funds available. Another factor may be the also announced that it would be revising its increasing prevalence of child marriage among Religion Law. Though details of the changes girls from families affected by the 2010 violence. were not confirmed, remarks by the head of the Local experts interviewed by the United Nations State Commission for Religious Affairs (SCRA) Population Fund (UNFPA) suggested that the have suggested that part of the focus would be on increase was linked to rapes committed during state registration of religious organizations. Yet the violence. Meanwhile, the total number of registration for many religious organizations has Uzbek-medium schools has halved in recent been met with official obstruction or denial. For years, from 133 in 2009/10 to 65 in 2013/14. example, the arrest of two Jehovah’s Witnesses in The reduction has been particularly prominent 2013 in Osh (the accused were finally acquitted among urban Uzbeks in the city of Osh, in October 2014, though they remained under which lost two-thirds of its Uzbek-language house arrest for a number of months afterwards schools between 2010 and 2013. Most have while the prosecutor appealed the verdict) was been converted into mixed-medium, Kyrgyz or seen by members as a reprisal for the group Russian-language schools. having recently renewed its application for official There has also been a rise in prominence of registration. The Ahmadi community, who, since Kyrgyz nationalist youth groups. In January being stripped of their registration in 2011 have

142 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 been unable to meet for worship, launched an Urbanization in general, particularly in the appeal at the Supreme Court to appeal against country’s southern cities, has been one of the two previous court refusals of registration. In primary causes of ethnic tension in Kyrgyzstan. July, however, the Supreme Court upheld the In Soviet times, the vast majority of ethnic previous rulings against them. Kyrgyz lived in rural areas, with a wide range of Another recurring issue of religious minority ethnic groups predominant in the cities: discrimination is the difficulty experienced Bishkek (then Frunze) was primarily Russian- by some non-Muslims in the burial of their speaking, after several waves of settlement mainly dead, particularly in rural areas. A number from European parts of the Russian Empire and of incidents were reported during the year of the Soviet Union over a 150-year period, while discrimination in funeral and burial arrangements Osh, Jalalabad and Uzgen cities in the south also for Protestants, with local imams obstructing had long-standing Uzbek-speaking populations. burial of the deceased in village cemeteries. As the Soviet system began to break down in Burial denial has reportedly been supported or the 1980s, living conditions became increasingly overlooked by police on many occasions and has untenable in rural areas, and many ethnic Kyrgyz also been enabled by Article 16 of the Religion moved to the cities. Pressure on land in the cities Law, which contains a provision stipulating led to a number of violent outbreaks in the south that certain aspects of cemetery use shall be in 1990, resulting in several hundred deaths in ‘governed by regulations of local municipalities’. Osh and Uzgen. Many ethnic Kyrgyz formerly An April 2014 draft of the government’s Concept engaged as farmers or nomads in the countryside on State Policy in the Religious Sphere 2014–20 were forced by lack of livelihood or poverty to acknowledged the problem, but failed to move to the cities, where they often struggled highlight the complicity of authorities in failing to establish viable livelihoods for themselves to protect the victims. Though manifesting in the urban economies, where the largely as local prejudice, these incidents reflect the Uzbek mercantile class were dominant. This broader context of state discrimination and have rapid and troubled process of urbanization has not been confined to rural areas, but have also been identified as one of the factors behind the occurred close to the capital, Bishkek. Authorities outbreak of the June 2010 violence. have themselves continued to target religious As many ethnic Kyrgyz rural–urban migrants minorities in Bishkek. During 2014, for example, face overcrowding and sub-standard living repeated inspections were conducted on various conditions, the state’s failure to provide land places of worship in the city, including the Hope or adequate housing has generated acute Baptist Church, which was reportedly visited resentment. At key flashpoints in recent years by state agencies several times and threatened this anger has also been directed towards urban with eviction. The State Property Fund also minority communities, particularly those such attempted to confiscate the property of the as Osh’s Uzbek business owners with property Protestant Church of Jesus Christ by seeking to in the city. Similarly, during previous moments annul the 1999 contract it had previously signed of political instability in the country, minorities with the Church. Some community members have been targeted for their assets. For example, have speculated that the authorities may be after President Kurmanbek Bakiyev was motivated by the high value of the site, situated removed from power in April 2010, Meskhetian in a prime area of Bishkek, and that the land may Turks in the village of Maevka, just outside be earmarked for a private developer. Though Bishkek, were targeted and their homes burned the Economic Court approved the annulment to the ground: the clashes resulted in at least in January 2014, an appeal by the Church five deaths and 28 injured. was granted by Bishkek City Court in April. Land and housing shortages remain unresolved However, the State Property Fund subsequently and continue to affect inter-ethnic relations launched a further action to claim the property in many urban areas. In Osh, for instance, a in the Supreme Court. The case was still number of incidents have flared between ethnic unconcluded at the end of the year. Kyrgyz and Uzbek residents due to the continued

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 143 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 licence for street vendors issued by Bishkek’s Case study by Alisher Khamidov authorities. ‘Police officers usually turn a blind eye to me and other street vendors – they know that we are not a threat to society and that we are Life as a migrant poor folks who are trying to make ends meet.’ She earns about US$200 a month. in Bishkek – ‘I meet a lot of different people, and they always complain and ask for help. There are a Tatar women so many unhappy people, especially women, out there,’ Alya says of the people she meets on tells her story her rounds. ‘Someone’s in big debt, another’s person’s husband left her, a third suffers from domestic abuse.’ On a cold morning in late February, Alya wakes Alya says she gets tired of listening to such up early as usual to prepare a simple breakfast sad stories, because they remind her of her own. of porridge for her and her two-year-old boy, At the age of 18 she married Sunil, an Indian Shurik. Then she takes Shurik to her friend for medical student at Osh State University, and baby-sitting before heading to work. Originally soon had a daughter who became the centre of from Osh, a large city in south Kyrgyzstan, she is their lives. But three years into the marriage, now a street vendor selling cheap Chinese shoes her husband left the country and he stopped in Bishkek, the capital, which has a reputation communicating with her. In the wake of his as a more liberal and ethnically diverse place. departure, on top of her depression, Alya had An ethnic Tatar by origin, 30-year-old Alya has to endure the cultural pressure that comes a full day ahead: she must visit several state- along with being a single parent from the Tatar run hospitals where some of the doctors and minority deserted by a foreign husband. Kyrgyz patients are her customers. She will then have and Uzbek society in Osh frown upon divorcées, to spend the rest of the afternoon selling shoes widows, single mothers and women who marry at her stand, located in a small bazaar in one of foreign men: the common assumption is that a Bishkek’s suburbs. single woman, living on her own, would lead an ‘I really love my job, but it does not provide a immoral life. steady source of income,’ she says. ‘I wish I had With no steady income, Alya was forced to obtained a good quality education that would move in with her mother in a small conservative allow me to have a steady job to support my town near Osh populated mainly by ethnic family.’ Alya has finished secondary school, but Uzbeks. ‘It was one of the toughest periods of her family could not afford to put her through my life,’ Alya says. ‘My family members were college after the collapse of the Soviet Union. often treated like outcasts.’ Ethnic prejudice Unfortunately, her business has not been doing was a major hurdle as ethnic Tatars, who make well. ‘When the business is very slow, I go up a small minority in the town, have long around neighbourhoods and try to sell shoes suffered discrimination by local government on the street to passers-by. This strategy works and residents. So when an opportunity arose sometimes, but at times it leads to problems with to move to Bishkek and work for a company police.’ that operated a casino, Alya gladly accepted Many Tatar, Russian and Uyghur women work the offer. However, her life only got harder as street vendors because they lack connections in Bishkek. She had to work long hours at to the formal business or the public sector, which are mostly dominated by ethnic Kyrgyz men. Like the majority of Bishkek’s street vendors, Right: Inside a busy market bazaar in Bishkek, Alya operates her business without the formal Kyrgyzstan. Neil James Spicer

144 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 the casino while regularly fending off foreign But though this is not an unusual route customers who wanted sexual services from her. in Kyrgyzstan – as many as 500,000 Kyrgyz When a customer attempted to rape her in a citizens are already working in Russia as labour drunken stupor, ‘I knew that I had enough. I migrants – Alya recognizes that it is not the quit that job.’ ultimate solution to her troubles. Some of her But Alya refused to return to her mother’s Russian-speaking friends who have moved town. ‘I didn’t want to be treated like an outcast there in recent years had to struggle for years any more,’ she says. Instead, she began to until they managed to find stable jobs and work as a street vendor selling shoes. Alya now housing. Besides, they also confronted deep has two dreams: to give her children a good racial prejudice and increasing hostility among education, and to move to Russia to escape Russian citizens towards Central Asians, the stigma that she previously experienced in reflected in a rise in the levels of hate crime. her mother’s town. But she acknowledges the Like many other minority members in the chances of realizing these goals are slim. ‘I region, Alya is caught in a limbo between a struggle to make ends meet. The only solution home country that discriminates against her and for me is to leave for Russia and work there a new life in a country where her welcome is because the pay is better there.’ uncertain at best. ■

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 145 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 failure of authorities to provide sufficient State Migration Service of Turkmenistan stopped housing to accommodate the growing population issuing new passports to dual nationals. As a result of rural migrants, many of whom live in the it has become impossible for them to leave the city as squatters. In turn, many ethnic Uzbek country. In May 2014, Turkmenistan officially businessmen have been forced to emigrate from informed the Russian Foreign Ministry that it the country due to financial difficulties in the would terminate the Agreement on 18 May 2015. wake of the 2010 conflict. In June 2014, Amnesty International published an appeal urging the Turkmen authorities to Turkmenistan grant a retrial to Mansur Mingelov, a Baluchi Turkmenistan’s minority groups include the human rights activist who began a hunger Kazakh, Russian and Uzbek minorities, as well strike on 19 May to protest a sentence widely as the ethnic Baluch community, which CERD condemned as unfair. Mingelov had been arrested has drawn particular attention to as being in 2012 and convicted to 22 years in prison for at risk of forced assimilation. Human rights alleged drug and child pornography offences after organizations have also reported children from documenting evidence of police torture against ethnic minorities being denied the opportunity ethnic Baluch. Being in a critical condition, he to study in their own languages due to the steady reportedly ended his hunger strike on 8 June after closure of schools and reduced resources. Some a number of Turkmen officials visited him in the minorities also struggle to secure formal legal Seidi labour camp, and his treatment improved. recognition despite being based long-term in the The day the appeal was published, the president country, creating further difficulties for them issued a statement highlighting the importance when accessing public services and other rights. of upholding the rule of law and subjecting each In September 2014, a local human rights criminal accusation to a thorough review. organization reported on the plight of several Turkmenistan, a largely Sunni Muslim country, thousand ethnic Uzbeks, mainly in the eastern has long been intolerant towards its religious provinces, who for over 20 years had failed to minorities, including Protestants and Jehovah’s obtain passports and become full citizens of Witnesses as well as Shi’a Muslims. In 2014, their own country. Almost 10,000 people from the US State Department added Turkmenistan Dashoguz and Lebap provinces have reportedly to its list of ‘worst religious freedom violators’. requested citizenship without success. Many had Ethnic Turkmen converts to Protestantism and studied in Uzbekistan and graduated there after other Christian denominations are reportedly the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, during the even more likely to be exposed to harassment period when national passports were being issued from the state than those from minority ethnic in Turkmenistan. When they returned, their groups. Some have been arrested for their beliefs, Soviet passports were no longer considered valid. though in October eight prisoners of conscience The organization reported that their children jailed for exercising freedom of religion or and grandchildren had also not been able to belief were released from their incarceration in obtain Turkmen passports. Meanwhile, several a labour camp under presidential amnesty. Six women from Uzbekistan who had married men were conscientious objectors to military service, from Turkmenistan and moved to the country while the other two had been falsely convicted as had reportedly been deported, thus breaking up punishment for their beliefs. families. Those without internal passports have While access to information is in many ways reportedly been deprived of opportunities to find strictly controlled in Turkmenistan, Russian- official employment, leave the country or move speaking urban residents are able to watch news to the capital to earn money. channels broadcast from Russia via satellite Human rights activists have estimated that television. The government has reportedly about 100,000 Turkmenistan nationals of both appeared uncomfortable about coverage of Russian and Turkmen ethnicity also hold Russian the 2014 events in Ukraine, and in April it passports, under a 1993 bilateral Agreement on was reported that access to the broadcasts was Dual Citizenship. However, in autumn 2013 the affected by more interference, poor signals and

146 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Below: A woman from a small Roma community proportion of ethnic Tajiks, as well as native living in a poor district on the outskirts of Tajik speakers who may classify themselves as Bukhara, Uzbekistan. Panos/Tim Dirven ethnic Uzbeks, is much larger than the official figures suggest, particularly in and around the in some cases blackouts. Like other Central cities of Samarkand and Bukhara. Though the Asian countries, Turkmenistan had a large influx law provides for non-discrimination on the basis of Russians and other European ethnicities to of ethnicity and national origin, in practice key its urban areas during the Russian Empire and government and business positions are typically Soviet Union. Most remaining Russians and occupied by ethnic Uzbeks. Members of ethnic Ukrainians live in or near the capital, Ashgabat, minority groups, including larger groups such and other urban centres. While Russians and as Karakalpaks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Tatars Ukrainians constituted the largest minority and Russians, appear under-represented in the group at the time of independence, their judiciary and the public administration. numbers decreased dramatically in the wake of As in other countries in the region, independence and more recently in 2003, when opportunities for ethnic minorities to study in Russians lost their dual citizenship rights. their native languages have diminished since the fall of the Soviet Union. In February 2014, Uzbekistan CERD expressed concern that insufficient With just under 30 million inhabitants, support was given to the promotion of minority Uzbekistan is Central Asia’s most populous languages, including the Tajik language, and at country. According to official figures, ethnic a decrease in the number of schools providing Uzbeks make up approximately 80 per cent education in minority languages. It also expressed of the country’s population. Russians, Tajiks concern that the authorities do not adequately and Kazakhs each make up a significant support education in minority languages at all proportion of the population, and other levels, including preschool education. At the minority groups include Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz same time, limited remedial Uzbek-language and Tatars. However, some claim that the instruction has meant that many non-native

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 147 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 speakers of Uzbek now face greater academic barriers due to their lower levels of proficiency. Uzbekistan, officially designated a Country of Southeast Particular Concern by the US State Department, continued to persecute and obstruct religious minorities during the year. Besides restrictive Asia registration requirements, prosecution and other forms of harassment, Uzbekistan’s state-sponsored Nicole Girard and Hanna Hindstrom print, online and broadcast media regularly attacks named individuals belonging to certain minority The majority of the population in Southeast Asia faiths, including Protestant Christians and still resides in rural areas, and this is largely true Jehovah’s Witnesses. The victims are not given for its minority and indigenous peoples as well. a right of reply and media staff avoid answering While underdevelopment, closed economies questions about the attacks. Allegations made in and war have slowed Southeast Asia’s urban 2014 include ‘making zombies out of children’, growth until recently, it is now one of the fastest improperly associating with young girls and drug urbanizing regions in the world. The economic dealing. Faith communities believe the purpose of surge as countries have opened up for investment these media attacks was to publicly discredit and and trade has driven significant migration intimidate them. among minorities and indigenous communities Like most of the other Central Asian countries, to urban areas, particularly as many are forced Uzbekistan’s cities have a markedly different to leave rural areas due to declining agricultural ethnic composition than rural areas. Tashkent, employment or are displaced from their land by the capital, has a large Russian and Ukrainian armed conflict or development projects such as population, though this has shrunk rapidly mining. Prospects of better livelihood options since the end of the Soviet Union. There has and access to services also lure indigenous and been large-scale migration from primarily minority communities to cities throughout Uzbek-speaking rural areas to the country’s Southeast Asia, but in many cases the benefits of cities, particularly Tashkent, since independence urban areas have not been equally shared. Many in 1991. However, rural to urban migration face systemic discrimination, inadequate housing remains problematic. The government has used in informal settlements and limited employment a carrot and stick approach to encourage the opportunities, often in informal industries where rural population to remain in the countryside their rights are largely unprotected. and discourage migration to cities, with some Minorities have been the targets of evictions experts suggesting this is because of a fear to make way for infrastructure and high-income of urban unemployment, and the need for housing developments, such as in Cambodia and a rural workforce. Although authorities in Thailand. Other urban minority populations Tashkent do not officially restrict the number have been openly discriminated against, such of temporary residents, administrative problems as religious minorities in Ho Chi Minh City, and prohibitive costs discourage most migrants Vietnam, or violently targeted like the Rohingya from registering. Consequently, many migrants in Sittwe, Burma. None of the states in Southeast face poor working conditions and low pay, with Asia have policies or programmes to specifically little bargaining power to improve their situation. assist minorities and indigenous peoples in urban Meanwhile, the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara areas, but given the increasing trend towards are largely Tajik-speaking, though as most of urbanization, their potential contribution the population of the cities is bilingual and no to diverse, flourishing cities must not be census has been conducted since 1989, the exact underestimated. proportions are not possible to judge. The status of Tajiks is considered precarious, in part due to Burma tensions between the leaderships of Uzbekistan Burma’s democratic transition appeared to stall and Tajikistan. in 2014, with deadly consequences for its ethnic

148 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 and religious minorities. The Burmese army impacts of conflict. escalated its offensive in northern Kachin state, There is growing concern that Burma’s rupturing trust in the ongoing peace negotiations reform process is backsliding as the country and culminating in the deadliest single attack prepares for its first general election in over half against ethnic minority rebels since the start of a century in 2015. A crucial sticking point is the conflict. Meanwhile, a tide of intolerance the undemocratic 2008 Constitution, which towards the country’s Muslim minority surged guarantees 25 per cent of parliamentary seats to as the government pushed for greater legal the military and deprives ethnic nationalities of restrictions on religious freedom. their right to self-determination. The president The Burmese government has struggled to may also hand over executive and judicial secure a nationwide ceasefire with a myriad powers to the military in the event of a national of armed ethnic groups fighting for greater ‘emergency’ – potentially legitimizing a coup. autonomy. Unfortunately, 2014 witnessed The government has also been reluctant to a return to hostilities in several parts of the discuss political grievances with armed ethnic country, including eastern and northern Burma. groups, fuelling scepticism about the future of More than 2,000 civilians were forced from the peace process. their homes in October following clashes near For decades the Burmese military regime the Salween River between the army, known imposed a policy of ‘Burmanization’ on ethnic locally as the Tatmadaw, and the Democratic minorities, an estimated 40 per cent of the Karen Benevolent Army (DKBA) – ending a population, which continues to be felt today. two-year period of relative calm in Karen state. For example Muslims and ethnic Chinese and A report by Karen Rivers Watch accused the Indian citizens struggle to obtain or renew their army of conducting a coordinated campaign to national identity cards, which are needed to gain control of territory near the Salween River, travel freely, attend government schools and where a controversial hydropower dam is being obtain jobs. Some report being overlooked for developed. The following month, the military scholarships or professional opportunities in shelled a rebel cadet training school near the urban centres such as Yangon, because they Kachin independence movement headquarters, are not Buddhist. Ethnic minorities are still killing 23 ethnic fighters and casting a heavy prevented from studying in their own languages, shadow over peace talks. The army later claimed although extracurricular classes have been made it was intended as a ‘warning’. In February available in some areas. In general, the lack of 2015, fresh conflict flared in northern Shan instruction in their native language has meant state between the army and ethnic Chinese that a disproportionate number of minority rebels known as the Kokang. children drop out of school due to language Multiple human rights violations were barriers. However, the government appeared reported in ethnic minority areas, where the to have relaxed these restrictions during the Tatmadaw enjoys broad impunity for its crimes. year with the announcement that instruction of In November, the Women’s League of Burma minority languages would be reintroduced to the (WLB) reported that it had documented 118 classroom. In April, the Mon state parliament cases of sexual violence and rape carried out authorized the teaching of Mon language among by Burmese soldiers since the former military primary school students – the first time a government ostensibly ceded power in the 2010 minority language has been taught in government election. In January 2015, two Kachin teachers schools for decades. were found brutally raped and murdered in Since the end of formal military rule, Burma northern Burma – shining a fresh spotlight on has witnessed the rise of a Buddhist nationalist wartime sexual violence in the country. The army movement, resulting in intermittent bouts of has reportedly since offered money to the families communal violence since 2012 – mostly targeting of the victims. WLB has called for more women the beleaguered Rohingya Muslim minority to be included in the peace process to boost in Arakan state. This violence has spread to a dialogue on sexual violence and other gendered number of Burma’s cities, resulting in religious

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 149 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Below: Women at Thin Taw Li refugee camp, large-scale communal violence, most Mandalay where more than 3,000 Rohingya refugees live in residents refused to participate and locals tried to a Muslim enclave. Panos/Nic Dunlop defuse the situation. Nonetheless, the riots had a crippling impact on the economic lives of the segregation and increased marginalization of non- city’s Muslims, many of whom run family shops Buddhists around the country. Over 140,000 and businesses. Muslims have been expelled from cities in Arakan Mandalay is home to the most prominent state, while thousands more are in isolated leader of Burma’s anti-Muslim movement, a ghetto-like camps outside Sittwe, Rakhine’s monk named Wirathu, who continues to call capital. A fraction of Sittwe’s Muslims – who on Buddhists to boycott Muslim businesses. until the violence comprised almost half of its Unfortunately the government has lent political population – remain in Aung Mingalar, now the support to his activities by tabling a set of divisive city’s only Muslim neighourhood, which they are ‘race protection’ laws to parliament, which seek not allowed to leave. Many shops and businesses to restrict inter-faith marriages and conversions to belonging to Rohingya Muslims in Sittwe have minority faiths. In January 2015, 180 women’s reportedly been destroyed or taken over by and minority rights organizations signed a Buddhists. statement urging the government to withdraw Burma’s Muslim population has also been the legislation. However, by March 2015 the bills targeted in Mandalay, Burma’s second largest on religious conversions and population control city, where an estimated 200,000 Muslims reside. were pushed through both houses of parliament. In July, violence erupted following allegations Other government policies have also been that a Buddhist woman had been raped by a cause for concern. In April, the government two Muslim teashop owners, leading to the reneged on a promise to allow minorities the deaths of two men and many more injured in right to self-identify in the country’s first apparent riots by Buddhist gangs. However, census in over 30 years. Instead, some 1 million unlike previous riots that have escalated into Rohingya were told to register as ‘Bengalis’,

