Phonological Processes in Chagga Nativized Lexemes

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PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES

BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:

A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree

In English Language Studies

Gerald John Mallya

Student Number: 166332017

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2018

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PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES

BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:

A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree

In English Language Studies

Gerald John Mallya

Student Number: 166332017

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2018

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI \

A THESIS

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES

BORROWED f,'ROM STAIIDARD SWAIIILI:

A CIIAGGA. ENGLISH COMPARATTYE STUDY

{€ =ffi*^* q*rol- W 'o N fi e! lryri \\ -3 by

Gerald John Mallya

Student Number: 166332017

Approved by

ru*ft Dr.B.B.Ilwiiatmoko. M.A. fr

Thesis Advisor Yogyakarta, April 3d, 2018

11 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A THESIS

PHONOLOGICALPROCESSESINCHAGGANATIVIZEDLEXEMESBoRRowED

FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:

A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY

Presented by

Gerald John MallYa

Student Number 166332017

Defended before the Thesis Committee and Declared AccePtable ,1 THESIS COMMITEE I )

Chair Person : Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. {-

Secretary : Dr.B.B.Dwijatmoko, M-A-

Members : 1. F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.

z.Dr. Fr. B. AliP. MPd. MA

Yogyakarta, April 20th, 201 8

The Graduate Program Director

S anata Dharma UniversitY

,/t'4/1 /1 il ///n WbL^ { {, Dr. G. Budi Subanar, S.J.

111 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY

This is to certifz that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else's idea, phrase, or sentence without a proper reference.

Yogyakarta, The Writer m"\^ Gerald John Mallya

166332017

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Gerald John Mallya

NomorMahasiswa :166332017

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karyailmiah saya yang berjudul:

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN CHAGGA NATIVIZED LEXEMES

BORROWED FROM STANDARD SWAHILI:

A CHAGGA - ENGLISH COMPARATIVE STUDY

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada PerpustakaanSanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk med.ia lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikanya secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu minta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan narna saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pemyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada Tanggal: 05 Maret, 2018

Yang menyatakan, Stb (Gerald John Mallya)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher would gratefully first acknowledge the great grace of God for completion of this study. Secondly much gratitude goes to St. Augustine University of

Tanzania administration for the scholarship managed by Hon. Rev. Dr. Thadeus

Mkamwa (The Vice Chancellor), and the Tanzanian Episcopal Conference (TEC) for the academic and financial support. This study is at stake due to the greatest enlightenment done by my thesis advisor Dr. B.B.Dwijatmoko, M.A. It is his academic intelligence and generosity that have made this phonological empirical study to be academically promising. The researcher is also aware of prominent academic help hence feels indebted to, Drs. F.X Mukarto PhD, Dr. E. Sunarto M.Hum, phonological enlightenment by Dr. F.B Alip MPd, MA., Drs. Paulus Sarwoto PhD, Drs. Novita Dewi

PhD, M.Hum and Marnie SJ for her administrative assistance.

The author also acknowledge the Head of Kiswahili Department at St. Augustine

University Dr. Riro Matinde for academic and administrative support. As well as Mr.

Mashaka Ngw`aje, Musa Nasibu, madam Mariane Koki Munyao, Wisni Yuliastuti, Mr.

Bakari Chongowe, madam Zena Machinde, Marry Mushi, Aggnes Gwaltu for their academic and financial assistance. Furthermore would like to acknowledge, Listiana

Ikawati, Juma Imamu, Mashao Elizabeth, Octovianus Rojack and Maria Rosalia

Planaria for their technical assistance, Leah Lawi, Irene Massawe for financial assistance and holistic assistance.

Special acknowledgement go direct to my gorgeous mother Ms. Veneranda John Massawe. Kindly I would also present my gratitude to all students of my batch and the seniors at Sanata Dharma University. Thanks to everyone who is not mentioned but should have been. vi

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i

APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii

DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN ...... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii

LIST OF TABLES ...... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xiv

ABSTRACT ...... xv

ABSTRAK ...... xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction ...... 1

1.2 Background to the Study ...... 6

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem ...... 9

1.4 Research Questions ...... 10

1.5 Objectives of the Study ...... 10

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1.6 Significance of the Study ...... 12

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Related Studies ...... 13

2.2 Review of Related Theories ...... 18

2.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis ...... 19

2.2.2 Consonant Deletion ...... 20

2.2.3 Cluster Tolerance ...... 20

2.2.4 Feature Change ...... 21

2.3 Theoretical Framework...... 23

2.3.1 Generative CV Phonology ...... 23

2.3.2 The Foundation of the Theory ...... 25

2.3.3 Theory Implication for the Study ...... 26

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Type of Study ...... 30

3.2 Source and number of data ...... 31

3.3 Data Collection and Data Selection ...... 31

3.3.1 Interviews ...... 31

3.3.2 Voice Note ...... 32

3.3.3 Introspection ...... 32

3.3.4 Sample size ...... 33

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3.4 Data Presentation ...... 34