150 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 indicating that they are illegal immigrants from In this context of rapid growth, the city’s Bangladesh, or be excluded. A government property development is being driven by scheme to grant citizenship to Rohingya Muslims wealthy land-owners who have links to the has similarly demanded that they accept the former Burman-dominated military regime and government’s designated ethnic term. In early is likely to involve unsustainable development 2015, some half a million Rohingya Muslims plans. Urban slums are already sprouting at were stripped of their temporary identification a disturbing pace as Rangoon’s impoverished cards and remaining voting rights, spelling workers are squeezed further from the city centre. disaster for the largely stateless community. The Rangoon authorities have come under fire Many analysts suspect the government wants for pushing through a large-scale development to capitalize on religious tensions ahead of plan that will consume thousands of acres of the 2015 poll – a tactic commonly used by farmlands west of the city. At least 40 per cent the former military regime. This view gained of Rangoon’s residents are either ‘poor or very support in November when the US government poor’, according to the UN, while a revised slapped fresh sanctions on former regime analysis by the World Bank suggests that urban hardliner and ruling party MP Aung Thaung poverty is much higher than previously thought for undermining recent economic and political – only four percentage points lower than in reforms in the country. He is widely suspected rural areas. If left unchecked, Burma’s current of supporting Burma’s anti-Muslim movement. urbanization trends could exacerbate existing Wirathu has publicly backed the military-aligned inequalities, including between majority Burmans Union Solidarity and Development Party in and ethnic minorities, unless broader issues of the upcoming elections and cautioned against discrimination are addressed. amending the Constitution to allow opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi to run. Indeed, Cambodia Buddhist nationalists appear to have growing The year 2014 saw the continuation of long influence over public policy. In December, drawn-out trials against top Khmer Rouge leaders opposition member Htin Lin Oo was charged at the UN-backed Extraordinary Chamber in the with ‘insulting’ religion for delivering a speech Courts of Cambodia (ECCC). Marred by reports condemning the misuse of Buddhism. Even of corruption and politicized proceedings, the his party, the National League for Democracy, rulings have come slowly. On 31 July, the second subsequently removed him from his position trial that is part of Case 002 began against Nuon as information officer for the party. In another Chea, known as ‘Brother Number Two’, and worrying case, New Zealander Philip Blackwood former head of state Khieu Samphan, charged was sentenced to two and half years in prison for with genocide and crimes against humanity for defamation of religion after using an image of the the mass execution of 20,000 ethnic Vietnamese Buddha in headphones to promote an event at and between 100,000 and 500,000 Cham his bar in Rangoon. Muslims, who were systematically targeted for Burma is one of the least urbanized countries murder, forced marriages and rape during the in Southeast Asia, with just over a third of the Khmer Rouge regime (1975–9). As the trial population based in cities. This is largely due proceeded, defence lawyers boycotted it and to the fact that Burma’s economy was crippled demanded that the judges be disqualified, a by decades of military misrule and international motion that was overruled: Nuon Chea’s defence sanctions. However, the rate of urbanization is team returned to court, but Khieu Samphan expected to increase substantially over the next instructed his lawyers to continue their boycott. few years, spurred on by the country’s reform By the end of the year the judges claimed they process and an influx of foreign investment. had no choice but to adjourn the case until 2015. In particular, Rangoon’s population of over 7 In regard to the first case that formed part of this million is expected to double by 2040, with second trial, a ruling was handed down in August many migrants from Burma’s rural and ethnic sentencing both men to life in prison for their minority populations likely to relocate. role in the forced evacuation of Phnom Penh and

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 151 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 other urban areas. society organizations released a statement noting Deeply entrenched discrimination against that the current impact assessment underestimates Vietnamese in Cambodia, both Vietnamese the ‘extensive and severe’ potential damage, nationals and ethnic Vietnamese long resident in including to fish stocks and livelihoods, with no the country, continued in 2014. In Phnom Penh, consultation or offer of compensation yet made to opposition party and garment factory protests affected communities. early in the year helped ignite anti-Vietnamese An indigenous Chong community of about sentiment, a traditional tactic of opposition 600 families continued to resist the efforts of groups and political parties in Cambodia. One Chinese Sino-hydro to build a dam on their Vietnamese-owned coffee shop was destroyed ancestral territory in Aveng Valley, one of the last in the protests. In February, a Vietnamese man remaining tracts of primeval forest in Southeast was beaten to death in February by a mob in Asia, situated in the Cardamoms Protected Phnom Penh after he crashed his motorcycle into Forest. While the project has been passed between the back of a car. Racist slurs were reportedly financial backers, with reports that the proposed shouted at the victim before he was killed. dam is not even feasible, the community claims Anti-Vietnamese protests continued, reignited it has not been consulted throughout the process. in June and July when a spokesperson from Villagers worry about the real intentions for the the Vietnamese embassy refuted that parts of land as in February the Cambodian minister for southern Vietnam, also known as Kampuchea mines approved a six-month exploration licence Krom, was under Cambodian control until it was in the area. The following month, over 150 acceded to Vietnam by the French in 1949. The villagers blocked company staff from attempting spokesperson was replaced in September, but in to conduct assessments of the area. October monks led protests and threatened to In July, local human rights organization Adhoc burn the Vietnamese embassy. reported that over 100 ‘ethnic minority activists’ Amid this atmosphere, the Interior Ministry protecting community forests had been detained, announced that it will conduct a census of jailed, intimidated and attacked in the first half of foreigners living in the country. Since then, the year. In January, protests by Kuoy indigenous reports of arrests and raids on businesses with villagers in Preah Vihear province against Chinese suspected Vietnamese workers have increased, and plantation firms resulted in several arrests, by the end of October 399 Vietnamese nationals including staff from the NGO Community Legal had been arrested and over 160 deported. The Education Centre, and forced others into hiding. census was distressing for ethnic Vietnamese, as On 9 August, a march for the International Day many lack identification papers, rendering them of the World’s Indigenous Peoples by 700 Bunong stateless and vulnerable to a host of human rights was blocked by police. abuses. In May the Cambodian government issued Indigenous people continued their struggle a new directive on economic land concessions for ancestral land rights, as large swathes of their (ELCs), calling for improved protections of territory continue to be seized and exploited for community forests and burial sites. While the commercial agriculture and energy projects. The directive was met with scepticism by indigenous UN Deputy High Commissioner for Human rights activists, measures such as these led the Rights Flavia Pansieri, who arrived in Cambodia World Bank to reinitiate loans to the country on an official visit at the end of April, noted that later in the year, which it had officially frozen in more effort must be made to issue communal 2011 due to the Boeung Kak Lake evictions. In land titles to protect these communities from November, the Phnom Penh Post reported that eviction. For example, a group of around 5,000 two preliminary proposals had been approved mostly indigenous people face resettlement to by the World Bank in Kampong Thom, despite accommodate the development of the north- the potential threat of indigenous communities eastern Lower Sesan dam project. Construction being evicted. Complaints against projects on the Chinese and Vietnamese-backed dam was funded by the World Bank had continued set to begin in January 2015. In October, 18 civil throughout 2014: in February, the World Bank

152 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 had agreed to investigate a complaint filed by 17 ancestors have lived in the country for indigenous groups regarding its being implicated generations, are largely urban and occupy low- in deforestation and land grabs. By May, the income settlements in the capital. Their lives are Vietnamese rubber company Hoang Anh Gia Lai insecure as a result of being barred from formal (HAGL), implicated in the case, had suspended citizenship, leaving them with limited access to parts of its operations amid investigations by the education, health care and other benefits normally Bank. associated with cities. Their lack of identity papers While many evictions in Cambodia relate to also prevents them from purchasing land or areas with large amounts of natural resources, housing, and as a result many live in waterways often in isolated rural locations, land rights and other marginal areas where they face fewer violations are also commonplace in Cambodia’s restrictions on residency, including Svay Pak urban areas. Though only a fifth of the population district on the outskirts of Phnom Penh. Without currently reside in towns and cities, urban growth viable alternatives, the sex industry helps support is rapid and continues to be shaped by the legacy these families, as ethnic Vietnamese women are of the Khmer Rouge era. Though major centres over-represented in it. In one study of urban such as Phnom Penh were largely emptied under slums in Phnom Penh from 2006, nearly half communist rule, they were gradually repopulated of Vietnamese families surveyed reportedly sold in the chaotic years following the fall of the a girl child for sex, often a one-time sale of an regime. Lost land records and vacant makeshift underaged girl’s virginity. The study also noted housing shaped Phnom Penh’s expansion, that being a minority Vietnamese in Cambodia allowing residents to set up where they chose is itself a contributing factor to entry into the sex but also laying the foundation, in recent years, trade, given the structural discrimination that for land grabbing and displacement. In this shapes their lives. context, minorities, indigenous peoples and other vulnerable groups have been especially vulnerable Indonesia to displacement due to existing patterns of The year 2014 was punctuated by the election discrimination against them. of President Joko Widodo, a youthful reformist While most of Cambodia’s Cham Muslims and popularly known as Jokowi, after a tense and indigenous peoples still reside in rural areas, they divisive poll in July. Jokowi’s win has been also comprise significant urban communities and celebrated as a victory for democratic reform face a regular threat of eviction. For instance, and religious pluralism in Indonesia after years Phnom Penh’s most publicized case of land of rising intolerance, raising hopes among the grabbing involved eviction of residents around country’s diverse indigenous populations and Boeung Kak Lake, following the government’s other minority groups. Jokowi campaigned reclassification and leasing of the area on a 99- under the national slogan ‘Unity in Diversity’, year commercial contract to private developers. promising to curb escalating religious and ethnic Among the thousands of people evicted were tensions in the Muslim-majority country. entire Muslim Cham neighbourhoods, with Indonesia has experienced a surge in religious families either offered minimal cash compensation intolerance under the 10-year rule of former or given homes in a relocation zone far outside President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, resulting the city, with little access to services or ability in frequent violence against its Ahmadi, Christian to make a living. As they were relocated away and Shi’a minorities. According to the Setara from Al-Serkal mosque, which had served as the Institute, attacks on religious minorities have community’s anchor for gatherings and religious skyrocketed since the government authorized services, their collective sense of community was two decrees restricting the right to worship also undermined. Following its demolition, the freely in 2006 and 2008. This trend continued mosque was replaced with the help of a large in 2014, with hardliners congregating in donation from the United Arab Emirates, yet the April in Bandung, West Java, to form the community itself no longer resides in the area. first ever ‘Anti-Shi’a Alliance’ calling for jihad The ethnic Vietnamese population, whose against the minority, viewed as ‘heretical’ by

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 153 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Below: Indonesian Christians hold candles is drafting a new law to protect religious freedom, during a Christmas mass prayer session at Gelora which will allow all religions to publicly practise Bung Karno stadium in Jakarta, December 2014 their faiths and construct houses of worship. REUTERS/Beawiharta. The new law is expected to replace previous discriminatory legislation, including Indonesia’s extremists. A Shi’a journalist covering the controversial blasphemy law. Over 100 individuals event was reportedly detained, interrogated and have been jailed over the past decade for perceived assaulted by participants. Youdhoyono has been religious offences under this draconian legislation. blamed for forging a political alliance with the Another crucial test for the new president is Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI), which has the bitter conflict in resource-rich West Papua relentlessly promoted a narrow and xenophobic province, where ethnic Papuan rebels have fought interpretation of Islam. In January, the MUI for independence from Indonesia for decades. urged police in Yogyakarta, Java, to monitor, Unfortunately, there has been little apparent freeze and disband organizations run by Shi’a progress in achieving a sustainable peace in the Muslims. Ahmadis, who were branded ‘deviant’ region since Jokowi took power, and security by Indonesia’s top clerical body in 2008, also forces continue to perpetrate abuses against the face persistent social ostracism, harassment and indigenous population. In August, a prominent arbitrary closures of their places of worship. separatist activist went missing a day before a Activists have called on President Jokowi, who scheduled visit by then President Yudhoyono. was sworn into office in October, to take a tough His dismembered, bullet-ridden body was stance against extremist groups and their political discovered floating in a sack off the Papuan allies. To his credit, Jokowi has already defended a coast six days later. Foreign media remain largely number of minority politicians, including Christian shut out from West Papua, which requires a Susan Jasmine Zulkifli and Shi’a Jalaluddin special permit to enter. In August, two French Rakhmat, against public outrage over their religious journalists were arrested for reporting on the affiliations. The government has announced that it Papuan separatist movement on tourist visas.

154 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 They were sentenced to two months in prison lands. Jokowi has pledged to improve conditions and later deported. for Indonesia’s 70 million indigenous people, Dozens of peaceful activists were arrested in although his government has yet to implement West Papua in 2014 amid regular reports of the Court’s recommendations. A draft law on arbitrary killings, rapes and violence perpetrated the rights of indigenous peoples has stalled in by the Indonesian army. West Papua’s parliament, facing obstruction from Indonesia’s independence movement is increasingly urban controversial Forestry Ministry, which is and educated, applying non-violent means to currently being investigated by the Corruption further their cause, with a growing number of Eradication Commission (KPK). Jokowi has since youths using social media to campaign against merged the Environment and Forestry ministries the Indonesian occupation. In December, four in an effort to improve sustainable practices, high school students were killed when the although environmental campaigners worry that military and police opened fire on a crowd of this will dilute conservation policies. protesters in the eastern province. Jokowi was Indonesia has one of the highest deforestation roundly criticized for his inefficient response to rates in the entire world, with a new study the incident. This follows anger over his decision suggesting that 840,000 hectares of primary to appoint former military strongman Ryamizard forest were felled in 2012 – twice as much as Ryacudu – notorious for his derisive attitude the historic global leader Brazil. This process has towards human rights defenders in West Papua been accelerated by endemic corruption at the and Aceh provinces – as the new Minister of Forestry Ministry. In March, the former governor Defence. of Indonesia’s Riau province was sentenced to 14 Indonesia’s controversial transmigration years in prison for issuing illegal logging permits programme – an initiative moving people from in central Sumatra, which has already been densely populated to less populated parts of the devastated by the spread of palm oil and paper archipelago to counter rapid urbanization in Java plantations. The former minister of forestry was – has fuelled anger and ethnic friction in West questioned in a separate investigation. Papua. Six decades after this programme was first Rapid deforestation and land confiscations introduced by the Dutch colonial administration, have hastened the speed of urbanization among ethnic Papuans now number less than 50 per indigenous communities in Indonesia. For cent of the population. The programme has led example, Dayaks – a constellation of non- to increased marginalization of the indigenous Muslim peoples in Borneo – are increasingly population. According to the Institute for Policy migrating to bigger cities in search of better Studies, indigenous urban youth in West Papua employment opportunities. Though the are twice as likely as migrants to have little Indonesian government signed an agreement or no formal schooling. Disparities in human with UN-Habitat during the year committing to development between the migrant-dominated the promotion of sustainable urbanization, the urban areas and indigenous-majority interior are government has not made specific plans on how even more pronounced. Indonesia’s myriad minorities and indigenous In May 2014, Indonesia’s Human Rights peoples will be incorporated into this process. Commission (Komnas HAM) launched its In Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, rapid urban first national inquiry into land rights abuses growth has disproportionately affected certain committed against Indonesia’s indigenous ethnic groups. In particular, indigenous Betawi population. Over 2,000 communities have asked have been historically marginalized by the for investigations, according to the Indigenous government’s urban development projects. As Peoples’ Alliance of the Archipelago (AMAN). Jakarta rapidly expanded into a sprawling mega- Activists have called on Jokowi to publicly city, it engulfed Betawi farming villages on its apologize to the country’s indigenous peoples. periphery, turning them into isolated urban This comes one year after a Constitutional settlements. Thousands of Betawis have since Court ruling that invalidated the state’s claim been dislocated from their homes to make way to millions of hectares of customary indigenous for large-scale private or commercial enterprises,

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 155 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 often forced into slum dwellings as land prices survivors who had fled from coastal regions and soar. Their culture and identity has come further urban centres to Aceh’s conflict-torn interior under threat because of an influx of economic and missed out on disaster relief. Banda Aceh migrants to the booming capital. Many Betawis had already been shielded from the worst of the have had to abandon their traditional livelihoods, fighting, even briefly emerging as a democratic such as dairy cows, agriculture or batik space for the educated urban elite to resist production, and minority youths have struggled the Indonesian occupation after the fall of to find work, giving rise to ethnic-based urban Suharto. Five years after the tsunami, all traces gangs and criminal networks. In recent years the of the disaster had been removed from Banda government has employed various strategies to Aceh, while many rural areas lay neglected and promote Betawi culture in Jakarta. For example, abandoned. when Jokowi was governor of Jakarta, he toyed with the idea of using Betawi architecture to Malaysia boost tourism to the city. Another marginalized Malaysia continued to restrict religious freedoms minority in Jakarta is Indonesia’s ethnic Chinese, in 2014, further marginalizing and alienating its who faced acute persecution under military rule non-Sunni Muslim population. Prime Minister and continue to be segregated from other ethnic Najib Razak has been accused of exploiting groups by the legacy of racism and violence religious tensions and pandering to Islamist since an outburst of anti-Chinese riots in 1998. hardliners after suffering major electoral losses However, this year saw the election of an ethnic in the 2013 election. In November, he formally Chinese Christian to the role of governor of abandoned a pledge to revoke a draconian Jakarta. colonial-era Sedition Law that has frequently The Acehnese ethnic minority are known for been used to silence his political opponents, their devout adherence to Islam and their long instead vowing to strengthen its provisions. resistance to external rule. However, the strict The Muslim-majority country has witnessed interpretation of Sunni Islam in Aceh province a surge in blasphemy allegations targeting the has led to at least 20 churches having been closed country’s sizeable Christian minority. Malaysian in the province and 14 minority Islamic sects law imposes a maximum three-year jail having been formally banned, fuelling insecurity sentence for individuals found to have ‘insulted’ among religious minorities. Women in particular religion or published text or imagery deemed have become increasingly marginalized in Aceh, offensive to public ‘morality’. This legislation since it was devastated by the Indian Ocean is disproportionately used to clamp down tsunami in 2004. Men have largely determined on religious minorities. In January, religious the recovery efforts, as well as the terms of the authorities seized hundreds of bibles from a peace deal that ended Aceh’s long-running Christian group because they used the Arabic struggle for self-determination and was reached word ‘Allah’ to refer to God – a practice that was as a direct consequence of the tsunami. The formally banned in 2013. In May, the country peace deal included the application of Sharia was placed on the US government’s Tier-2 law, which has led to an erosion of women’s ‘watch list’ of countries where religious freedoms rights and freedoms in urban spaces. Research are under threat. suggests that these religious gender constraints are Malaysia’s restrictive laws have entrenched more harshly felt in urban areas than rural areas, discrimination against certain Muslim sects, such with women’s dress and behaviour more closely as Shi’a, Ahmadis and Al-Arqam, who are banned monitored – strictures that are felt especially by from spreading their faiths. The Department non-Muslim women. of Islamic Development (JAKIM), under the Aceh’s cities also received a disproportionate Prime Minister’s Office, has broad authority amount of humanitarian aid in the aftermath of to determine what constitutes ‘un-Islamic’ or the 2004 tsunami, aggravating an urban–rural ‘immoral’ behaviour and to penalize individuals divide in socio-economic development. This deemed to be in breach. The body regularly policy had a significant impact on thousands of monitors, harasses and prosecutes members of

156 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 minority Muslim sects for alleged crimes against by the National Human Rights Commission Islam. In March, over a hundred Shi’a, including following a historic inquiry into land rights a four-month-old child, were detained by abuses against indigenous peoples in 2013. authorities for attending a religious ceremony. Instead, he established a separate task force to At the start of the year, the government consider steps moving forward, which has been unveiled plans to establish a Sharia police unit criticized as an effort to dilute the inquiry’s within JAKIM to help enforce Islamic law. provisions. In March, Malaysia rejected a It comes amid growing concern that Sharia suggestion made by Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, courts in Malaysia are seen to favour the Sunni the UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of population, especially men. In one notable case, a indigenous peoples, to evaluate its treatment of Hindu woman whose Muslim husband abducted Orang Ulu, comprising 27 indigenous groups on their daughter is facing an uphill battle to regain the island of Sarawak. Orang Ulu, also known as custody of her child because a Sharia court ruled Dayaks, face growing threats to their traditional against her on the basis of her faith. Followers lands from the rapid spread of logging, palm oil of the outlawed Ahmadi faith are fighting back companies and large-scale hydropower dams. against a crackdown on their activities, arguing Many thousands of Orang Ulu have been forcibly that they should not be subjected to interference displaced over the past few years to make way for by religious authorities since they have been a series of controversial mega-dams in Borneo, classified as ‘non-Muslims’ by the government. forming the Sarawak Corridor for Renewable In August, a group of 39 Ahmadis were granted Energy (SCORE). leave by the High Court to pursue a judicial Controversy has centred on Sarawak’s former review application of their arrests. According to Chief Minister, Taib Mahmud, who is the the human rights monitoring group SUARAM, subject of an ongoing investigation by Malaysia’s dozens of indigenous Christians were also Anti-Corruption Commission. Taib stepped tricked into converting to Islam in January, after down in February after 33 years in office, being promised money in exchange for signing although indigenous activists fear he is still cards and reading ‘foreign words’. According to involved behind the scenes. His replacement, SUARAM, responsibility for the case was handed Adenan Satem – Taib’s former brother-in-law by the police to the Sabah State Islamic Affairs and close political ally – has pledged to push Department, which reportedly had presided over ahead with the SCORE project, despite local the ceremony. opposition. In August, a new report by SAVE In this context, Malaysia’s burgeoning Rivers accused the government of threatening intolerance has fuelled the proliferation of and coercing the indigenous populations in hate speech and religious extremism across the Baram, Sarawak, where resistance has flared country, where radical clerics are permitted against the next proposed dam site. The report to preach freely in mosques and through raises fresh concerns about the role of money social media. Indeed the government has a politics in Sarawak. track record of tolerating religious extremism Malaysia has one of the highest levels of among its political support base, while cracking urbanization in Southeast Asia, with around down on dissidents using the controversial three-quarters of its population now residing Sedition Law. In response to this increasingly in cities. In Sarawak, a growing number of oppressive environment, in December a group indigenous youths are migrating to urban centres of civil servants wrote an open letter urging in search of work and educational opportunities. the government to take swift steps to promote This process has largely been driven by Malaysia’s religious harmony and understanding in rapid rate of deforestation, which has eroded the Malaysia. traditional livelihoods and lands of indigenous Issues affecting indigenous communities forest dwellers. Nearly 70 per cent of the continue to be sidelined by the Malaysian highland Kelabit tribe in Sarawak has migrated government. Prime Minister Najib Razak has to urban areas and, according to a 2013 survey, yet to implement the recommendations made the population of Baram dropped from 80,000

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 157 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 open-pit garbage dump in her backyard.‘It Case study by Hanna Hindstrom was however a blessing because after some weeks, we noticed that the open pit was not smelly anymore, and the neighbours stopped Supporting complaining of its stench,’ she says. She then explained to the landlady how vermiculture indigenous works and helped her plant onions, eggplants and cabbage in her back garden using compost. livelihoods in Cacho is now working with the Cordillera Women’s Education and Research Centre Baguio city (CWEARC) to promote vermiculture practices in Baguio. CWEARC is supporting over 100 indigenous women to establish urban vegetable Four years ago, a typhoon struck the northern gardens with the help of recycled waste. The idea Filipino city of Baguio. The storm ruptured is to simultaneously boost the socio-economic the walls of the city’s mounting garbage dump, status of indigenous women while combatting sending hundreds of tonnes of urban waste Baguio’s burgeoning waste problem. The women cascading into the streets. The landslide flattened are all migrants from rural areas who often several houses and killed two young children. struggle to earn their living as street vendors or The tragedy was a wake-up call for Geraldine backyard hog raisers. By working as a collective, Cacho, an Igorot woman and rural farmer who the women harness another indigenous concept, first migrated to Baguio to pursue university known as ubbo or mutually beneficial labour. studies. ‘Why would garbage become a killer? According to the UN, indigenous migrants Why would it become an issue?’ she asked herself make up 60 per cent of the city’s population at the time. and more than half of them live in poverty. Many Igorot migrants are accustomed to the Indigenous women are particularly marginalized practice of ayyew – known as sayang in Filipino and are usually excluded from discussions – an indigenous concept of recycling and reusing about urban planning in Baguio. But now they all forms of waste. For example, biodegradable have a stronger voice in the community. ‘The waste would be transformed into fertilizers using project increased the capacity of indigenous vermiculture, while plastic bottles and old clothes women on project management, leadership, may be recycled into household containers or rugs. economic empowerment, and strengthened As residents dump some 300 tonnes of garbage their organization,’ says Lucille Lumas-i from every day, recycling not only offers a source of CWEARC. livelihood to Baguio’s indigenous population but Even the government has responded also provides the city with an effective form of positively to the project. ‘In communities waste management. ‘Using ayyew as a culture of where practitioners were located, there is a managing waste would lessen garbage and help decrease in the volume of waste being hauled solve the city’s huge garbage problem,’ she says. by the city government,’ added Lumas-i. ‘At ‘As an activist organizer, I knew there has to be the community level, Barangay [ward] officials a way. A mass movement is needed to help solve are very supportive of the project and some the problem, if not eliminate it.’ have adopted the concept in their community After attending a training programme waste management programme.’ Cacho now organized by the NGO Tebtebba, Cacho set has a blooming urban garden, studded with up a vermibed in her kitchen. At first she faced ginger, corn, squash and sweet potatoes. resistance from her landlady, who described the It reminds her of her family’s farm in the compost worms as ‘unsanitary’. She confiscated countryside. ‘The growth was very visible,’ Cacho’s worms and discarded them in a smelly she says, ‘like magic.’ ■

158 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 to 20,000 in a decade. Activists have warned that overwhelmingly Catholic country. The resource- the proliferation of new dams will exacerbate this rich Mindanao province has been engulfed by trend. Hunter-gatherer tribes such as the Penan conflict since the 1970s, amid religious tensions are particularly vulnerable during resettlement and grievances over perceived exploitation by the as they often lack the occupational skills suited central government. to life outside the forest. This has contributed The Philippine Congress is currently to the urbanization of poverty among Sarawak’s considering a new law, known as the Bangsamoro indigenous population, who already form a Basic Law, which would formalize the terms of significant percentage of squatters in cities such the peace agreement, including mechanisms for as Miri. However, the Sarawak government natural resource revenue-sharing and political maintains that new hydropower dams will boost devolution. However, indigenous peoples in rural development and discourage Orang Ulu Mindanao, known collectively as Lumads, have from migrating to cities. expressed concerns about the future of their A large proportion of indigenous peoples from ancestral domains. Some fear the new legislation Peninsular Malaysia, known collectively as the could aggravate land conflicts and erode the Orang Asli, live below the poverty line. Despite rights of indigenous peoples in the southern being protected by Malaysia’s controversial Philippines. There are some 100,000 Lumads Bumiputera laws – which favour the ethnic Malay in the proposed Bangsamoro region, and they and indigenous populations for government jobs consider almost 300,000 hectares of land to be and university opportunities, while entrenching their ancestral domains. Although two Lumads discrimination against Malaysia’s Chinese are included in the commission drafting the and Indian minorities – Orang Asli still face Basic Law, it is unclear how these concerns will discrimination in most aspects of their lives be addressed. Other non-Muslim communities and consistently rank lowest on health and have resisted inclusion in the new Bangsamoro education indicators. According to a recent region, including the Christian-majority city of study, demographic changes and urbanization Zamboanga, which came under siege by armed has worsened the risk of diabetes, hypertension groups in 2013. and obesity among the Orang Asli. This may be A patchwork of other separatist groups, such caused by the rising cost of food in urban areas. as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) Indigenous activists blamed the government for and the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters, failing to help indigenous communities adapt to opposed the peace deal and continued to city life. Some Orang Asli report feeling out of launch deadly attacks on the civilian population place in urban areas due to educational and socio- throughout the year, targeting the region’s economic disparities and language barriers. Christian minority in a number of towns and cities. The peace talks have similarly excluded the Philippines MNLF’s founder, Nur Misuari, an influential During 2014 the Philippines made significant figure who led the siege on Zamboanga in 2013. progress towards concluding a 45-year Muslim Mindanao is also haunted by a continuing minority struggle for self-determination that communist insurgency against the government, has claimed over 120,000 lives. In March, the and Lumads often get caught in the middle. Philippine government finalized a historic peace The Philippines also remains one of the deal with the largest Muslim armed group, the world’s deadliest places for human rights Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), paving activists and indigenous community leaders. the way for the creation of an autonomous Many killings have been linked to the military Mindanao region – also known as Bangsamoro – or pro-government militias operating near by 2016. Notably, it was the first time anywhere resource development projects. In March that such a document was signed by a woman as alone, nine people were murdered, including chief negotiator. The Muslim minority, making William Bugatti, a prominent Tuwali activist up roughly 5 per cent of the population, is one of who was gunned down by unknown assailants the poorest and most marginalized groups in the on his way home from work. The Philippine

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 159 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Below: A child mesmerized by people dancing levels of education than the men, are especially and playing the Igorot ‘ganza’ (music and vulnerable to trafficking or exploitative dance with gongs) at the Igorot Park in domestic labour schemes. Baguio City, Philippines during the protest Natural disasters are another major source of against violence against women headed by displacement in the typhoon-prone Philippines. the One Billion Rising women’s group. Indigenous communities were left isolated after Richard Balonglong Typhoon Haiyan hit the southern Philippines in November 2013. According to the NGO army had reportedly identified him as a ‘target Tebtebba, some 1,600 indigenous families are person’ and communist sympathizer in a leaked struggling to survive after losing their homes, military document from 2012. In August, infrastructure and boats used to gather vital three indigenous rights activists were murdered supplies for the community. Indigenous groups within one week, two of whom were involved have been made more vulnerable due to their in disputes with a local palm oil and mining geographical isolation, far away from major company. The Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact urban centres where support services are typically described the ongoing violence against indigenous located. Research suggests that the rapid rate of communities as a ‘systematic attack’ intended urbanization in the Philippines has also made to ‘stifle their opposition and struggle to defend poor and marginalized groups, such as minority their ancestral lands’. and indigenous communities, more susceptible Militarization and clan-based violence are to natural disasters and flooding as they cannot key factors driving rural–urban migration in afford to buy or rent housing in safer places. the southern Philippines, where the influx However, indigenous customs and knowledge of displaced households has placed a heavy have also been recognized as a tool to tackle the burden on the host communities. According effects of climate change in the Philippines. For to UN-Habitat, it has led to increased example, a regional UNESCO-led project has competition for jobs as well as shortages in studied indigenous cultural practices to help housing, health and sanitation in urban areas. policy makers devise better disaster preparedness Young Muslim women, who tend to have lower strategies in coastal areas. The study identified a

160 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 number of traditions that were used to accurately Thailand predict disasters, such as typhoons or tsunamis, Thailand’s fragile democracy suffered a serious and later integrated with scientific approaches. blow during 2014 when its military seized power The study found that indigenous communities from the democratically elected Pheu Thai have developed various ways to strengthen their government on 22 May. The military swiftly houses and store food ahead of disasters, offering established its ruling National Council for useful lessons in strengthening local resilience. Peace and Order (NCPO), led by coup leader Around 35,000 people, mostly from the General Prayuth Chan-ocha, stifling all dissent country’s Muslim minority, remain uprooted by imposing martial law, taking control of the following the siege of Zamboanga in 2013. media and repealing the 2007 Constitution. Thousands have since been subjected to arbitrary By late July, the NCPO had pushed its own relocation, with others reportedly receiving interim Constitution into force. As the year inadequate aid and food supplies. According to drew to a close, Prayuth’s regime had overseen the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre the widespread suppression of dissent and a (IDMC), most of the people who remain crackdown on journalists, political opponents displaced are urban poor who lack formal land- and activists – with a number of policies directly ownership or tenancy rights in their area of affecting Thailand’s minorities and indigenous origin. The repatriation process has been further peoples. hindered by concerns about certain areas deemed Shortly after seizing power the NCPO set unsuitable for returns due to risks of flooding about instituting a series of reforms, including a or renewed violence. The IDMC has called on ‘Return Forest Policy’ in June and a reforestation the government to prioritize housing rights for ‘Master Plan’ two months later, with the goal of displaced communities as part of the resettlement increasing forest cover throughout the country. process. Congress is currently reviewing new Since many of Thailand’s indigenous territories legislation on the rights of IDPs, seen as a crucial are in protected forests, these policies carried step towards protecting vulnerable minorities and the threat of judicial action for the communities indigenous people in the Philippines. The law is living there. In July, three indigenous Pakayaw a revised version of a historic 2013 bill that was Karen families had their lands reclaimed by the controversially vetoed by the president. Royal Forest Department in Thung Pa Ka village, The Philippines is a rapidly urbanizing northern Mae Hong Song province. The move country, with around half of the population followed the arrest of 39 Pakayaw Karen in May now living in cities. Although most indigenous for cutting down trees in the surrounding forest communities, which make up roughly 15 per as timber to build their homes: they now face cent of the population, live in isolated rural imprisonment or fines after they were sentenced areas, a growing number are migrating to cities for encroachment and illegal logging in October. in search of better livelihoods and social services. More land confiscation and evictions continued, Many are driven from their traditional lands many in Isan, the north-eastern Lao-speaking by the expansion of large-scale development region that has faced discrimination from the Thai projects, militarization and tribal conflicts. They administration in Bangkok since its incorporation often face poverty and exclusion as a result of into the modern state of Thailand. Indeed, by their limited formal education and the fact December Prachatai news had reported that that their skills may not be suited to an urban nearly 1,800 families had been affected by the context. In the northern city of Baguio – where order, mostly in the north and north-east, home indigenous people make up over 60 per cent of to large minority and indigenous populations. A the population – it is estimated that some 65 per newly proposed Mining Bill – shot down during cent of indigenous migrants suffer from extreme the previous government – was also revived and poverty. Many of them are migrant women will soon be up for approval by the National working as vendors in the city streets, where they Legislative Assembly, causing concern for are regularly pestered by police as part of the minority communities in mineral-rich areas as the government’s anti-peddling drive. new bill has weakened impact assessments.

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 161 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Conflict between officials and local Malaysia to restart peace talks with the Barisan communities over land and natural resources Revolusi Nasional Melayu Patani (BRN) after has led to the death or disappearance of negotiations stalled in 2013, amid promises numerous activists in recent years. One of the that the south would be free of violence by the most high-profile cases occurred during 2014 end of 2015. Nevertheless, conflict continued when a leading Karen land rights activist, in the region throughout the year, bringing the Porlajee Rakchongcharoen, also known as death toll to more than 6,000 people since 2004, Billy, was reportedly last seen with the chief of with regular killings and bombings, including Kaengkrachan National Park and three park increasing attacks against ‘soft’ targets like officials when he was detained for carrying ‘illegal hospitals. Both the Thai military and separatists honey’ on 17 April. Kaengkrachan Park is the have been responsible for serious human rights largest of Thailand’s national parks and home violations; no members of the security forces to Billy’s indigenous S’gaw Karen community. have been successfully prosecuted, which has led Billy was one of the key witnesses in a lawsuit to a climate of impunity. The separatists have against park officials for burning and looting the particularly targeted teachers and schools; after homes of more than 20 families. The park chief, the killing of three teachers since the beginning Chaiwat Limlikhitaksorn, had already been under of 2014, HRW noted in March that at least 171 investigation for the killing of another Karen teachers had been killed and 300 schools had activist in 2011. He claimed to have released been attacked. In response to ongoing violence, in Billy after his arrest. In July, the provincial November the military bolstered its programme court cleared Chaiwat of involvement in Billy’s of arming civilian ‘volunteers’ with military disappearance, but by December a representative weapons, despite reports emerging two months from the National Human Rights Commission earlier of one such volunteer killing an unarmed (NHRC) publicly stated that their investigation 14-year-old Muslim boy in August, then planting into the case has found that Billy was never a gun in his hand to frame him as an insurgent. released by the officers. Security forces in general have been responsible A community of indigenous Moken ‘sea for numerous human rights abuses in the region: gypsies’ have also been struggling to resist eviction three-quarters of the 134 torture allegations from their ancestral territory, occupying highly reported to the NHRC between 2007 and 2013 prized lands in Phuket whose title deeds are occurred in the south. owned by several businessmen. A lower court The NCPO announced that it had made a ordered the eviction of over 100 people, but deal with neighbouring Burma to repatriate over the Department of Special Investigations has 130,000 refugees who have settled along the found that these lands have been occupied by border over decades of fighting. Most are minority the community for at least 100 years through communities who have reason to doubt guarantees DNA analysis of burial grounds, though they of their safe return. The same applies to the 1,300 lacked any formal title deeds. In November it was Rohingya asylum seekers – an ethno-religious reported that the Justice Ministry had asked the community that is among the most persecuted Department of Lands to revoke the title deeds. on earth – deported back to Burma in February, The year 2014 marked the ten-year anniversary having fled the country due to targeted violence of both the Tak Bai massacre, where at least and mass displacement. This followed shortly after 78 Muslim protesters were killed after being a raid by Thai security forces on illegal ‘human pushed into overcrowded police trucks, and smuggling camps’ located over 500 Rohingya the disappearance of Muslim human rights who had reportedly been held hostage en route lawyer Somchai Neelapaijit. Both were key to other countries. Other migrant groups are also events in the timeline of the Thai state’s conflict vulnerable to deportation, with rumours of a with the separatist movement in the ethnic planned crackdown by the military government on Malay dominated provinces in the south of the Cambodian migrants triggering an exodus of more country: in neither case has justice been served. than 120,000 Cambodians in June. Nevertheless, in December, Prayuth travelled to Many migrants and ethnic minorities in search

162 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 of employment have relocated to urban areas, particularly Bangkok, where Thailand’s economic Case study by Nicole Girard and political activity is mostly concentrated. This has contributed to enduring underdevelopment and a lack of economic opportunity in cities Promoting a more elsewhere in the country, including the Muslim south and the north-east Isan region, despite inclusive tourism periodic attempts to encourage more investment in smaller urban areas, such as the Isan cities of industry for Khon Kaen and Korat. While the capital has been a beacon of opportunity for people all over the Chiang Mai’s hill country, the largest numbers of incomers are Isan, spurred by poor crop fertility, flooding, drought tribes and population pressures. Thailand’s economic boom in the 1970s was largely sustained by the Isan labour force, who still comprise a significant ‘I’m studying Chinese so that I can be a guide proportion of the urban working poor today, for Chinese tourists,’ explains Nahnenuhn, a transiting between Bangkok and their homes. 20-year-old indigenous Karen from Thailand, Remittances form a significant part of Isan ‘I think it’s a good future for me to help family incomes. It has been suggested that this support my family.’ Nahnehuhn comes from experience of urban life in Bangkok has not a small village near Mae Saring and moved only helped create a sense of distinct Isan ethno- to Chiang Mai to study. Like everyone else regional identity but also bolstered their political in the city, she has seen a dramatic rise in the engagement; they form a significant cohort of the number of Chinese tourists to Chiang Mai, modern Red Shirt movement. and the potential economic opportunities this Because of evictions, drought and resettlement has presented for its residents, including the out of natural parks into villages with little land indigenous hill tribes from remote villages. to farm, many of Thailand’s indigenous peoples Chiang Mai is the largest city in are driven to migrate to cities such as Mae Sot, northern Thailand, nestled in the mountain Chiang Mai and Bangkok. Many Karen youth ranges of the Thai highlands, a long-time engage in daily agricultural labour or factory tourist destination for both domestic and work in smaller cities like Ratchaburi, with international tourism. Since the 1960s, Thais some migrating to Bangkok more permanently. have ventured to the so-called ‘Rose of the However, for the more than 100,000 indigenous North’ to experience its cooler climate and people who lack formal Thai citizenship – the indigenous cultures. Trekking and visits to result of complicated and discriminatory hill tribe villages have been cornerstones of registration procedures – movement outside Thailand’s tourist promotion in the north, their areas of residency is illegal. Without legal displaying posters of colourfully dressed status, they are denied access to education and Akha women in the airports of Bangkok and end up concentrated in informal and low-wage featuring them in its 2015 ‘Discover Thailand’ labour in urban or peri-urban areas. A significant marketing campaign. Visitors to the north are proportion of Thailand’s northern indigenous increasing among both Thais and foreigners, women, for example, enter domestic labour or the with the number of tourists from China alone sex trade, mostly in urban areas. Many migrant exceeding 4 million in 2014. So what does workers from surrounding countries, many of this mean for Thailand’s indigenous peoples? whom are minorities in their home countries, When Chiang Mai’s tourism boom first similarly lack legal status, despite ongoing began, the self-sufficiency of Thailand’s government efforts to implement migrant northern indigenous peoples had already worker registration. This makes migration to and been eroded through a series of government residency in cities extremely precarious, and leaves

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 163 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 policies, including the creation of national would receive the majority of the fees, split with protected parks, a ban on traditional swidden guesthouses and tourist agents in the city that sold agriculture and the prohibition of opium the tour packages. production. Supplementary income, through By the early 1990s though, villages were work in the city or village homestays for tourists, starting to tire of this situation. ‘Fees given was therefore a necessity. Though the government for accommodation, food and to guides were had started to issue some national identity cards much lower than ours’, says Thellie, an eco-tour to indigenous residents, many communities coordinator from the Mirror Foundation, an NGO were and still are essentially stateless, with little based in the neighbouring city of Chiang Rai. access to health and education opportunities. Consequently, the opportunities presented ‘There was little interaction with villagers by through tourism, including construction work in guests, and little or no explanation of culture the city on tourism infrastructure, were one of few and traditions. This manifested in ignorance and viable livelihoods options. Many indigenous men insensitive practices by guests, because they were and women also entered the sex trade, a form of uninformed, and the feeling of a zoo-like experience exploitation fuelled by tourism. for both guests and villagers.’ Trekking and homestay tours began to pick up in the 1980s. At this time, indigenous The Mirror Foundation was formed in 1991 communities such as Hmong, Lisu, Akha and and is run by Thais, including indigenous staff, Lahu began to sell their handicrafts and cultural with the aim of running a variety of projects to wares in the Chiang Mai night bazaar or perform support indigenous communities across northern traditional dances at the Chiang Mai Old Thailand, including anti-trafficking campaigns, Cultural Centre. A select number of people from citizenship initiatives, scholarship programmes these groups were moving to the city for these and handicraft livelihoods, among others. Only opportunities due to economic insecurity in their later did they include ecotourism as one of their villages, a need that – together with their lack projects, however. Thellie explains: of Thai language skills – left them vulnerable to exploitation by Thai tourist guides. Homestays ‘Once our other projects were established, there was in villages were initiated by Thai guides, who a realization that the villagers were being exploited

164 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 by unscrupulous tour agents, so the [ecotourism] them vulnerable to traffickers and exploitative project developed as a response to this, but also working conditions. to give employment opportunities to villagers, as However, some minorities have fared well in guides, and homestay families’ . urban areas and successfully resisted attempts to evict or displace their communities. The Unlike many outfits, the Mirror Foundation settlement of the Cham Muslim community places an emphasis on participation. ‘The in the canalside area of Ban Krua, for instance, project was done in coordination with dates back at least 200 years and is an exceptional villagers, and a training programme set up for example of old Bangkok, with wooden stilt those interested in becoming tour guides.’ By houses and fruit trees in the midst of malls and allowing indigenous peoples to play a major highway overpasses. Its continuing strength is role in staffing and decision making, the no accident, however. Starting in the 1980s, organization aims to build their capacity and Bangkok’s transport division was keen to build achieve a broader transformation of the local an expressway through their neighbourhood, tourism industry: with the intention of demolishing houses, evicting residents and destroying their mosque ‘All our guides are from local indigenous groups and cemetery. Residents successfully defied the and licensed by the Tourism Authority of Thailand project with a cohesive campaign of resistance (TAT), and encouraged to work for themselves or and advocacy that has been attributed to the other agents, as well as the Mirror Foundation community’s relative autonomy and the strong – this helps to spread the ethos of our work out Islamic identity tied to the land, empowering into the tour agency community, which hopefully the community to oppose aggressive city realizes that it is more beneficial to them long term planning. While plans for an expressway on-ramp if the villagers are treated fairly, and not exploited.’ were abandoned in 2001, successive attempts continued in 2012, with Ban Krua again uniting The revenue they receive from their ecotours against the urban administration’s plans. goes back into the Mirror Foundation projects, with the goal of being self-sustaining. Vietnam When asked how tourism has affected the Vietnam made international news headlines in villages, Thellie replies: May 2014 after rare large-scale protests broke out across the country against China, sparked by the ‘I think that it is safe to say that tourism has movement of an oil rig into disputed territory in altered the lives of villagers. Not just for those the South China Sea. Initially the Communist communities where tourists visit, but for the government did not attempt to quash the communities where the youth leave to find protests, but it appealed for calm after mobs work, or spouses, within the wide range of areas began to attack perceived Chinese nationals and in the tourism industry. Tourism, along with Chinese-owned factories. Hundreds of factories exposure to the wider society, has the power were attacked in the central provinces and there to improve lives, motivate individuals, and were reports that more than 20 people had been give opportunities which were not previously killed. Over 600 Chinese nationals reportedly fled available; but each also brings with it the ability the country fearing further violence. to destroy, de-motivate and deny opportunities, if In February, Vietnam underwent its second not handled properly.’ ■ Universal Periodic Review, accepting 182 out of 227 recommendations, including those concerning freedom of religion or belief as well Left: A woman from a local hill tribe as non-discrimination for minorities, but rejected prepares food for an ecotourist home stay. key recommendations that would overhaul the Mirror Foundation state of human rights in the country. In addition, after a delay of 21 years, Vietnam submitted its State Report for the UN Committee on

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 165 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The traditional practices. The lawyer of Hoang Van exile Vietnam Committee for Human Rights Sang said that he had been charged for building a condemned the State Report as ‘empty rhetoric’ funeral home to accommodate the new practices, and highlighted the country’s continuing human but also mentioned that the community’s refusal rights violations against much of its population, to accept grain seed and other state development particularly religious and ethnic minorities. initiatives has angered the government. This point was reiterated in July when the UN Arbitrary sentencing and imprisonment on Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or bogus charges is a common tactic to repress those belief, Heiner Bielefeldt, made an official visit to defending the rights of minorities and indigenous the country. Concluding his visit, he expressed peoples, with imprisoned religious freedom concern about serious restrictions on religious defenders often subjected to serious mistreatment, groups and made note of how the government’s including beatings and harassment, while in jail. process of official registration, ostensibly to In August, three human rights defenders were enable people to practise their beliefs freely, ‘is no sentenced to prison in August for ‘causing public guarantee that freedom of religion or belief is fully disorder’ for traffic violations in Dong Thap respected’. province. Bui Thi Minh Hang, Nguyen Thi Thuy A number of incidents during the year also Quynh and Nguyen Van Minh, an independent underlined the ongoing challenges religious Hoa Hao Buddhist, were arrested in February minorities face in practising their faith. On after 21 bloggers and Hoa Hao Buddhist activists 1 January, the head of the Buddhist Youth rode motorbikes to the home of a former political Movement (BYM), Le Cong Cau, was placed prisoner, Nguyen Bac Truyen, and his fiancée, Bui under house arrest in the north central province Thi Kim Phuong, also an independent Hoa Hao of Hue as he attempted to visit the leader of the Buddhist practitioner. Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) A new land law passed in late 2013 came into in Ho Chi Minh City. The UBCV is a banned effect during the year. It will put more conditions religious organization in Vietnam, but authorities and restrictions on how the government reclaims tolerate the related BYM organization for their land for development purposes, in contrast to the social support activities. However, his arrest previous provisions that facilitated indigenous and triggered a series of raids against BYM members, minority land alienation. The law still allows for with 23 people reportedly arrested in Hue in land acquisition for development projects that are subsequent weeks. A Memorial Day service on in the interest of ‘the public and the nation’, but 10 January in Hue was stopped by authorities they must be approved by the prime minister and and over 300 UBCV invitees were intercepted the National Assembly. or threatened. After being expelled from Hue, Land rights remained a serious source of a prominent UBCV monk Thich Chon Tam insecurity during the year, particularly for was also assaulted by plainclothes police in Ho minorities. In the village of Con Dau, near Da Chi Minh on 14 January. The crackdown is Nang city in central Vietnam, the government thought to have come on the heels of UBCV’s expropriated land from Catholic community announcement of a new executive committee. members to give to a resort investor. The UN In March, three Hmong Christians were Special Rapporteur on housing Raquel Rolnik sentenced to prison terms in the north-eastern called it ‘a clear case of land grabbing for the province of Tuyen Quang under Article 258 of benefit of private entrepreneurs and at the expense Vietnam’s penal code, a broad provision used to of local communities’. In October, the Thai prosecute those who ‘infringe upon the interests Ha Redemptorist Church in Dong Da district, of the State’. Hoang Van Sang, Ly Van Dinh and Hanoi, protested the filling of a lake that the Duang Van Tu are part of a group of Hmong church insists belongs to the parish, citing their Christians who advocate for reformed burial increasing membership as the motivation for and wedding practices, said to be less costly and authorities to confiscate their land. less burdensome on families. The government is The majority of Vietnam’s indigenous peoples reportedly forcing the reformists to return to their still reside in rural areas, where poverty levels are

166 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 higher than for their majority Kinh counterparts. Armed conflicts in India and Pakistan in regions According to 2009 government census data, with large minority and indigenous populations only 13 per cent of ‘ethnic minorities’ live in led to mass displacement, while also exacerbating cities, as compared to 32 per cent of ethnic the vulnerability of some communities to targeted Kinh. One contributing factor to the significant attacks. In Sri Lanka, five years after the official developmental gaps between minority and end of the conflict, ethnic and religious tensions majority communities in Vietnam is the broader remain due to the government’s continued failure inequality between cities and the countryside, to provide justice to the families of victims killed with poverty rates two and a half times higher or disappeared during the decades-long conflict. in rural areas. Ethnic minorities are therefore Similarly, Nepal’s post-conflict transition has more likely to be adversely affected by the limited been slow amid concerns that security forces development and lack of opportunities outside responsible for the deaths or disappearance of urban areas. However, Vietnam’s ethnic disparities thousands of Dalits and Madhesis during the far exceed these differences. Over extended civil war will escape punishment. Land grabbing periods, ethnic minorities have fared much more by other communities and state-sponsored poorly than their majority counterparts. In fact, development programmes in customary territories urban poverty levels among ethnic minorities also continue to affect minority and indigenous remain higher than rural poverty levels among populations across the region. majority Kinh. The only positive trend is that Though largely rural, South Asian countries poverty levels among minorities in cities are have been undergoing a profound transformation markedly lower and have continued to fall over in recent years due to urbanization, with cities time, suggesting that further urbanization could across the region expanding at an extraordinary improve outcomes if the process is well managed. pace. This has created significant problems as However, migration among ethnic minorities lack of infrastructure and limited land has led to is less common than among majority Kihn and the growth of slums and informal settlements, tends to be from rural to rural areas, many as often on the periphery of cities. In this context, part of government relocation or sedentarization minority and indigenous urban populations are programmes from previous decades. Nevertheless, especially vulnerable to communal violence, an increasing number of younger minority evictions and exploitative or unsanitary community members are now migrating to the employment, such as manual scavenging. In city, mostly in search of work as labour scouts addition, many communities, such as Pakistan’s have recently advertised heavily in rural areas Shi’a, are increasingly being targeted in urban with large minority populations to engage factory areas. Ensuring the rights and security of these workers, domestic maids and other areas. Lack of groups is an essential element for the long-term opportunity in rural areas is driving urbanization, sustainability and development of the region’s and minorities are disproportionately vulnerable urban areas. to food insecurity, price fluctuations, drought and other natural disasters. Afghanistan In 2014, Afghanistan’s presidential election consumed the country. Marred by allegations of fraud, the months-long electoral process South eventually resulted in a power-sharing agreement between the two leading candidates, Abdullah Abdullah and Ashraf Ghani, who became Asia president. Amid this political uncertainty, civilian casualties reached record levels in 2014. Shikha Dilawri and Nicole Girard Nevertheless, at the end of 2014 NATO formally declared an end to its 13-year combat mission in Minorities and indigenous peoples continued to Afghanistan. This has provoked uncertainty over face persecution across South Asia during 2014. what the end of this phase of foreign intervention

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 167 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 will mean for Afghans, not least for the country’s including the reported abduction of eight Hazara minority populations such as the Hazara, who – in March 2015 on a road between Jaghori as both a sectarian and visible ethnic minority – District and Ghazni City. Also in March 2015, have been targeted by the Taliban. a rare attack was perpetrated on a minority Sufi Tensions surrounding issues of ‘identity’ mosque, viewed as heretical by hardline Sunni in Afghanistan came to the fore during the groups, killing at least six people. Allegations that election, which saw the politicization of identity these recent sectarian attacks may be connected along predominantly ethnic lines. Although to ISIS have stoked fear among many Afghans, Ghani has avoided using his tribal name for and in particular members of the country’s official purposes since his election, during the minority groups. campaign his identity was mobilized in efforts Persistent discrimination against Afghanistan’s to appeal to Afghanistan’s majority Pashtun Hindus and Sikhs also compelled hundreds of voters. Meanwhile, Ghani’s first vice president, members of these dwindling religious groups former Uzbek warlord Abdul Rashid Dostum, to leave Afghanistan during the year, including warned minority Uzbek and Turkmen tribes 35 Sikhs who arrived in the UK in a shipping in Baghlan province they would be considered container in August 2014. While no longer ‘traitors’ if they did not vote for Ghani. However, forced to wear yellow arm-bands to identify the election also provided an opportunity for themselves, as was required under Taliban minorities to challenge Afghanistan’s hierarchical control, members of the Sikh community have political system, with Hazaras playing a reported worsening conditions since 2001. For particularly prominent role in the election – a example, Sikhs continue to suffer verbal and reflection of their improved status over the last physical abuse during funeral cremations – a decade. Although the Hazara vote was split, the practice forbidden in Islam – and, while the majority of voters lent their support to Abdullah Ministry of Education has opened two primary Abdullah – who is of mixed Pashtun and Tajik schools exclusively for Hindu and Sikh students ethnicity but is identified with the latter – and in Kabul and Jalalabad, those not separated who represented a vote for change in the eyes of into designated schools continue to suffer many. Following the parliamentary rejection of a discrimination in the country’s public schools. presidential decree proposing a reserved seat for Local women’s rights organizations have aptly Hindus and Sikhs in December 2013, political pointed out that – to differing extents – all representation of these groups remained limited sides of conflict in Afghanistan have had a role in 2014. However, in a historic appointment, in undermining women’s rights. Nevertheless, in May 2014 the previous Afghan government as Oxfam highlighted in a 2014 report, any selected a representative from the dwindling future peace talks with the Taliban must not Hindu community for the diplomatic rank of undermine those important, if limited, gains ambassador for the first time. that have been made with respect to women’s Although violence along ethnic lines has rights in recent years. As reported by Amnesty greatly reduced since the 2001 toppling of the International in early 2015, women human rights Taliban government, violent attacks continue defenders continue to suffer threats, harassment to be perpetrated against certain groups, and intimidation on a daily basis. Although particularly Hazara. In July 2014, for instance, Ghani nominated three women to join his Taliban stopped a bus travelling to Kabul for cabinet – one more than his predecessor Karzai, Eid, separated Hazara passengers and shot them, but one less than initially promised – high levels killing 15, including three women and a child. of discrimination persist in the country, which More recently, in late February 2015, masked itself puts women appointed in such positions at gunmen kidnapped 31 Hazara men travelling risk. Gender-based discrimination and growing through Zabul province on a major road from religious intolerance intersected in what was Herat to Kabul. Following this kidnapping, described by the newly elected president as a the country has seen a rise in similar attacks heinous attack in March 2015, when a mob on travellers on Afghanistan’s main highways, killed a young woman after she allegedly burned

168 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 a copy of the Qur’an. the development of Hazarajat, which requires In light of persistent insecurity, as well as labour and materials from Kabul to build other factors such as environmental disasters facilities such as schools and clinics. Both these and limited economic and social opportunities, factors have contributed to the high numbers of many minorities have been determined to leave Hazara currently residing in Kabul, with many their homes for more stable environs. Yet, with concentrated in one overcrowded area, Dasht- countries such as Pakistan and Iran taking an e-Barchi. Although life in Kabul has relatively increasingly exclusionary stance towards Afghan improved for Hazara since 2001, they have refugees in 2014, many relocated within the continued to occupy lower-status jobs and have country itself. From January to September the faced harsh discrimination, including in access to UNHCR documented an increase of more facilities and provision of services. than 38,340 internally displaced (IDPs) in Meanwhile, for Kabul’s tiny Sikh population Afghanistan, bringing the total to over 755,011. conditions continue to worsen, their small The majority of these IDPs, as well as Afghan population dwindling to an estimated 300 refugees returning from neighbouring countries, families. Socially ostracized, Sikhs living in Kabul have chosen urban areas as their destinations, reportedly face economic hardship, with many in turn greatly contributing to Afghanistan’s refusing to conduct business with them, but rapid urbanization in recent years. This largely also due to land grabs in areas in which Sikhs unchecked and unplanned growth has meant that have historically resided. In addition to daily the majority of residents in and around Kabul are economic and social discrimination – sometimes based in informal settlements or slums. Kabul is manifesting as physical and verbal abuse – now the fifth fastest growing city in the world. freedom to practise their religion has also been Minorities have been among the many Afghans curtailed. Kabul was once home to eight Sikh contributing to this process of urbanization places of worship or gurdwaras, but only one which has, in certain ways, changed the face remains today. of the country. Although, broadly speaking, Members of Afghanistan’s Kuchi minority – Afghanistan’s ethnic groups continue to occupy a diverse nomadic community representing a geographically distinct regions, with Pashtuns in variety of tribal and ethno-political affiliations southern and eastern areas, Tajiks occupying the – who have more recently adopted a sedentary north-west and north-east, Turkmen and Uzbeks lifestyle on the periphery of major cities have in the north, and Hazara living predominantly in similarly faced discrimination. Urban Kuchis the centre, the movement of diverse populations have typically lacked access to ‘serviced’ areas of to urban areas has complicated this picture. the city and have instead lived on the outskirts, In slums in and around Kabul, Pashtuns as often occupying infertile land or, as has been well as minorities such as Hazara, Tajiks and the case near Kandahar, permanently residing in Uzbeks from across the country live among one refugee camps. These shabby living conditions another. Yet while this diversity has encouraged have not only disadvantaged those living in such cooperation and coexistence in certain locales, settlements, but have also fuelled increasingly structures of exclusion and discrimination have widespread negative perceptions of Kuchis, also been reproduced in urban areas. further undermining their social status within For Hazara, the journey to Kabul from Afghanistan. Hazarajat in the centre of the country has proven dangerous. The main roadway between the two Bangladesh areas – dubbed ‘Death Road’ – has been the The year in Bangladesh began with national site of kidnappings and other deadly Taliban elections on 5 January. Tensions in both the attacks on Hazara in recent years. As a result, build-up to and aftermath of the elections, having successfully arrived in Kabul, Hazara described by HRW as ‘the most violent in the have often been unable or afraid to return to country’s history’, led to widespread attacks their previous homes. This violence on the main against minorities, particularly Hindus, who roadway has further isolated and thereby stalled have regularly been targeted for their traditional

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 169 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 support of the secular ruling Awami League. by certain groups to seize land from minorities These elections were especially tense, as the and indigenous peoples. Indigenous peoples opposition coalition led by the Bangladesh of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), known Nationalist Party (BNP) boycotted the vote and collectively as Jumma or Pahari peoples, have attempted to prevent others from voting. Polling seen much of their lands settled by majority stations were attacked and minorities particularly Muslim Bengalis, causing continued outbreaks targeted, with hundreds of Hindu homes, shops of violence between communities, despite a 1997 and temples burned and ransacked, especially in Peace Accord securing their land rights. In June, northern and south-western districts. Christians over 250 Chakma and Tripuri people reportedly were targeted as well. abandoned their homes and fled to the Indian Both the Awami League and police blamed the border at Tripura after clashes with Bengali BNP, their coalition partner Jamaat-e-Islami (JI) settlers. In December, around 50 indigenous and their supporters for the violence, though the people in Rangamati district had their homes BNP itself denied any involvement. The Chair razed by Bengali settlers in apparent retribution of the National Human Rights Commission for the destruction of the latter’s pineapple and also accused the government of failing in its teak saplings. While the Peace Accord called for responsibility to prevent attacks on Hindus. the demilitarization of the CHT, the area remains Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina said measures highly militarized. State security forces have been would be taken to see justice in these cases, while accused of conducting attacks against Jumma the prime minister’s law affairs officer said that communities, not intervening in incidents of special tribunals would be set up to prosecute communal violence and facilitating the influx of offenders under the Terrorism Prevention Muslim settlers. Act. An independent judicial commission was Despite implementing legislation such as formed in 2009 to investigate election violence the Land Commission Act of 2001, no cases towards minorities in 2001, but none of its of land disputes have yet been solved by the recommendations have since been implemented. commission and land encroachment continues. The ruling Awami League came to power in Follow-up legislation has been drafted under the 2009 on a platform that included war crimes CHT Land Disputes Resolution Commission tribunals for atrocities committed during the Act (Amendment) but, though approved by 1971 War of Independence, including those the cabinet in June 2013, it had yet to be connected with violence, mass killings and implemented at the end of 2014. The Peace conversions of Hindus and other minorities. Accord was further eroded during the year The trials have been highly politicized, further when bills passed on 23 November changed polarizing a society already divided between the composition of district councils in three support for the BNP and Awami League, with indigenous areas – Rangamati, Khagrachari and many JI leaders convicted for their alleged Bandarban – from five to eleven members, with involvement in the abuses. The trials have been three non-indigenous unelected members. The criticized for falling far short of international Accord stipulates that the council members must fair trial standards. In 2014, JI leaders continued be elected, but the government has instead hand- to be tried for genocide and crimes against picked the council members. Indigenous civil humanity: in December A.T.M. Azharul Islam, society groups demonstrated in Dhaka against the assistant secretary general of JI, was sentenced to bills, calling for their immediate withdrawal. death on 30 December for the killing of 1,400 Sexual violence against indigenous women Hindus near Jharuarbeel on 17 April 1971. in the CHT has been endemic in recent JI organized nationwide protests in response, years, perpetrated by state security forces and, though these were on a much smaller scale than increasingly, by Bengali settlers. Rapes and the demonstrations organized in 2013 against the murders of indigenous women and girls have court rulings, when numerous Hindu temples and been used to terrorize the whole community, homes were attacked. helping to clear the land for more settlers. This This unstable climate has also been exploited trend continued during the year, with 15 cases

170 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 of violence against indigenous women in CHT urban slum dwellers. Many live in what are reported between January and April 2014 alone, called ‘sweeper colonies’ as most Dalits here are including eight incidents of rape and two murders traditionally employed as manual scavengers after rape. The perpetrators of these abuses are or waste collectors. Discriminated against seldom, if ever, prosecuted. throughout society, it is difficult to find more Bangladesh continued its attempts to squeeze skilled employment for the educated few, as out its Rohingya refugees and asylum seekers. their housing address on their CVs quickly Between 200,000 and 500,000 Rohingyas, a reveals who they are. Whole colonies have faced persecuted Burmese ethno-religious minority multiple evictions over the course of decades, who are considered to be Bangladeshi by Burmese moving between abandoned hospitals and authorities, are currently living in Bangladesh factories after being displaced by ‘rehabilitation’ in squalid conditions in camps or informal or urban beautification. An anti-discrimination settlements in urban areas. In February, the law has long been advocated for in Bangladesh, Bangladeshi government announced a ‘new but stalled again in parliament this year. Though strategy’ to address the situation of Rohingya, but there is a paucity of data available on their neglected to make any details public. In March, situation, in May 2014 a seminar organized plans were released to document, temporarily by Dalit activists highlighted the water and house and then repatriate all Rohingya. In sanitation crisis facing their communities – a September, after discussions with Burma over the huge health risk given the city’s vulnerability to formation of a joint committee for repatriation, it flooding, exacerbated by climate change. Dhaka’s was announced that over 2,000 Rohingya would poorest communities are typically located in the be repatriated. In November, the government most flood-prone areas of the capital, including revealed plans to move 30,000 officially Dalit settlements such as the Agargaon Sweeper documented refugees to an undisclosed location, Colony, where residents live in a series of causing further concern among Rohingyas in the cramped shelters built on stilts to protect them country. from the floodwater. Bangladesh’s Bihari minority – Urdu-speaking Muslims who migrated from Bihar and West India Bengal during India’s partition – have long been National parliamentary elections in 2014 saw discriminated against for their perceived alliance the victory of Narendra Modi and the Hindu with Pakistan during the independence war. nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in Many lack formal citizenship and are therefore May. Modi has been criticized for his role in stateless. Today, about 300,000 Biharis live in 70 the 2002 Gujarat anti-Muslim riots, when he shanty towns that were initially temporary relief was chief minister of the state, and is accused of camps. The largest settlement, ‘Geneva Camp’, complicity in failing to halt the killings. Although has 25,000 residents: it is estimated that only 5 an investigation backed by the Supreme Court per cent have formal education. As ownership of found no prosecutable evidence against him, the settlements is uncertain and land prices have his close associates faced charges. His candidacy risen sharply, these areas have become increasingly was supported by Rashtriya Swayamsevak attractive for investors. Many apparent incidents Sangh (RSS), a right-wing Hindu organization of communal violence against Biharis are that has continued to support a campaign intended to displace them from their land. On of forced conversion against the Muslim 14 June, for instance, a Bengali mob attacked a population. Though Modi has generally avoided Bihari settlement on the outskirts of Dhaka after discriminatory language himself since taking an altercation broke out between communities, office, he has been criticized by activists for failing resulting in 10 deaths and widespread damage to condemn the group’s activities. The election from arson. A local leader alleged that the attack was widely interpreted as a blow for minorities, was motivated by the desire of local politicians to particularly Muslims, who received the lowest evict the community. number of seats in India’s parliament, the Lok Dalits, too, comprise many of Bangladesh’s Sabha, in 50 years.

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 171 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Even before the election, however, the Anti- parliamentarian winning the seat for Kokrajhar, Communal Violence bill passed by the cabinet in headquarters of the Bodoland Territorial Council, late 2013 – a groundbreaking piece of legislation an indigenous self-government body. that would have detailed reparations for victims Similarly, Adivasi villages in Assam were also of communal attacks and held politicians attacked later in the year, reportedly by Bodo accountable for violent outbreaks – was dropped separatists. Adivasis is the term used by the in parliament following strong opposition from government to denote indigenous groups from a number of parties, including the BJP, which central India, in this case largely tea-plantation accused Congress of pandering to Muslim voters workers, many of whom are descendants of ahead of the election. As 2014 marked the migrants brought to Assam in the 1850s. In thirty-year anniversary of the Golden Temple December at least 80 Adivasis were killed and massacre and the subsequent anti-Sikh riots that another 250 reported missing in a series of killed thousands, with no high-ranking officials prosecuted for their role in the violence, the bill would have been an important step for the families of victims in their search for justice. Isolated pre-election violence occurred in the north-west state of Jammu and Kashmir, where an armed separatist struggle has been waged for decades by Muslim Kashmiris. In Kashmir, three people, including two village council chiefs, were killed in Pulwana District in mid-April, with separatists warning against voting in the elections and calling for their boycott. State assembly elections for Jammu and Kashmir were also held in November and December, again marking a spike in violence as shoot-outs in border camps killed both soldiers and gunmen. Despite more threats of violence and calls to boycott, the process was relatively peaceful and voter turnout was around 70 per cent. The Assam state of north-eastern India was also affected by pre-election violence as a result of ongoing tensions between Muslims and indigenous communities – caused by land disputes and Muslim in-migration into indigenous territories. In early May, over 30 Muslims were killed in multiple attacks on villages ahead of the national elections. The government blamed the Songbijit faction of the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB-S) for the attacks, an armed separatist organization of the Bodo indigenous people, though the NDFB-S denied responsibility and accused the government of attempting to stoke communal tensions. Muslims in the area are assumed by many, including Modi, to be illegal migrants from Bangladesh, despite many being descendants of Muslims who moved to the area before partition. The elections resulted in the first ever non-Bodo

172 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 attacks, again attributed to the NDFB-S faction, Below: Dalit girls in Kadi Town in the Mehsana resulting in the displacement of tens of thousands district of Gujarat. Navsarjan Trust of Adivasis escaping the violence. Several Bodos were reportedly killed in retaliatory killings. is locked in a decades-long conflict rooted in land Within a few days, the government announced rights and political self-determination. Violence ‘Operation All-out’, with as many as 9,000 troops in Manipur continued in 2014 with the murder deployed in the province in an effort to eradicate of indigenous district councillor Ngalangzar NDFB-S fighters. Malue by unidentified assailants on 12 July in In Manipur, in north-east India, minority Ukhrul. Following his death, hundreds of military and indigenous groups including Kuki, Meitei personnel were deployed and limits on freedom and Naga face human rights abuses by both of assembly imposed. On 16 July, the new government forces and armed groups. The region BJP government restarted peace talks with the

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 173 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Isak-Muivah faction of the Nationalist Socialist Bihar, often cited as India’s most lawless province, Council of Nagaland (NSCN-IM), even though where the population is overwhelmingly rural the Manipur government blamed NSCN-IM for and often located in remote areas. Some activists the assassination of Malue. Public rallies held in believe that the appointment of Jitan Ram August in Ukhrul district, calling for a resolution Manjhi, a Dalit, as Bihar’s chief minister in May of negotiations, ended in the deaths of two sharpened tensions as Manjhi’s calls for greater protesters when police fired on the crowd. rights for the Dalit community were resented by The discrimination experienced by north- upper-caste members. Manjhi resigned from his easterners in their home regions is also replicated post in February 2015 just before he was to face a when they move to large Indian cities such as vote of confidence in the state assembly, claiming Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore for education his decision was intended to avert violence after or employment. Due to their distinct features he and his supporters allegedly received death and cultural practices, minority and indigenous threats. migrants from the north-east often face verbal Though the majority of Dalits still reside in abuse and even violence. This was highlighted rural areas, with just over 20 per cent based in in January when Nido Tania, an indigenous urban areas, cities are often seen as a positive force university student from Arunachal Pradesh, in reducing caste divisions. While Dalits still face died shortly after being beaten by a group of violence and discrimination in cities, strict social shopkeepers in Delhi who had reportedly shouted hierarchies are harder to enforce and violence racist slurs and insulted Tania’s hairstyle. Four generally is not as pervasive and brutal. Severe adults were charged with his death, while minors inequalities persist, however, with Dalits making were also detained. The police investigation up a large proportion of those engaged in the recommended that charges be filed under the urban informal labour sector as domestic workers, Scheduled Castes and Tribes Prevention of rickshaw-pullers, street vendors and other poorly Atrocities Act, 1989 (SC/ST Act), a key piece of paid sectors. While many choose to migrate legislation intended to prevent violence against voluntarily for employment, many also end up Dalits and indigenous peoples. In September this in urban areas as a result of forcible displacement recommendation was declined by the trial court or evictions – issues which affect marginalized after it concluded that the racist element was not minorities disproportionately and continue to proven, though Nido’s father, a member of the drive migration to urban areas. Of the 60 million legislative assembly, is seeking to overturn this or more people displaced by development projects ruling. In the wake of this killing, the Bezbaruah since independence in 1947, 40 per cent are Committee was formed to investigate remedial Adivasis and another 40 per cent are Dalits or measures, and made a series of recommendations other rural poor. including criminalizing discrimination targeting The challenges are especially acute for Dalit north-easterners. By the start of 2015, the women, who are further exploited due to caste- government had decided to add to its hate speech gender prescriptions. Manual scavenging, for provision in Section 153 of the penal code to instance – the practice of removing human waste address their concerns. – is often ‘reserved’ for Dalit women, particularly Violence against Dalits is also widespread in rural areas but frequently in urban centres and continued throughout 2014, driven by as well, including by local government and the persistent effects of India’s caste system and municipal corporations who pay menial wages for the lack of justice for victims. One of the most this degrading and unsanitary task. This is despite shocking incidents occurred in October in Bihar, the Supreme Court reaffirming in March 2014 when a Dalit boy was beaten and burned to that the practice was prohibited. In some cases, death for letting his goat graze on the grass of certain Dalit castes are expected to do the job and an upper-caste landholder. The landholder was may be pressured or intimidated if they attempt subsequently taken into police custody. Though to access alternative livelihoods. Nevertheless, attacks on Dalits are common throughout the urban areas can also offer women from excluded country, the situation is particularly difficult in castes the opportunity to improve their lives.

174 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 The garment manufacturing industry in Tamil Nadu, for example, has attracted Dalit women Case study by Rajiv Shah into cities like Tirupur and Coimbatore through the Sumangali Scheme. Set up in the early 2000s, the scheme targets young women and girls, 60 Discrimination per cent of whom are Dalits. Girls migrate on the promise of decent wages and a bonus after their against Dalit contracts are finished, hopeful to escape poverty and discrimination in the villages – though many women in unfortunately end up in situations of exploitation and bonded labour. Ahmedabad While India is visibly struggling with general urban poverty and the growth of informal settlements, minorities experience these challenges In Ahmedabad, located in the heart of more acutely. One in every five urban slum Gujarat state, Dalits have been an important dwellers is Dalit, compared to only one in ten but often invisible presence for generations, for urban India generally, and urban Dalits working as scavengers and waste-clearers continue to report discrimination in access within the strict confines of India’s caste to housing and employment. Rapid urban system. Concentrated on the periphery of expansion and urban beautification programmes the city, frequently segregated from other for international events or upmarket housing communities, many had also migrated have led to the destruction of many urban slums, to the city in search of work in emerging including marginalized minority settlements. industries such as Ahmedabad’s textile Expanding urban areas can even swallow former mills. Nevertheless, though strong caste and rural settlements, with little regard for their communal barriers remained in place, Dalit existing residents. In Maharashtra in 2012, for settlements existed alongside upper-caste instance, the Malegaon municipality attempted and Muslim neighbourhoods in the city to requisition outlying Dalit and Adivasi villages centre and the nearby industrial townships. for a slum relocation project, claiming that their However, over the last few decades a number existing land certificates were no longer valid of violent incidents, including anti-Dalit under the city’s jurisdiction. 25 houses were riots in 1981 and communal violence in demolished without warning, though a sustained 2002, have reinforced divisions. This case campaign managed to save 75 Dalit and Adivasi study, drawing on interviews conducted in homes in the adjacent village. December 2014 with a number of activists Though lower-caste groups are especially and community members based in the city, vulnerable to land grabbing, many communities highlights some of the key challenges facing have also successfully resisted attempts by local Dalit women today. authorities and companies to forcibly displace According to Madhuben Koradiya, a Dalit them. During 2014 the Dalit Ekta Camp in New women’s rights activist with the Ahmedebad- Delhi, a slum community of 4,000 Dalits and based NGO Navsarjan Trust who was Muslims, faced the threat of demolition due to interviewed for this case study, the closure claims of encroachment on protected green space, of many of the city’s mills in the 1980s despite residents having lived there for decades. and early 1990s also precipitated a crisis Critics argued that the real motivation was local for Dalit women. In previous years Dalit politics rather than environmental protection, women had been making some small gains, as in May the local member of the legislative with some even managing to secure low-level assembly had written to local authorities to government employment, but this tentative request demolition of the slum: he stood to progress halted with the collapse of the textile profit from evicting 900 voters who supported industry: the opposition Aam Aadmi Party candidate in

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 175 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 ‘[It] led to large-scale joblessness among men, the 2002 communal violence. Preeti Vaghela, following which Dalit women were forced to do another activist based with the Navsarjan any job they could lay their hands on, even as Trust, described how prior to the riots Dalit construction workers, in order to help the family. A and Muslim families lived side by side in some huge oversupply of labour in the job market meant parts of the city. However, in the aftermath, less wages…. Women have nowhere to go, except to the interaction between women from different work as daily wagers or home-based workers.’ communities came to an abrupt halt:

As a result, their livelihood options deteriorated: ‘[Until 2002] women interacted with each other. However, following the riots, Dalits have fled many ‘Things have further worsened over the last 10 to of these areas, and got scattered to different places. 15 years. Dalit women are doing such jobs which The social fabric which women had built around I could not even imagine when I was young. They themselves, even among Dalits, has broken apart.’ are ready to work as guinea pigs for pharmaceutical companies, which use them to experiment with the Ramilaben Babubhai Parmar, a researcher who reaction to medicines of the human body. They are was involved with Navsarjan Trust in a survey ready to become surrogate mothers for money.’ of the city’s sanitary workers, reports that among Valmiki – probably the most marginalized Following the outbreak of communal violence of all the Dalit sub-castes – most women across Gujarat in 2002, the situation for Dalit work as sanitary workers, whether it is for the women worsened. Though Muslims were exposed municipality or housing societies. to the worst of the violence, the ‘next biggest casualty’ were Dalits: ‘In housing societies, they are paid to work as sweepers. They sometimes are also allowed to work ‘Out of more than 1,000 killed, more than 100 as sweepers inside individual houses and clean up were Dalits. The young Dalits were misguided by individual toilets. However, they are generally not the saffron brigade [right-wing Hindu extremists]. employed as housemaids to clean up utensils or cook Now no one takes care of the families of many of the food. The latter work is mostly done by women from Dalits who were arrested for the riots or those who other backward classes, who do not have the stigma of died. The condition of women is particularly in bad being “impure”. There are Valmiki women who work shape. Many women have been pushed into such in private offices. But they mostly work as sweepers.’ illegal activities like brewing country liquor and prostitution, and there is little anyone is doing.’ Their husbands, too, will also typically work in this dangerous occupation and as a result many The challenges Dalit women face, though end up having to head their households alone: overlapping with general issues of urban poverty and gender discrimination, are in many ways ‘The situation is such that there is a higher incidence distinct from the issues that face the female of widows among the gutter workers. Our survey said population as a whole. Ahmedabad has a number about 20 to 25 per cent of young Valmiki women of active women’s organizations, but while these were widows, and I don’t think that the situation often have a large Dalit constituency among their has changed much even now. Malnutrition is widely members, their focus generally is not on specific prevalent. Most girls are married very young, even incidents of discrimination. While a trade union before attaining adulthood.’ may periodically train its members on issues of sexual violence and harassment, for example, In the segregated areas where Valmiki are located, it usually avoids taking up human rights issues however, sanitary facilities are almost non-existent: related to atrocities against Dalit women. Solidarity was also undermined following ‘A large number of Valmiki localities are devoid

176 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 of any toilet facilities. There is a pay-and-use cook food or clean utensils. In fact, nobody has asked toilet in several localities, like Bootbhavani and me to do these jobs, which others do.’ Chandranagar areas, where they live, yet it is in poor shape, or often locked, and never cleaned up Another Valmiki woman, when asked why she because of lack of water, and women are forced to did not refuse to work as a manual scavenger as go out in the open, often sitting next to the railway it was prohibited by law, smiled and said, ‘Do station nearby, to defecate.’ you want us to lose our job? If we do not do the work, we will be replaced by others.’ This seemed One consequence of the systematic humiliation to be the case even when they had been lucky experienced by the community is that Valmiki enough to access some secondary education. women also face regular abuse from men of their Based on the accounts of the women interviewed, own caste: it appeared that even those Valmiki women who had managed some study were still condemned to ‘Within Valmiki families, their condition has the same manual labour their ancestors had been worsened. Our impression is that cases of their forced to perform. Though these issues are not suicide have gone up drastically, and so have cases usually as pronounced among non-Valmiki Dalit of violence by men. I come across such at least three women, discrimination in Ahmedabad is still to four cases of this kind every month. Working widespread even among the less stigmatized Dalit in insanitary conditions, dejected and depressed groups, as Koradiya describes: following day-long work, men drink a lot of illicit country-made liquor, which wasn’t generally the ‘It is rarely visible, but one can feel it does prevail case earlier. This tells heavily on women.’ in the dominant caste behaviour. In an interaction, Dalit teachers complained to us that while they In one slum area in western Ahmedabad, situated would sit together to take an afternoon meal, non- within an affluent locality, around 70 Valmiki Dalit women as a rule would not like to share food families live in huts with no access to water, with them, nor would the non-Dalit women ever sanitation, electricity or any form of government offer them water. The feeling of distance was always support. None yet have the luxury of a concrete visible.’ house, in part because their homes have been destroyed by local authorities as illegal several Sexual harassment, too, remains a serious times already. All face the constant threat of challenge for women in Indian cities in general, eviction. The settlement is surrounded by but is especially acute for Dalit women, who expensive flats, whose owners employ some of are vulnerable due to their secondary status. For the women as sweepers. Research interviews with example, Leena Patel, a Dalit journalist and social a number of Valmiki women living in this area worker interviewed for this research, highlighted highlighted the continued discrimination they the experiences of Dalit women working in the faced in their employment. While claiming they city’s diamond polishing industry. The ‘hypocrisy’, were not subjected to ‘untouchability’, as was as Patel describes it, is that ‘untouchability is their the case in the past, all of them admitted that at motto, but the dominant caste owner doesn’t best they were working as sweepers in individual have any problem touching Dalit women’. She households, with none employed as regular heard similar stories from Dalit women recruited housemaids to clean up utensils or cook. As one to work as cleaners at wedding parties, who felt of the women interviewed put it: helpless in the face of harassment. ‘In fact, a few of the women considered sexual overtures as a ‘Frankly I don’t feel untouchability as our ancestors normal behaviour of the contractors who offered did, but I do not do any other work inside the them work. They said, if they protested against houses except sweeping and cleaning the apartments. men touching them, they would not be given the I am allowed into the kitchen also, but I do not job the next time.’ ■

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 177 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 the upcoming assembly elections. At the end of encountered as both a sectarian and visible ethnic November, once the upcoming elections were minority. Indeed, in recent years Sunni militant set to be announced, Dalit Ekta Camp was groups such as Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LeJ), Sipah-i- informed that their homes would be destroyed Sahaba (SSP) and TTP have increasingly targeted in less than 12 hours. They filed a case before the Hazara Shi’a, the majority of whom reside in Delhi High Court and managed to get a stay of Quetta. A stark indication that 2014 would bring the demolition. On 4 December the court issued little significant change to their situation came an order that the Delhi Development Authority on 1 January, when a car bomb targeted a bus must produce evidence that the eviction is in carrying Shi’a pilgrims returning from Iran to accordance with existing policy. Baluchistan’s capital city, Quetta, killing at least three and injuring 31 others. Later that month, Pakistan a similar attack was perpetrated by LeJ on a Violence and political instability persisted in bus carrying Hazara Shi’a pilgrims in Mastung Pakistan throughout 2014. Beginning in August, District, just outside of Quetta. At least 22 of mass demonstrations led by the opposition these passengers were killed, with more than 20 leader Imran Khan of the Pakistan Tehreek- others wounded. e-Insaf (PTI) party took place in cities across Similar targeted attacks against the community the country, with participants demanding continued throughout 2014. In April, for Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s resignation on example, two Hazara men were victims of a account of alleged vote rigging during the 2013 targeted killing near a bus terminal in Quetta. election. The protests were only called off on 16 In October, at least eight Hazara were killed at a December, in response to an attack on a military- market in the outskirts of Quetta when gunmen run school in the northern city of Peshawar opened fire on the bus in which they were that killed 141 people, including 132 children. travelling. Outside Baluchistan, Shi’a in Pakistan According to the perpetrators, the Tehreek- also suffered a number of targeted attacks in e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), this attack – the cities such as Karachi. This violence had been deadliest perpetrated by the group so far – was accompanied by widespread intimidation: for in response to ongoing military operations in example, in April the banned militant outfit, North Waziristan. The offensive, launched by the Lashkar-i-Islam, distributed incendiary pamphlets government in June after peace talks previously in a Peshawar neighbourhood, threatening collapsed and followed later in the year by a residents – mostly Shi’a Muslims – with violence similar push into the Khyber region, resulted in if they did not leave their homes. the displacement of more than a million people Another marginalized religious group is during the year, including many Pashtuns – Pakistan’s Ahmadi population, who – despite an ethnic minority in the country who have considering themselves to be Muslims – remained historically made their homes in the tribal areas. subject to severe legal discrimination in the In this context of insecurity and division, country’s criminal code and Constitution, Pakistan’s Muslim and non-Muslim minorities which officially designates them as ‘non- in particular have faced high levels of social Muslims’. Alongside this persistent institutional marginalization, hate speech and the constant discrimination, in 2014 Ahmadis faced a number threat of violence. While there was a slight of targeted attacks, resulting in 11 casualties. In decrease in the number of attacks compared to May, an Ahmadi man accused of blasphemy was 2013, when sectarian violence in the country shot dead by a teenager while he was in police reached unprecedented levels, these groups custody. Later that same month, a Canadian- continue to face disproportionate levels of American doctor undertaking humanitarian work violence, particularly Shi’a, who account in Pakistan was killed, apparently on the basis of for around 15 per cent of the country’s his Ahmadi faith. International pressure failed Muslim population. Hazara Shi’a have been to bring an end to such attacks: less than two particularly vulnerable to attack as a result of months after the UN statement, in response to the intersectional discrimination they have blasphemy allegations, a mob set fire to homes

178 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 in a small Ahmadi community in Gujranwala Below: Shi’a Muslims protest against the killing District, Punjab, killing two children and their of their community members in a suicide grandmother. bombing on the outskirts of Quetta, Pakistan on The situation for non-Muslim minority 21 January 2014. EPA/Sohail Shehzad groups remained similarly tense in 2014. Discrimination against Pakistan’s Christian According to the NGO Life for All, this signalled population culminated in a particularly violent the most violent month suffered by Pakistan’s attack in November when a Christian couple in Hindus in two decades. Forced conversion and Kot Radha Kishan accused of desecrating the marriages of minority women also continued in Qur’an were beaten and burned to death in the 2014, with Dalit Hindu girls especially targeted. brick kiln where they worked. More recently, These incidents have been perpetuated by the in the first large-scale attack suffered by the lack of substantial reform to personal laws, Christian community since the bombing of All which prevent or obstruct certain minorities Saints Church in 2013, Jamaat-ur-Ahrar – a TTP from registering marriages. Although attempts splinter group – bombed two churches in Lahore were made to address such gaps in the province during Sunday processions in March 2015, of Punjab with the tabling of the Punjab Hindu killing at least 15 and wounding upwards of 70 Marriage Registration Bill in 2014, substantial people. reform remains to be seen. Meanwhile, for Pakistani Hindus, there was The year 2014 also saw violent attacks against an alarming increase in attacks on places of religious minorities who have typically been less worship in 2014. While a total of nine Hindu affected by such harsh discrimination in Pakistan, temples were attacked during the previous year, such as Zikris and Sikhs. In August, for example, five temples were targeted in March 2014 alone. at least six people from the Zikri community

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 179 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 were shot and killed near a shrine in Awaran at federal, provincial or local levels is still lacking. District, Baluchistan. The attack was preceded Religious minorities are not the only groups by graffiti in the town a week before, calling on that suffered discrimination in Pakistan in 2014. Zikris and Hindus to convert to Islam or face Pakistan has become an increasingly hostile death. For Pakistan’s small Sikh community, environment for the country’s mostly Pashtun growing religious intolerance manifested in an refugees from Afghanistan, the majority of attack on three shops run by Sikhs in Hashtnagri, whom have lived in Pakistan for decades. In Peshawar. In response members of the Sikh March, shortly after the government declared community took to the streets to demand greater its intention to restrict the number of Afghan security. refugees in Pakistan, bulldozers were sent to Muslim and non-Muslim minorities continued demolish a settlement outside Islamabad where to be disproportionately affected by the country’s over 100 Afghan families resided, some for notorious blasphemy laws during the year. In almost 30 years. Meanwhile, in the context of the March, Sawan Masih – a Christian man persistent nationalist struggle in the province of convicted of uttering blasphemous remarks the Baluchistan, enforced disappearances, torture and year before – was sentenced to death. Meanwhile, extra-judicial killings of members of the Baluch international efforts to appeal the death sentence minority by security forces reportedly continued of a Christian woman, Asia Bibi, who was with impunity. convicted of blasphemy in 2010, were undercut Extreme levels of violence and instability in when the Lahore High Court upheld the ruling Pakistan have encouraged many to flee their in October; she has now appealed to the Supreme homes for safer environs, either within or outside Court. Amid growing religious intolerance, the country. In October, the Human Rights attempts to challenge blasphemy laws or defend Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) reported that those accused of violating them also became at least 300,000 people – including over 200,000 increasingly difficult: in May, human rights Hazara, 10,000 Hindus and hundreds of Zikris lawyer and activist, Rashid Rehman, was the and Parsis – had left Baluchistan over the last victim of a targeted killing due to his defence of a ten years, with many migrating to large urban professor accused of blasphemy. areas in other provinces. Yet those arriving in Although political and social obstacles have Pakistan’s cities, many of whom are minorities, stood in the way of improving conditions for typically do so for a variety of reasons: not minorities in Pakistan, in June 2014 the Supreme only to escape insecurity and natural disasters, Court delivered a groundbreaking judgment in but also to seek out better public services and response to the bombing of All Saints Church opportunities. However, rapid and unplanned in Peshawar in 2013. This ruling not only called growth has perpetuated infrastructural and social on the government to ensure that victims of problems in Pakistan’s cities, with many migrants the attack were compensated, but also directed and other marginalized groups concentrating federal and provincial governments to develop in informal settlements. For example, a large institutions to monitor implementation of number of Hazaras who have left Baluchistan minority protection laws and to create a National to escape insecurity are now living in difficult Council for Minorities. Meanwhile, also in June, conditions in cities such as Islamabad and the Chief Minister of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rawalpindi, where they lack access to adequate Pervez Khattak directed that increased security housing, jobs and other services. should be provided to protect places of worship Although ethnic, linguistic and religious for minorities. In response to rising violence groups in Pakistan have tended to live in against Hindus in Sindh, the provincial particular geographic areas – with the majority government similarly took initiatives to promote of Hindus living in Sindh, for example, and the the security of minority places of worship, and majority of Punjabi speakers in Punjab – cities officially celebrated the Hindu festival Diwali in such as Karachi are much more densely mixed. October. While all these are welcome initiatives, Though it is important not to oversimplify progress has been slow and an effective response ethnic and other divisions, poorly planned urban

180 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 development and rapid demographic growth minorities often confined to underpaid and have the potential to escalate levels of violence low-status livelihoods. In Lahore, the Christian along sectarian lines, with serious implications for population accounts for the bulk of the city’s Pakistan’s minorities. This is particularly the case sanitation workers and street-sweepers – a fact in Karachi, where ethnicity is highly politicized. that reinforces their stigmatization – while most Violent disputes between different parties over of their supervisors are Muslim. Nevertheless, control of local settlements are therefore defined urbanization has presented opportunities for increasingly in ethnic terms, placing minorities minorities and other disadvantaged groups to at even greater risk of attack. With Pashtuns now transcend prescribed roles and access services constituting the largest segment of new arrivals such as education that might otherwise have been in Karachi, there is concern this could exacerbate unavailable to them. Urban centres have also tensions between the locally ruling Muttahida been a site of resistance where – despite the severe Qaumi Movement (MQM), which largely repercussions they can and often do confront – represents the muhajir population – mostly members of minorities and other groups have Urdu-speaking Muslims who migrated from protested against the persistent targeting they northern and western India following partition face. One such instance took place in November – and the Pashtun-dominated Awami National 2014 when, following the murder of a Christian Party. couple in Kasur, various Christian, Hindu and Indeed, relocating to cities has also not other groups took to the streets in Peshawar, always ensured greater security for Pakistan’s calling on the government to end impunity for minorities. Hindus who have migrated to the perpetrators and promote religious harmony. Karachi, for example, have continued to fall victim to incidents of forced conversion and Sri Lanka marriage. Militants have also increasingly Throughout 2014 the Sri Lankan government, focused their attacks against minorities in urban headed by Mahinda Rajapaksa, continued to areas. In Karachi, growing numbers of TTP obstruct calls by NGOs and the international fighters and high levels of violence led to 750 community for a full investigation into war sectarian targeted killings reported between crimes conducted during the country’s long civil September 2013 and September 2014. However, war between the government and the Liberation government anti-terrorism measures have often Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), an armed group only served to increase the vulnerability of seeking to establish a separate Tamil state in the minorities and other marginalized groups in north. However, popular resentment against urban areas. In response to a double suicide increasing authoritarianism and corruption bomb attack in Islamabad in March 2014, for contributed to the shock defeat of Rajapaksa’s example, the government swiftly blamed and Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) in the January conducted raids on the city’s slums, or katchi 2015 national elections and his replacement by abadis, where many minorities make their homes. Maithripala Sirisena, a former ally and SLFP Subsequent efforts to demolish slums have been member until his surprise defection to the met with protests from those living in these opposition in November 2014. Though Sirisena’s areas, including many of Islamabad’s Christians election on a ticket of ‘compassionate governance’ who migrated from other parts of the country has been welcomed by activists, he has remained in search of better opportunities. These actions quiet on substantive issues of Tamil autonomy. reflected increasing hostility from the recently Furthermore, while he has announced plans to elected government towards these settlements, conduct an inquiry into alleged war crimes – an which it has regarded as a security threat, though apparent step forward after years of prevarication some inhabitants have argued that the attempted by the Rajapaksa government – the UN and other clearances are also driven by commercial interests. international investigators will not be involved in Patronage networks and discriminatory the process. attitudes in areas such as employment are The divisive issue of justice for the families of often reproduced in Pakistan’s cities, with victims of the decades-long conflict, many of

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 181 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Below: Tamil activist Balendran Jeyakumari international investigation into allegations of was arrested in March 2014 and released serious human rights abuses – a recommendation on bail one year later. Vikalpa/Groundviews/ accepted by the UN Human Rights Council Maatram/CPA (HRC) through a 27 March vote. In response, government officials refused to cooperate with the whom belong to the Tamil or Muslim minorities, investigation and on 7 April the minister of mass remains unresolved. In 2012, after much media publicly threatened legal action against international and domestic pressure, the cabinet anyone testifying to the OHCHR. On 18 June, approved a presidential task force to monitor parliament passed a resolution opposing such the implementation of recommendations made an international investigation with Rajapaksa under the government’s Lessons Learnt and subsequently announcing on 19 August that Reconciliation Commission (LLRC), focused OHCHR investigators would not be allowed into mostly on reconciliation after the war rather than the country. Those thought to be cooperating accountability for human rights violations. In with the UN have been threatened or faced January 2014, the government released an update reprisals. One example was Ananthi Sasitharan, on the LLRC implementation and reported on a Tamil Northern Provincial Councillor and some positive developments such as a national human rights advocate, who was attacked in the trilingual policy. But, as noted in the UN Office media for planning to attend the HRC session in of the High Commissioner for Human Rights’ Geneva. (OHCHR) report to the Human Rights Council Despite the civil conflict formally ending five in February 2014, the government had pledged years ago, Sri Lanka’s minorities continue to to implement only 145 of the LLRC’s 285 be harassed and intimidated by state security recommendations. The High Commissioner forces for activism or suspected separatism. In condemned its investigation as ‘limited and February and March, in what the OHCHR piecemeal’ and called for an independent called the biggest search operation since 2009,

182 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 the government arbitrarily detained over 65 the BBS coordinated rallies through Muslim people in the north of the country, claiming neighbourhoods, burning shops, homes and that the LTTE was trying to re-establish itself. mosques. Though extreme, the violence was not Human rights defenders were caught up in an isolated incident. Between January and August, the sweeps on suspicions of engagement with the OHCHR received reports of at least 88 cases former LTTE fighters. On 13 March, Balendran of attacks, destruction of property or hate speech Jeyakumari, a Tamil activist known for her towards Muslims, while Christian groups reported work on the disappeared, was arrested by the 55 such cases. Rajapaksa announced the creation Terrorist Investigation Division along with her of a high-level panel to investigate the attacks, 13-year-old daughter in Kilinochchi district. although the OHCHR reported in September Shortly afterwards, human rights defenders that no prosecutions had yet taken place. Ruki Fernando and Father Praveen Mahesan, One of the drivers of continued human both from the minority Christian community, rights abuses in Sri Lanka is the fact that, five were arrested on 16 March after attempting to years after the conflict, the country remains investigate Jeyakumari’s whereabouts. A huge highly militarized. Many aspects of civilian life international outcry resulted in the release of are still controlled by the army, who are now Fernando and Mahesan, but at the end of the year guiding post-conflict reconstruction in the Jeyakumari still remained in detention without north. One of the most significant steps in this charge. In March 2015 Jeyakumari was released regard was Rajapaksa’s decision to bring the on bail, although with strict conditions imposed. Urban Development Authority (UDA) under Despite these and other cases of minority civil the purview of the military in 2010. This has had society crackdowns, the government submitted serious implications for urban populations across the Assistance to and Protection of Victims of the country, particularly minorities in the north Crime and Witnesses Bill for consideration by and east, who resent the army’s involvement in parliament. Long awaited, the bill has been infrastructure development, land deals and a in preparation since 2006, and is set to give range of economic sectors, including hotels, coffee reparations to victims, as well as protection to shops and Jaffna’s burgeoning tourism industry. witnesses from harassment, intimidation or Urban areas in the north and east have faced coercion. The Centre for Policy Alternatives acute stresses as migration from rural areas, the (CPA), a public policy research organization based return of displaced communities and the recent in Colombo, said that while the draft was an settlement of majority Sinhalese from the south improvement on previous versions, there are still has resulted in rapid population growth. some shortcomings that may jeopardize witness These difficulties have been exacerbated by safety. The first hearings for the government’s reported incidents of intimidation and exclusion Commission on Missing Persons, to investigate by authorities in towns with large Muslim disappearances in the Tamil-dominated north populations, such as Pottuvil, where in 2013 and east of the country, were also held early in the military allegedly supported local Buddhist the year, registering 19,471 such complaints by extremists in erecting Buddhist statues and September. However, some observers questioned broadcasting Buddhist prayers in public areas as how effective it would be. a provocation. While well-managed urbanization Since the end of the conflict with the in the region could produce significant social and LTTE, Sri Lanka’s Muslim population has also economic benefits, current policies are likely to experienced increasing hostility from Buddhist deepen religious and ethnic tensions. nationalists. Anti-Muslim violence and hate Similarly, in the capital of Colombo, where speech continued in 2014, including a riot in more than half of the population lives in slums, June when four Muslims were killed and over 80 the government has committed to eradicating injured in Aluthgama and surrounding areas in the city’s informal settlements by 2020. However, the south-west of Sri Lanka, led by the extremist authorities have been criticized for pursuing group Bodu Bala Sena (BBS). Protesting the an aggressive policy of settlement clearance alleged assault of a monk by a Muslim man, that, rather than addressing the root causes of

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 183 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 poverty and marginalization, has frequently Urbanization across the region has taken many targeted minorities and other vulnerable groups. forms. Rapid urban growth, frequently sponsored In 2010, shortly after control of the UDA was and directed by the state, is transforming passed to the Ministry of Defence, dozens of China and in the process leading to forcible houses were bulldozed in Mews Street, Slave resettlement, destruction of heritage and other Island – reportedly all belonging to Muslim impacts that have been felt especially acutely by families, except for one Tamil-owned home minorities in cities such as Kashgar or Lhasa. – to accommodate the expansion of a school While urbanization has contributed to rising for the children of army officers. They were incomes and development across the country, given only five days’ notice of the evictions, there is a danger that inequalities will only despite having title deeds and residing in the widen if measures are not taken to ensure that houses for decades; other settlements with minorities are fully included in this process. predominantly minority populations were also Japan, in contrast, has already developed into a identified for redevelopment. As Colombo’s largely urban society. Among the most pressing urban beautification has continued with the issues there are the resolution of historic construction of swathes of luxury apartments discrimination and underdevelopment in certain and other ‘world-class’ developments, slums neighbourhoods, such as Buraku dowa, and the have been demolished all over the city without conflicts that arise in Tokyo and elsewhere from consistent or adequate compensation to affected racist groups who resent the increased diversity families. According to a comprehensive 2014 of urban Japan. In Mongolia, where the majority report by CPA, throughout Colombo – one of of the population is still rural, urbanization the most ethnically diverse areas in Sri Lanka – ‘a is nevertheless transforming the lives of many significantly large section of the population being herders and pastoralists who, in a context of affected are Tamil and Muslim’. crop failure and limited access to land, are now migrating in large numbers to the capital, Ulaanbaatar. East Asia China The year 2014 in China was characterized by Michael Caster continued censorship, the detention of political opponents, forcible resettlement and other Violations of minority rights persisted across abuses. Minority populations, particularly East Asia during 2014. In China, the troubled Tibetans and Uyghurs, were especially affected western province of Xinjiang witnessed an by security crackdowns, restrictions on religious upsurge in violence during the year, with freedom and the detention of rights activists. heavy-handed security crackdowns and This included the conviction of Uyghur academic official discrimination feeding into increasing Ilham Tohti in September on separatism dissent, sometimes violent, among the Uyghur charges in a closed-door trial condemned population. Restrictive policies on culture, by the European Union and others. He lost religion and land rights have also served his subsequent appeal in November and was to further alienate the Tibetan population. sentenced to life in prison. He had been detained Meanwhile in Japan, ongoing tensions with in January, along with seven of his Uyghur neighbours in the region have contributed to students, who were also sentenced to between the rise of right-wing nationalist groups who three and eight years in prison. protested regularly throughout the year against Tibetan human rights activists, including the Koreans, Chinese and other minorities in the Tibetan writer Woeser and singer Gebey, were country. In Mongolia, too, resentment linked to also harassed during the year. In December, the exploitation of the country’s natural resources prominent monk Karma Tsewang, an outspoken has fuelled vocal anti-Chinese rhetoric and even language and culture activist, was also detained attacks against Chinese nationals. on ‘state security’ charges along with 16 of his

184 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 supporters. Soon over 4,000 people signed a Above: A modern Uyghur residential area can be petition for his release but he was later sentenced spotted through a partially demolished wall. to two years in prison, while another monk was Teo Choong Ching sentenced to 10 years on unspecified charges. The same month, well-known Mongolian rights detention before being released from custody activist Hada was released from four years of shortly before their deaths. In March, Goshul extra-judicial house arrest, following a 15-year Lobsang died soon after being released on prison sentence on ‘separatism’ charges, but medical parole after reportedly suffering torture remained in police custody under residential and a savage beating in jail that left him unable surveillance. to swallow food. In December, just days after As in previous years, Tibetan activists were being released from prison, political prisoner assaulted or denied medical care while in Tenzin Choedak also died after prolonged abuse

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 185 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 and ill-treatment in prison. He was less than six government as religious extremists. However, years into his 15-year sentence. the WUC alleged that the actual death toll was The National Security Commission, formed much higher, with hundreds of Uyghur civilians by President Xi Jinping in 2013, had its first killed in the ensuing crackdown by security meeting in April with a mandate to address issues forces. The details surrounding these events are such as separatism, religious extremism and also contested, with state outlets claiming that terrorism. In Xinjiang, China’s most westerly the violence began with a premeditated attack on region, this has translated into increasingly a police station by jihadist militants, while the restrictive policing of the large Uyghur WUC and other Uyghur sources have suggested population in response to political dissent and that a recent security crackdown on religious unrest. While some of these incidents have practices and reports of police abuses had been serious, including attacks on civilians, triggered the protests. national policies and local security forces often One of the chief sources of resentment among fail to distinguish between violent crimes and many Uyghurs is the state’s repression of various legitimate activities such as peaceful protests or religious and cultural forms of expression, activism. Human rights groups have argued that often on the grounds of security. In August, the government’s repressive and indiscriminate for example, authorities in the city of Karamay treatment of the region’s Uyghur population banned men with long beards and people with has exacerbated the situation and contributed to headscarves, veils or clothing with the crescent further violence. moon and star from boarding public buses. The The year 2014 saw a number of tragic attacks local Urumqi parliament also announced a move related to ongoing tensions within Xinjiang. This at the end of the year to ban Islamic face veils in included the massacre of more than 30 people public, while authorities forced Muslim students in March outside a train station in Kunming, to eat during Ramadan, threatening students Yunnan province by a group subsequently who refused with expulsion. In the wake of new reported to be Xinjiang separatists. In May, two regulations in Xinjiang that went into effect in cars loaded with explosives also ploughed through January 2015, prohibiting the spread of religious a busy shopping street in Urumqi, the capital propaganda online or clothing with religious of Xinjiang province, killing around 30 people. messages that could promote extremism, a Both incidents were condemned by the President Uyghur man was reportedly sentenced in March of the World Uyghur Congress (WUC), 2015 to six years’ imprisonment for growing a Rebiya Kadeer, though she called on China to beard and ‘inciting’ his wife, who also received refrain from collectively punishing the whole a two-year sentence, to wear a burqa. These population and drew attention to the role that restrictions have played a major role in triggering state policies played in encouraging the violence. opposition, including deadly attacks, across the However, following the Urumqi bombing, region. China announced a year-long anti-terrorism Ongoing labour migration of ethnic Han crackdown, with Xinjiang Party Secretary into Xinjiang, particularly to urban areas in Zhang Chunxian asserting the necessity for the north of the region such as Urumqi, has ‘unconventional measures’ in the ‘people’s war’ been another source of conflict. This has often against terrorism. These included numerous raids occurred through the state-sponsored creation of on mosques, house-to-house searches, harassment new towns and cities populated predominantly and other abuses by police, with several rights by Han, often near areas seen as separatist groups reporting increased arbitrary arrests and troublespots. Tensions were therefore inflamed disappearances. Executions were also carried out by comments in May by Zhang Chunxian, throughout the year. suggesting that China’s ‘one child’ policy should Violence in the region peaked over the summer in future be imposed on all ethnic groups in following a riot in Yarkand that resulted in 96 the region: at present, in line with its national deaths, according to official sources, including policy towards ethnic minorities, the government 37 civilians and 59 persons identified by the permits Uyghur families to have two to three

186 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 children each. Another policy, reportedly to pursue a range of repressive policies in developed during the year by local authorities Tibet during 2014, characterized by forced in Cherchen County in southern Xinjiang, resettlement, restrictions on freedom of belief introduced a reward system to incentivize Uyghur and other discriminatory policies. In recent and Han inter-marriage with RMB 10,000 years, Tibetans have protested against their (US$1,600) annual payments for up to five years treatment through a series of high-profile and other benefits. self-immolations in Tibet and elsewhere in Further urban development policies in China. In 2014, according to the International Xinjiang will lead to the creation of dozens Campaign for Tibet, the number of self- of new cities and towns. One is planned for immolations since 2011 reached 135, of construction near Hotan, a city with considerable which 22 involved women and 24 involved symbolic importance for Uyghur culture. Local those 18 years old or younger. Authorities in residents have reported that Uyghur farm owners Tibet have responded to these incidents by in the area have been forced to sell their land for detaining and arresting family members and below market rates, which would otherwise be friends of the deceased. Since 2013 the police taken without remuneration by the government have warned Tibetans that anyone accused of as part of a ‘development policy’. Those who abetting self-immolators would be charged with have resisted forced evictions or land grabs homicide. In 2012 police were offering around have been detained or arrested. The new cities RMB 50,000 for tips related to planned self- project will be completed by the majority Han immolations or protests, and by February 2015 Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, the Tibetan provincial government had raised or Bingtuan, a semi-military organization that the reward to RMB 300,000 for information on is largely staffed by majority Han and is widely terrorist activities – a broad term that reportedly resented by the local Uyghur population. includes ‘thought, speech or behaviour’ Poverty and unemployment among undermining the state. Uyghurs is worst in the south of Xinjiang, Throughout 2014 police stations were set up in despite government attempts to boost urban Buddhist monasteries across Tibet, accompanied development through special economic zones, by ‘patriotic education’ campaigns targeting the such as in Kashgar, established in 2011 and spread of certain Buddhist teachings. Appeals to scheduled for completion in 2020. Kashgar the Qinghai People’s Congress in January 2014 has partnered with eastern provinces such as to limit religious restrictions and end police Shenzhen and investment companies to secure presence in monasteries were disregarded. In July, investment. Zhongkun, for example, has been officials in Tibet issued regulations on temporary active in developing tourism in the city but has prohibition of freedom of movement and been accused of exploitative practices that do religion, prohibiting Tibetans from participating not benefit Uyghur residents. Their livelihoods in the Great Prayer Festival in Ladakh, India, one and identity have been further threatened by the of the most important Tibetan Buddhist festivals ongoing demolition of Kashgar’s old city, an area that includes special teachings by the Dalai of particular cultural significance to the Uyghur Lama. Later in the year, at least 26 nuns were community. The urban redesign project aims expelled from the prestigious Jhada Nunnery to demolish some 65,000 homes and resettle after it refused to denounce the Dalai Lama in over 200,000 Uyghur residents, 85 per cent of September. Kashgar’s old city. Though some Uyghurs have In 2014, the State Council also announced welcomed the opportunity to live in modern the completion of a massive relocation project housing with amenities unavailable in their of Tibetan nomads from multiple grassland former mud-brick homes, many feel the forced provinces around the Tibetan Autonomous relocation from the ancient centre to high-rise Region, a year ahead of schedule. Those who apartments on the outskirts is more of an assault resisted relocation from traditional herding lands on culture than a sign of modernity. to overcrowded resettlements have had their The Chinese government also continued personal documents and belongings seized or

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 187 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 been detained by the police. Mass resettlement in recent years has already resulted in the forcible Case study by Ross Perlin relocation of more than 2 million Tibetans, including hundreds of thousands of nomadic herders rehoused in ‘New Socialist Villages’, in Urbanizing the some cases impoverishing them or making them dependent on state subsidies. Trung – one of While only around a quarter of the population in the Tibetan Autonomous Region are currently China’s smallest urban, this proportion is rising rapidly, driven in part by Han labour migration. Urbanization officially recognized has been closely tied to the state’s large-scale development programme in the region and the minorities significant economic growth that has resulted, with government figures reporting a doubling in average per capita incomes among nomads This research is a result of several years of field between 2005 and 2010. This has been sustained work in the north-west corner of Yunnan province, by recent investments in infrastructure such as one of the most multicultural and multilingual the Beijing–Lhasa railway, completed in 2006 areas in China. The most recent observations and and responsible for a substantial increase in interviews are from November 2014. Dulong is business and tourism within Tibet. However, the widely used Chinese name – the people call rapid in-migration of Han Chinese, coupled themselves Trung. with the forced relocation of Tibetans to Lhasa, has had significant impacts on Tibetan November 2014 marked the official completion traditional culture that some argue far outweigh of a paved 76 km road, including a 6 km the economic benefits, including the destruction tunnel, connecting Yunnan province’s Trung of historically significant areas of Lhasa as the River valley to the rest of the world. ‘The city’s booming tourism industry has driven rapid opening of the highway will lead the Trung redevelopment of the old centre. people to prosperity and happiness,’ announced Nevertheless, urban areas can offer the Yunnan Party Secretary Li Jiheng. At a reported possibility of better life outcomes for Tibetans, cost of US$127 million, one of the country’s including women, who are sometimes able to most isolated places – the mountainous enjoy a measure of freedom from oppressive homeland of the Trung people, hard by the gender norms. While in rural areas Tibetan border of Burma and the Tibetan Autonomous girls are routinely denied access to education, Region – is now fully open for business. relocation to cities is slowly creating more With a total population of 6,930 according opportunities for them to attend school. Tibetan to the 2010 census, the Trung are one of the women who work in urban settings also earn smallest of China’s 56 officially recognized their own salaries and therefore do not need to ethnic groups, and the majority live in the rely on family land or livestock, enabling them Trung River valley. Until 1999, the valley had to be more independent. However, Tibetan remained almost completely inaccessible to women who travel outside Tibet to eastern cities outsiders, except on foot or by horse caravan such as Beijing or Shanghai often experience from the neighbouring Nu River valley. Trung discrimination in areas such as employment, people still derived their livelihood from shifting housing and education for their children. Similar swidden agriculture with a wide variety of crops, barriers remain for Tibetans in general and other as well as subsistence hunting and gathering. minorities such as Uyghurs, excluding them For the last 15 years, a treacherous, unpaved from the promised social or economic benefits of road has allowed uncertain access to shared urbanization. jeeps, but remained closed half the year due to

188 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 winter snows. ‘The new all-weather road will cut Below: Traditional Trung dance, 2014. travel times in half, bring a regular bus service, Claire Liy and allow more frequent visits to the county seat’, said one young Trung man. ‘Everything will be from joining China’s ‘floating population’, but opened up.’ more are now ascending the rungs from the Transformative demographic changes are village to the township to the county seat, and already under way. On the one hand, the road sometimes beyond to the prefectural capital, the enables people to leave, prompting classic provincial capital of Kunming, and (in a handful urbanization patterns in a country where the of cases) even Beijing, over 2,000 miles away. The official urban population has for the first time local government has even encouraged this with outstripped the rural – though many in practice a formal labour export programme, attempted move between the two. Until recently, sheer in 2008, in which 19 Trung farmers were sent to distance and expense had prevented most Trung work in the eastern industrial city of Dongguan.

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 189 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 More typically, education is the way out. centralized locations in towns like Kongdang Secondary school is only available outside the and Gongshan, with boarding for students. valley, and the most successful Trung students Instead of ‘barefoot doctors’ moving between go on to university, even further afield. They villages, the emphasis was now on hospitals only return to work for the county or prefectural and clinics in the towns. The government governments, which are major employers, cited service delivery and poverty alleviation as especially of minorities. reasons to further concentrate and urbanize the The focal quasi-urban environment for most population, which had already been resettled Trung is Cikai, the seat of Gongshan county, from isolated mountain hamlets, down to the where the road into the valley originates. China’s riverside, back in the 1950s and 1960s. county seats are porous membranes where the In 2003, the Sloping Land Conversion rural and the urban coexist. About one-third Programme (tuigeng huanlin) abruptly of the county’s 35,000 people live in Cikai, ended traditional subsistence practices in where government, trade and education are the name of environmental protection and concentrated for a substantial rural hinterland, reforestation, promising cash and rice instead not to mention taxis, karaoke clubs, churches and simultaneously ‘freeing’ Trung people and public amenities. ‘I came here to make from the land and enabling wage labour. more money and because life in the valley At the same time, the central government’s is backward’, said a young Trung man who Western Development Programme (launched had recently moved to Gongshan to work in in 2000) and poverty-alleviation initiative construction. ‘I first came here for high school – focused on 592 ‘key counties’, mostly in so I have a lot of friends here. I have Lisu areas of western China populated by ethnic friends, Tibetan friends, Han friends.’ minorities – provided further impetus and Though most Trung remain in the valley, funding. Starting in 2010, a dedicated ‘Help they are effectively urbanizing at an even more the whole Trung nationality’ programme has local level, in situ and largely by fiat, as scattered led to the construction of 1,068 new houses houses turn into denser settlements and hamlets with windows and balconies in 26 ‘settlement mushroom into villages. Others are being drawn areas’, near the previously existing villages but into fast-growing Kongdang, the main town in denser. Within a few years, almost the entire the valley. Besides being the local government Trung population has effectively been resettled seat and the centre of education and trade, and rehoused – but at the same time, many Kongdang is where the road into the valley have left. terminates. Though most cycle through, some Many inhabitants, particularly younger non-Trung small business owners and traders Trung, emphasize the positive benefits that this have settled there semi-permanently. Although urban development has brought to the area. currently less than 10 per cent of the valley’s ‘It’s completely different now, not backward population, such outsiders are over-represented like before,’ according to one resident. and highly visible in Kongdang, with a palpable ‘You wouldn’t recognize it: new houses, effect on the Trung language and culture. tall buildings, internet, even a museum in In situ urbanization is the direct outcome of Kongdang.’ Yet poverty remains endemic, with deliberate high-profile national policies which welfare dependence deepening. Estimates vary, have converged on the Trung River valley but agree that income in the valley remains as a particular test case, in order to combat under the threshold of US$1 per day. An eco- what is officially viewed as an embarrassing tourism boom has yet to materialize, but direct example of ‘backwardness’ (luohou). The early food subsidies and surreptitious subsistence 2000s brought hydroelectric power stations, activities help fill the gap. Other problems, satellite antennas and mobile phone reception. such as alcoholism and rising suicide rates, also Village schools were closed in favour of remain. ■

190 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Japan Japan’s indigenous Ainu also continue to face In August 2014 the UN Committee on the discrimination, limited access to basic services Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) and low levels of political participation. Even in reviewed Japan. The committee noted concern Hokkaido, where the majority are based, most that Japan has still not adopted a comprehensive Ainu have lower economic status than non-Ainu definition for racial discrimination in its domestic Hokkaido residents. When Japan ratified the legislation, nor legislation enabling victims to UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous seek legal redress. One of the most troubling Peoples in 2007 it denied it had any indigenous and urgent issues, however, was the continuing peoples, but the next year it passed a non-binding problem of hate speech. This included, in resolution recognizing the Ainu as indigenous April, the use of Nazi imagery by right-wing to Japan. The decision was a major victory in nationalists during anti-Chinese and anti-Korean recognizing the distinctiveness of Ainu language demonstrations in Tokyo, as well as various and culture. However, in November 2014 racist slurs. Persistent anti-foreigner sentiment is Masaru Onodera, a member of the Hokkaido reflected in ‘Japanese only’ signs still posted by prefectural parliament, created controversy when some hotels and restaurants. In March, a giant he publicly stated Ainu indigenousness was ‘Japanese Only’ banner was even hung from the ‘highly questionable’. Saitama Stadium in Tokyo by supporters of the The struggle for recognition is even more Urawa Red Diamonds during a football game, acute for indigenous Okinawans (or Ryūkyūans) prompting an order from the national J-League for who, unlike Ainu, have yet to receive official the club to play a match in an empty stadium – an indigenous status, despite previous UN edict that cost the club in excess of US$1 million. recommendations. Their culture and traditional There were some positive developments to lands are threatened by the denial of their right address the issue. In July the Osaka High Court, to free and informed participation in policy- followed by the Supreme Court in December, making, especially concerning the expansion upheld a groundbreaking October 2013 ruling by of US military bases in Okinawa – an issue Kyoto High Court that had found Zaitokukai, that continues to be perceived as a form of an organization opposed to the granting of discrimination against the indigenous population. certain rights to foreign residents in Japan, Ongoing construction of a new US base in guilty of racial discrimination for shouting abuse Henoko, situated in a bay rich in biodiversity and slogans in front of a Korean school. At the including the critically endangered Okinawan beginning of 2014, an Osaka municipal human dugong, was a particularly contentious issue in rights committee also drafted recommendations Okinawan politics in 2014. Local protests swelled for curbing hate speech, including the creation of to several thousands demonstrating in September a municipal fund to offset court costs for victims. and October, ahead of elections in November, Multiple municipalities have followed suit with with authorities responding harshly by detaining similar proposals, though there are concerns that and arresting anyone who approached the hate speech legislation will be difficult to pass due construction site. The subsequent election of to free speech concerns. Takeshi Onaga in the November Okinawan Legal and institutional discrimination against gubernatorial elections was in large part due to foreigners and minorities continues to affect his strict opposition to military base construction. many residents, some of whom have spent their In January 2015, Tokyo announced that, despite entire lives in Japan. In July, for instance, the considerable local opposition, the plan to relocate Supreme Court overturned a Fukuoka High a US military base from Futenma to Henoko Court decision, ruling instead that permanent would still continue. However, as of April residents do not have a guaranteed right to 2015 Onaga was still actively opposing plans to receive welfare benefits. The case involved an relocate the base. 82-year-old Chinese woman who had been born Japan has yet to implement CERD’s and grew up in Japan, but was denied welfare 2010 recommendation to create a specific because she was not a Japanese national. government agency to deal with Burakumin

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 191 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 issues. Burakumin are not a distinct ethnic of the controversial Oyu Tolgoi copper and group in Japan, but the descendants of outcast gold mine. The multi-billion-dollar mining communities from the feudal era who continue project, located in the south of the country, has to face discrimination in mainstream Japanese been opposed by local herders and civil society society. Although they are not subject to official organizations due to the destructive impact discrimination, Burakumin still face deep- the development will have on the surrounding seated prejudice, especially in marriage and environment. In February 2015, however, employment, with some companies referring following a national text message referendum, to lists of family names and neighbourhoods to Mongolia agreed to further development of the discriminate against Burakumin. Historically, mine, despite opposition from environmental Burakumin neighbourhoods, also known as dowa, groups. Pastoralist livelihoods are threatened were isolated and excluded settlements with little not only by the mine itself, but also by the in the way of public services or other amenities. infrastructure connecting it to China, which runs Increasing numbers migrated to urban areas in through traditional grazing and pasture lands. the post-war period, resulting in the expansion of Herders have consistently complained about segregated slums. inadequate compensation for their land. Following strong advocacy efforts from Buraku Rising nationalism, linked in part to organizations, however, the Japanese government resentment of the role of international companies committed substantial government funds in mining and natural resource extraction, has between 1969 and 1997 to improving Buraku intensified anti-foreigner sentiment in Mongolia, urban neighbourhoods, funding upgraded particularly towards Chinese nationals. This is housing, infrastructure development and other reflected in regular incidents of abuse and even improvements. As a result, in large part because violence towards migrants, foreign minorities of the active efforts of Buraku residents, living and visitors. In April 2014, for instance, three conditions in the areas have generally improved. foreigners were attacked at a rock concert in By 2002, the government had completed urban Ulaanbaatar, while in early 2015 reports emerged development projects related to the Dowa Special of the ill-treatment of Chinese tourists by Measures. Among other positive developments, Mongolian nationalists. In May the Mongolian the physical environment in traditionally Buraku parliament announced that it would begin districts has improved and other indicators, such discussing anti-discrimination legislation to as educational attainment and employment, have supplement the relevant provisions in the also risen. However, some of the community Constitution. However, critics have argued that cohesion is being weakened as some more the proposal does not go far enough to include a affluent Buraku move out and poorer non- specific category for hate crimes. Buraku groups move in from elsewhere, meaning Mongolia’s Tuvan minority’s language and that sub-standard housing and other issues are culture remain under threat, despite government reappearing. support and a modest subsidy. Already, growing numbers of Tuvan children are travelling to Mongolia attend schools in the capital where they cannot Though in recent years Mongolia has been study in their native language. These challenges one of the fastest growing economies in the are especially acute for the Dukha (also known world, 2014 saw a dramatic reduction in as Tsaatan) community, a Tuvan sub-group and foreign direct investment and a fall in its GDP Mongolia’s smallest ethnic minority, with fewer growth rate. The slowdown in the Mongolian than 50 families remaining in the far west of the economy, which remains heavily dependent on country. Nevertheless, there have been efforts the country’s natural resources, has been partly to support the preservation of Dukha language attributed to concerns among foreign companies and culture. In December 2014, the Mongolian over stalled negotiations between the Mongolian National Museum premiered a documentary government and Turquoise Hill Resources, a about Oyunbadam, a Dukha educator who subsidiary of Rio Tinto, over the development established a grassroots language and culture

192 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 school for Dukha children. large land masses of Australia, New Zealand and Mongolia’s recent transition to a market New Guinea to a variety of smaller states where, economy, as well as limited livelihood in most cases, the numerical majority of the opportunities in the countryside, has also driven population are indigenous. Their experience of rapid urban growth in the country’s capital, urbanization is similarly varied: while countries Ulaanbaatar – a process that has unfortunately such as New Zealand have close to 87 per outpaced the development of public services and cent of the population living in towns and infrastructure. In certain districts more than half cities, the proportion is much lower in Papua of the population live in ger, traditional nomadic New Guinea (13 per cent) or Tonga (23.4 per yurts of wool and felt, in lots for which they do cent). However, smaller island states are also not hold land titles. Forced evictions continue facing high population growth and rapidly to occur against a backdrop of rising property accelerating urbanization. Almost a quarter of prices and increasing competition for space, Pacific Islanders already live in urban centres, up with families evicted without consultation and from only 8.5 per cent in 1950, and half of the communities harassed by real estate companies, region’s countries already have majority urban which have even cut off water and electricity populations. In these countries the challenges of supplies to pressure them to leave. Ger residents urbanization, particularly for their indigenous also have limited access to essential services such communities, are especially acute. as sanitation, education and health. Urban migration among indigenous peoples Many are families of former herders who in the Pacific is driven in part by the potential have been pushed to the city by desertification opportunities cities present in terms of improved and the harsh winters of the steppe. Following employment, health care and other benefits. a period of extreme cold in 2010 – known as a Furthermore, limited livelihood options and lack dzud, meaning ‘white death’ – that resulted in of development in rural areas is also a factor, the deaths of millions of livestock, thousands and income generated by urban indigenous of herders moved into gers on the edge of the people is often used to support families in city. They continue to make up a significant their communities of origin. Nevertheless, in a proportion of those migrating to the city context of rapid and largely unmanaged growth, each year. The increasing settlement of rural indigenous populations face increasing challenges and formerly nomadic Mongolians around in urban areas, including lack of housing, limited Ulaanbaatar has contributed to the erosion public services, low economic prospects and other of their traditional lifestyles. In addition to issues. One of the key challenges for almost all migration in order to find work, herders are also Pacific Island countries is that there is insufficient moving closer to markets in towns, particularly land to keep pace with the growing demands near Ulaanbaatar, because they are switching of urbanization. The shortage of land means from subsistence husbandry to raising animals that many who move to urban centres do not for sale. Many residents of poorer areas of have access to or cannot afford adequate land or Ulaanbaatar rely on herders for their food supply, housing, contributing to the growth of squatter which results in more seasonal migration to the settlements. city; a number of such in-migrants return to the These factors have increased stress on the countryside for the summer months. physical and social environments of urban dwellers, particularly for women and children. Domestic violence, sexual violence and violence against women remain endemic across the region, Oceania and these problems are often compounded by the impacts of urbanization, such as fragmented Jacqui Zalcberg communities and increasing marginalization. In addition, the deterioration of established The diverse region of Oceania spans communal structures in urban areas renders approximately 25,000 islands, ranging from the many young people vulnerable to issues such

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 193 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 as gang violence, crime and substance abuse, mandatory sentencing laws in some jurisdictions particularly as traditional governance systems – issues which particularly affect the indigenous have eroded. In New Zealand, for instance, the community. rapid urbanization of Māori from the 1960s saw The issue of Aboriginal deaths in custody also the breakdown of iwi (tribe) and hapū (clan) received renewed attention in 2014 following systems. Māori leadership, however, worked to the death in August of a 22-year-old Aboriginal address the issues that arose from this breakdown woman while incarcerated in a Western Australia and established multi-tribal urban authorities to jail. The women was twice taken by police to help foster the economic, social and commercial a local hospital, but on both occasions was development of urban Māori communities. declared well enough to be sent back to prison, The impacts of urbanization on indigenous despite reportedly not being seen by a doctor. communities and minorities across Oceania The woman had been placed in South Headland have therefore been ambiguous, and their future police custody due to unpaid parking fines, a situation will likely depend to a large extent on controversial approach that has been blamed the region’s ability to achieve sustainable and for perpetuating the high incarceration rates inclusive urban development. among the indigenous population and other marginalized groups. Australia Serious inequalities persist in other areas, too, The year 2014 began promisingly with the such as education, employment and health: announcement by Prime Minister Tony for example, life expectancy for the Aboriginal Abbott in January of a planned amendment and Torres Strait Islander populations is still a to the Constitution to recognize Australia’s decade less than that enjoyed by non-indigenous indigenous population as the original inhabitants Australians. Progress to reduce these disparities of Australia. Abbott subsequently pledged in has been slow, with Abbott admitting in December to hold a constitutional referendum February 2015 that the country’s continued on the issue in 2017. The amendment is seen failure to meet most targets on improving by rights activists as an important milestone in outcomes for indigenous communities in areas reversing the historic marginalization suffered such as education, employment and community by the Aboriginal community. Nevertheless, safety was ‘profoundly disappointing’. Yet the considerable hurdles remain before the introduction of the government’s controversial amendment, which was first proposed in 2010, is Indigenous Advancement Strategy (IAS) in July, likely to be passed. consolidating 150 different programmes into five In addition, the positive effects of the broad thematic areas and involving cuts of more amendment may be limited without broader than AU$500 million over the next five years, efforts to address the deep-rooted discrimination has generated considerable resentment among that Australia’s indigenous population continues indigenous communities. In addition to reduced to face on a daily basis. One issue that sparked overall funding, significant portions of the new national debate during the year was their budget have gone to state departments, sporting disproportionate rates of incarceration, described clubs and other non-indigenous organizations, by the Law Council of Australia as a ‘national while some local indigenous organizations found emergency’. Though they make up only around that their funding had been halted. 2.5 per cent of the overall population, indigenous One challenge in terms of service access and Australians comprise 27 per cent of the country’s development is the geographical seclusion of prison population. This is even higher in some many rural indigenous communities. While the regions, with Aboriginal youth making up 98 country as a whole is highly urbanized, with per cent of detained juveniles in the Northern almost 90 per cent of Australians now living in Territory. The UN Committee against Torture, urban areas, the proportion is significantly lower in its 2014 review of Australia, noted its concern among the indigenous population; over 20 per about the high numbers of indigenous prisoners, cent are still based in areas classified as remote as well as cuts in legal assistance and the use of or very remote, compared to less than 2 per cent

194 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 of the non-indigenous population. Many of Above: In the township of Kennedy Hill, Western these isolated communities, particularly in the Australia, a young Aboriginal girl watches as the Northern Territory, struggle with higher levels town’s main offices are demolished. The Western of child mortality, poor living standards and Australian government are in the process of lack of access to essential services such as health closing approximately 150 remote Aboriginal care. These issues are compounded by a lack of communities. Ingetje Tadros/Diimex culturally appropriate programmes and limited opportunities for bilingual education, with a large state government that as many as 150 of its proportion of indigenous children in more remote 274 Aboriginal communities would be shut areas of the country barely able to read or write. down sparked widespread outrage among Though some remote indigenous communities Aboriginal Australians and rights activists. The face significant challenges, the announcement announcement was made following the decision in November 2014 by the Western Australia of the Australian federal government to stop

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 195 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 funding power, water and other services to these with responsibility for the provision of power, communities beyond the next two years, with water and other services now falling to the state Western Australia accepting an AU$90 million authorities. The State of South Australia initially one-off payment from the federal government rejected a payout, but in April 2015 reached to take responsibility for the services. The an agreement with the federal government to Western Australia State Premier, Colin Barnett, share the management of the state’s indigenous claimed that without federal funding the state settlements, which otherwise would have faced government could not afford to continue to closure. The implications of these changes for service the communities, despite being the other rural indigenous communities remain to be richest state in Australia. He also justified the seen. closure of the communities in terms of safety Nevertheless, with the exception of certain and well-being, citing ‘high rates of suicide, poor areas such as the Northern Territory where education, poor health [and] no jobs’. three-quarters of the population are rural, the The decision was strongly condemned by majority of Australia’s indigenous populations the deputy indigenous adviser to the Abbott are now urban. The relocation of indigenous government, Dr Ngiare Brown, who argued communities to urban areas is rooted in part in that ‘governments have the responsibility to Australia’s troubled colonial history, beginning understand the historical and contemporary with their displacement and forcible resettlement contexts of those communities and the failure in missions and reserves. Limited opportunities of systems which placed them at risk, and then and the takeover of much of their former negotiate the best possible options’ for them. homelands subsequently pushed increasing Amnesty International has noted that the plan to numbers of indigenous people, particularly in the evict traditional owners from their homes would second half of the twentieth century, to migrate cause considerable trauma to the communities in search of opportunities. Nevertheless, various and that for them migration to larger urban improvements in rural areas from the 1960s centres would present an even higher risk of onwards, such as recognition of land rights and substance abuse, crime and other issues. Nor, more government funding, reduced the pull of when the decision was made, was there a plan migration to urban areas. In the past few decades, in place to support community members in demographic increases have resulted primarily transitioning to their new context elsewhere. from natural growth over multiple generations, as The potential effects of uprooting communities well as higher levels of self-identification among in this way were demonstrated in 2011 when the indigenous urban population in censuses and the small indigenous settlement of Oombulgurri population surveys. was forcibly closed by the state government after The effects of urbanization for indigenous evidence emerged of high levels of violence, Australians has been mixed. Despite the suicide and sexual assault in the area. Those difficulties of adjusting to unfamiliar urban who refused to leave were evicted from the settings, life in Australia’s cities has brought town and public services closed down. In 2014, many positive developments. In particular, despite protests from rights groups, the town the interaction of many previously separated was demolished. The transition for residents was communities in urban areas led to the emergence reportedly traumatic, with inadequate support of a shared indigenous consciousness and the services and housing in place for displaced beginning of indigenous political activism. While residents who were forced to relocate to a larger aspects of traditional indigenous culture have urban area nearby. Some community members undoubtedly been eroded – for example, just were reportedly still homeless at the end of 2014, 1 per cent of indigenous people in urban areas several years later. speak an indigenous language, compared to 56 Notably, similar agreements to transfer per cent in rural areas – cities have in some ways responsibility for remote communities have been helped reinforce indigenous identity and enabled reached between the federal government and the the reinvention of indigenous heritage in new States of Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania, and distinctly urban forms of expression. Urban

196 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 indicators in a range of sectors, from employment transport as a gesture of solidarity. to education, also outperform those in rural areas Increasing racism and xenophobia in by a significant margin. Australia, particularly towards Muslims, may Nevertheless, indigenous residents continue also contribute to widespread popular support to experience serious inequalities in cities for the country’s punitive policies towards compared to the non-indigenous population, asylum seekers. The majority of asylum seekers, particularly as shifts in urban labour markets have originating mostly from Afghanistan, Iran, reduced employment opportunities for workers Pakistan and Sri Lanka, are ethnically distinct with limited job skills or education. Indicators from the white Australian majority and are often such as educational attainment, income and presumed by members of the general public to be health are also poorer among urban indigenous Muslim. All asylum seekers entering Australian communities than the non-indigenous urban territory by boat continue to face mandatory, population. In addition, evidence suggests that indefinite and non-reviewable detention at indigenous residents are disproportionately centres on Nauru or Manus Island in Papua New situated in poorer and marginalized city districts. Guinea, in conditions described by UNHCR Discrimination and exclusion have therefore as unsafe and in violation of international persisted and have even led to new forms of standards. Violence and neglect in these centres disadvantage. Some studies have suggested, for remain serious issues: an Iranian man was beaten instance, that well-being and self-reported levels to death in May in a riot at the Manus Island of happiness among indigenous Australians centre, while in September another asylum seeker in rural areas is higher, despite lower levels of was left brain dead after an infected cut was not development. The overall picture of indigenous adequately treated, resulting in septicaemia. urbanization in Australia is therefore mixed, with The government has nevertheless continued to cities bringing considerable benefits while also militarize migration control and forcibly returned maintaining many inequalities. boats carrying asylum seekers to their country of Though Australia has a vibrant and diverse origin. In 2014, Australia attempted to return a population, especially in urban areas, there boat carrying 153 asylum seekers and refugees to have been ongoing reports of ethnic minorities Sri Lanka. The Australian High Court blocked the being subjected to increasing racism. A 2014 attempt temporarily after it found that another survey reported that experience of discrimination boatload of 41 people had already been returned remains close to the highest level recorded; to Sri Lanka, where they faced persecution. 18 per cent of those surveyed reported that The 153 asylum seekers on the boat were held they had experienced racial, ethnic or religious aboard the Customs vessel as the government discrimination compared with 19 per cent in sought to arrange their return to India, and 2013 – the highest level recorded since this were subsequently sent to Nauru. In January particular survey began in 2007. There have 2015 the High Court held that the government also been repeated reports of minorities and had not acted illegally when it detained them foreigners being subjected to hate speech on at sea for almost a month. These policies were public transport in major cities, including two further institutionalized in December 2014 when widely reported incidents in Sydney and Perth parliament passed the Migration and Maritime in which Asian women were verbally abused Powers Legislation Amendment, strengthening by other passengers. There were also concerns, the power of maritime controls to take asylum following a religiously motivated attack on a seekers found at sea to other destinations and Sydney coffee shop in December 2014 which led also reducing other safeguards for asylum seekers. to the deaths of two hostages, that attacks against The Act has been criticized by a wide coalition Australia’s Muslim population would escalate of stakeholders for further eroding human rights in the aftermath. However, Sydney citizens and standards relating to asylum seekers. activists launched a campaign online with the hashtag #IllRideWithYou, with users offering to Papua New Guinea accompany Muslims in religious attire on public The indigenous population of Papua New

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 197 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 Guinea is one of the most diverse in the world, close to half of the city’s population live in slums. with thousands of separate communities and Similar issues have affected other urban areas an estimated 800 languages spoken in the in the country, such as the coastal city of Lae, country. Many communities continue to where an influx of migrants from rural areas live on subsistence agriculture in the isolated in Mamose, the New Guinea islands and the mountainous interior, although the presence Highlands Region has dramatically increased of natural resources such as forests and mineral the size of its informal settlements. Though the reserves in some indigenous areas has resulted in government, through its National Urbanization land grabbing, environmental devastation and Policy (NUP), has committed to improving other abuses. The country also faces governance infrastructure, services and urban management, challenges that persisted during 2014, with serious problems persist. an arrest warrant issued by the national anti- One major challenge in urban areas of Papua corruption watchdog for Prime Minister Peter New Guinea is violence. Urban conflict has O’Neill for alleged fraudulent payments. O’Neill increased as cities have become more ethnically subsequently fired the deputy police commissioner diverse, with tribal fighting – a frequent issue and stopped the watchdog’s funding, effectively between different ethnic groups in the country bringing its activities to a halt. – now normalized in major urban centres. The year 2014 saw the approval of Papua New Furthermore, Port Moresby is also plagued by Guinea’s application for Extractive Industry so-called ‘rascalism’. This phenomenon, centring Transparency Initiative (EITI) candidate status. around youth gangs defined along community This was an important move for a country and cultural lines, has reinforced ethnic division endowed with abundant natural resources, yet in in the capital. The decline of traditional conflict which the UNDP estimates that 40 per cent of resolution systems, such as village courts, has the population are living on less than US$1.25 meant that some communities have become more a day. It is hoped that the initiative will improve dependent on wantok for protection. Wantok – relations between communities and development literally meaning ‘one talk’, someone who speaks projects, as well as ensure that profits are the same language – previously served in part as a transparently directed back to the country and social support system among rural communities, its peoples. This is particularly the case for but in Port Moresby and other urban areas it ExxonMobil’s US$19 billion Liquefied Natural is frequently adapted to support identity-based Gas (LNG) project, which began production criminal gangs, in the process deepening urban in 2014. Nevertheless, rights violations against divisions. A particularly high-profile case of local communities continue to occur. In early ethnic violence occurred in January 2011, when 2015, for instance, 14 people, including 11 an argument between two men from different indigenous women and girls who were raped or highland provinces led to an outbreak of fighting violently molested at the Porgera Mine in the between factions of their communities that killed Papua New Guinea highlands, reached an out- five people. Women are especially vulnerable in of-court settlement with the world’s biggest gold Port Moresby, as the city has high levels of sexual mining company, Barrick Gold. Apart from these assault, domestic violence and rape. victims, at least 120 women have lodged claims of rape at the mine. Solomon Islands Although Papua New Guinea is the least The Solomon Islands are an archipelago of urbanized of the Pacific Island countries, with approximately 922 small islands. Ninety-five per less than 13 per cent of the population living in cent of the population is indigenous Melanesian, urban areas, this figure is somewhat deceptive with smaller Chinese, European, Micronesian due to the country’s large landmass. Papua New and Polynesian groups also resident. Due to the Guinea in fact has the largest urban population relative isolation of its communities, there are in the Pacific, while Port Moresby is the region’s many diverse languages, culture and traditions. most sizeable city. This has also led to significant For this reason, local governance systems, challenges, with some estimates suggesting that including familial ties, are often more important

198 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 than national political institutions. European and Vietnamese minorities, as well In November 2014, general elections saw as smaller groups of other indigenous peoples, Independent candidates secure 32 seats in the such as Futunans, i-Kiribati and Wallisians. The 50-seat parliament, which led to the formation of country has undergone a series of political crises a ruling coalition known as the Solomon Islands since the 1990s, resulting in numerous changes People’s Democratic Coalition (SIPDC) and the in leadership. The year 2014 also saw a change in election of Manasseh Sogavare as the country’s key leadership positions in the country, with then prime minister. Sogavare had served as prime Prime Minister Moana Carcasses Kalosil defeated minister from 2000 to 2001 and again from 2006 by Joe Natuman in a no-confidence vote on 15 to 2007. The election was the country’s first since May 2014. Presidential elections were held in an Australian-led peacekeeping operation, the September, resulting in the election of Baldwin Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands Lonsdale. (RAMSI), transitioned to a police-focused mission The year 2014 saw important changes to in 2013 following ethnic violence that gripped the Vanuatu’s legislation on indigenous land rights. country between 1997 and 2003. The new laws alter the Constitution to include Despite its return to stability, the Solomon recognition of customary institutions and Islands is struggling to cope with rapid urban establish a role for the Malvatumauri (National growth, particularly in the capital of Honiara, Council of Chiefs) in advising parliament on as a result of large-scale migration from rural changes to land law, as well as to strengthen the areas. Honiara has experienced a doubling of its control of customary institutions while reducing population in less than 17 years, and the city’s the power of the minister of lands over customary annual urban growth rate of 4.7 per cent is one land. It is hoped that this new legislation will of the highest in the Pacific. This is putting prevent leases on customary land being signed immense pressure on urban service delivery, off by the minister without the consent of the already in short supply, and leading to local communities – a recurring issue since the country tensions. gained independence in 1980. Honiara also faces the challenge of informal In terms of urbanization, Vanuatu has one urban settlements, where up to 35 per cent of of the region’s highest growth rates, and it Honiara’s residents – the majority of whom is projected that over half of the Vanuatu are indigenous islanders – now reside. While population will be based in urban centres by population growth and increasing rural–urban 2050. This is particularly the case in Port Vila, migration are significant factors contributing Vanuatu’s largest city, where ni-Vanuatu face to the growth of these informal settlements, a limited land availability – a situation that has lack of developable land for low- and middle- been exacerbated by the development of tourism- income earners also drives the trend. Besides related facilities and exclusive residential housing, poor living conditions and limited or no access leased on what was regarded until recently as to basic services such as sanitation, inhabitants inalienable indigenous land. As much as 80 per are at increased risk of natural disasters. Over cent of the coastland on Etafe Island, where Port 65 per cent of housing in informal settlements Vila is located, has been leased out. As a result, lacks durability, meaning that it would likely large tracts of territory have been walled off, not withstand strong winds or earthquakes. The restricting access to local beaches and marine settlements, some of which are located on steep resources. Some villages in peri-urban areas are slopes, are therefore at high risk of collapsing in now obstructed by commercial resorts and other the event of a natural disaster, leaving residents in developments that have blocked off swathes of a situation of extreme vulnerability. community land from public use. The impacts of this are especially acute for ni-Vanuatu Vanuatu inhabitants, who have a particularly close The majority of Vanuatu’s population are connection to the land – an essential element in indigenous Melanesian, known locally as their traditional culture and local livelihoods. ni-Vanuatu, though there are also Chinese, Although urban areas tend to have better

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 199 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 services than rural areas, poverty rates are highest in urban communities. A recent Case study by Anne-Marie Tupuola-Plunkett UNICEF study found that one-third of children in Port Vila live in poverty – a rate nearly 20 per cent higher than the national Resilience despite average. Living conditions for ni-Vanuatu in poorer settlements are also deteriorating as adversity – adapting a consequence of overcrowding and limited services or infrastructure. As a result, Port Vila’s indigenous poverty levels are 18 per cent, compared to 10 per cent in rural areas. Furthermore, lack of communities to access to safe water, sanitation or waste disposal facilities are contributing to deteriorating health climate change in outcomes among urban ni-Vanuatu. Many urban disenfranchised ni-Vanuatu women are the Pacific region particularly affected by poverty and excluded from paid employment. Vanuatu has been ranked by UN sources as Most of the Pacific region’s island states are still the country with the highest risk of experiencing predominantly rural, but rapid urbanization a natural disaster in the world. March 2015 saw is fragmenting indigenous societies and one of the worst disasters in its history when undermining traditional livelihoods. In the Cyclone Pam hit the island, displacing at least process, new forms of poverty and disadvantage 3,300 people and affecting more than half of its such as unemployment, delinquency and population. In Vanuatu, as with other Pacific inadequate nutrition are emerging in urban islands, large urban areas are especially vulnerable areas. The devastating impacts of climate due to the dense concentration of their change are now adding to these hardships, populations in disaster-prone coastal locations, particularly in the region’s most densely particularly the poorest and most marginalized. populated coastal settlements. In Port Vila, the cyclone destroyed makeshift The Pacific is one of the most vulnerable housing and weakened already limited basic parts of the world to climate change which, services, leaving many informal settlements in combined with limited resources and land, even deeper poverty. However, given the scale has left indigenous inhabitants and other of the disaster, the death toll remained relatively marginalized groups at the mercy of its effects. low, with 11 confirmed fatalities in the whole As highlighted by Aunese Makoi Simati, the of Vanuatu. While modern communications Tuvalu ambassador to the UN, at the 2015 and early warning systems helped reduce the Third World Conference on Disaster and Risk death toll, the particular characteristics of the Reduction, ‘[T]he word “vulnerable” goes hand indigenous communal houses – known as in hand with the words “small island” because nakamals – also proved critical. This was due there is no high ground. As Tuvalu is small, to their construction with lightweight materials flat and barely three metres above sea level, such as bamboo, as well as the use of traditional ‘“moving” means just going to the other side.’ design measures that strengthen their resilience to Many of the Pacific’s low-lying islands storms. ■ and atoll communities are already in fear of extinction or the evacuation of their communities due to rising sea levels, eroding coastlines and water contamination. At the same time, the impact of severe storms, cyclones, global warming and ocean acidification are threatening ecosystems, food

200 Asia and Oceania State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2015 security and indigenous livelihoods. Flooding, housing in Samoa. Thatched Samoan fales, landslides and other weather-related hazards are unlike westernized homes, have survived and also destroying homes and displacing families withstood extreme storms. Their oval shaped, from their ancestral lands, in the process open layout is resistant to strong winds and erasing heritage and sacred sites unique to the natural materials used in their construction these communities. Speaking of the flooding of are less dangerous than the corrugated iron cemeteries in the wake of Hurricane Pam, Simati and concrete blocks of modern houses. described how ‘we feel that even the dead are Training locals in the design and building calling for help’. of traditional Samoan architecture therefore Notwithstanding the adversity that climate promotes resilient housing and may also help change brings, Pacific communities are minimize the need for residential relocation. demonstrating remarkable resilience, ingenuity Climate change is a global challenge that and resourcefulness in responding to these affects all of humanity. The rich knowledge challenges. In the words of the Secretariat of and social capital of the Pacific’s indigenous the Pacific Regional Environment Programme populations in responding to climate change (SPREP), ‘adaptation to climate change is is now being disseminated across national and becoming a Pacific way of life’. The installation international borders through blogs, websites of storage tanks and innovative drainage systems and multimedia, supported by alliances has helped to diffuse water contamination and and partnerships with diverse agencies, potential health risks arising from unusually corporations and community organizations. long periods of drought and saltwater intrusion. A passive response is not an option, most Many Pacific communities are strengthening especially for Pacific indigenous communities, their biodiversity, planting dense vegetation and as their existence and survival already hang building sea walls, mindful of the risks of erosion in the balance. In moving forward, climate and landslides to the densely populated areas change must be viewed as a human rights along their coastlines. issue for all indigenous peoples, irrespective of For Samoa, an island group with a growing where they reside. ■ low-lying urban population, adaptation to climate change is often associated with deforestation and natural disasters. Thus adaptation strategies tend to address the links between climate change and disaster management. For instance, the Samoa Red Cross Society, under the Community Disaster and Climate Risk Management Programme, empowers indigenous communities to become more resilient in the face of disaster threats, as well as build on the skills and resources at hand. One project provides low-income families with free seeds and fertilizers, along with training on how to prepare vegetable beds, so they can grow non-traditional produce like cabbages, tomatoes and cucumbers. This strengthens adaptation by diversifying livelihoods and improving nutrition – both areas where climate change has led to heightened levels of risk. The increasing threat of climate change has also encouraged renewed interest in traditional

State of the World’s Minorities Asia and Oceania 201 and Indigenous Peoples 2015