3.5 Data Analysis ...... 35

3.6 Result verification ...... 35

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Sounds of Chagga ...... 38

4.1.1 Chagga Vowels ...... 38

4.1.2 Long Vowels in Chagga ...... 41

4.1.3 Chagga Consonants ...... 43

4.2 Chagga Syllable Structure ...... 48

4.2.1 Consonant Cluster at lexeme Initial Position ...... 50

4.2.2 Consonant Cluster at the Word Middle Position ...... 51

4.2.3 Consonant cluster at word final position ...... 51

4.3 Phonological Processes of Nativized Lexeme in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of

Chagga ...... 52

4.3.1 Phonological Processes Motivated by Syllable Structure Rules ...... 52

4.3.2 Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Affects Syllable...... 60

4.3.3 Assimilation ...... 66

4.3.4 Phonological Processes Motivated by Phonemic Reasons ...... 79

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusion ...... 92

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5.2 Suggestions for Further Research ...... 96

REFERENCES ...... 98

APPENDICES ...... 101

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The Chagga Vowel Sounds ...... 39

Table 2. Chagga Consonants ...... 44

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Types of tier in Syllable Structure [Cited from Clements Keyser 1983] ...... 24

Figure 2: Vowel Shortening ...... 25

Figure 3: Apocope in Swahili Language ...... 26

Figure 4: Vowel Sequencing ...... 28

Figure 5: Gliding due to Phonemic change ...... 28

Figure 6: Phonemic change ...... 28

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CV: Consonant Vowel PSSRs: Phonological Syllable Structure Rules RL: Recipient Language

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: The Interview Guide Questions ...... 102

Appendix 2: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga- Noun Category 103

Appendix 3: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga - Verb Category 107

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ABSTRACT

Gerald John Mallya. 2018. Phonological Processes in Chagga Nativized Lexemes Borrowed from Standard Swahili: A Chagga - English Comparative Study. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University Linguistics as a present study, acts as an instrument towards promoting local languages. This recent study aims at studying some of phonological processes in Chagga language (Particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties). Chagga is a Bantu language family of Benue Congo spoken by Chagga people of Tanzania, south of Mount Kilimanjaro. Borrowing is the act of taking a word or a phrase from one language and used it in another language. The borrowing process influences the researcher into empirical searching for the phonological processes in Chagga language brought about this linguistic phenomenon. The present study is carried out under Generative CV Phonology Theory, developed by linguists, Keyser and Clements in (1983). This theory strives to guide the present study on scrutinize phonological processes with their rules in Kibosho and Marangu varieties. The very study is the phonological type of study which employs qualitative method to scrutinize phonological processes of nativized loanwords in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language, from Standard Swahili language. The study employs Interview to observe the pronunciation by native speakers, voice note as linguistic variable need for homogenous resemblance of the uttered lexical items and the phonological processes. The researcher applies introspection for cognitive and empirical observation. To address research question one, two and three the study discovered that Chagga language has twenty four phonemes comprising five vowels and nineteen consonants in all Chagga varieties. Chagga has the syllable general structure of `CCV` constituting a nasal phoneme, an oral phoneme and a vowel. To answer research question one and two as the rules the study observed there are four major causes of phonological processes in Chagga as in English with very little variations namely: Phonological processes motivated by syllable structure rules [insertion], Phonological processes in Chagga language affecting syllable [deletion, rhotacism], Phonological processes due to assimilation process [dissimilation, voicing, partial and distant assimilation] and Phonological processes motivated by phonemic reasons [devoicing, diaffricatazation, consonant substitution, cluster tolerance, vowel lengthening]. In adhering problem three the study has found similar phonological processes between English and Chagga with very little differences especially on phonemes which undergo the changes hence advocates for further analyses in local African and Asian languages to pursue a similar study or any nearly phonological study in order to preserve and promote local linguistics contents from ones native language. Key words: Phonological processes, Nativazation, Phonological rules, Chagga language

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ABSTRAK

Gerald John Mallya. 2018. Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Nativized Lexemes Borrowed from Standard Swahili: A Chagga - English Comparative Study. Yogyakarta: Program Pascasarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Linguistik sebagai penelitian saat ini, penelitian ini bertindak sebagai instrumen untuk memajukan bahasa-bahasa lokal. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti beberapa proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga (terutama varietas Kibosho dan Marangu). Chagga adalah bahasa Bantu yang merupakan rumpun dari Benua Congo yang dipakai oleh orang Chagga di Tanzania, sebelah selatan Gunung Kilimanjaro. Proses borrowing mempengaruhi peneliti dalam penelitian empiris terhadap proses- proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga yang membawa fenomena linguistik ini. Penelitian ini dilakukan berdasarkan Generative CV Phonology Theory yang dikembangkan oleh ahli bahasa, Keyser dan Clements pada (1983). Teori ini berperan dalam memandu penelitian ini dalam meneliti proses-proses fonologi dengan rumusnya dalam variasi Kibosho dan Marangu. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian fonologi yang menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk meneliti proses-proses fonologi dari nativized loanwords dalam dialek Kibosho dan Marangu dalam bahasa Chagga, dari Bahasa standar Swahili. Penelitian ini menggunakan interview untuk mengamati pelafalan oleh penutur asli, voice note sebagai variabel linguistik yang diperlukan untuk kemiripan homogen dari kosa kata dan proses-proses fonologi yang disampaikan. Peneliti menggunakan instropeksi untuk pengamatan kognitif dan empiris. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa bahasa Chagga memiliki 24 fonem yang terdiri dari 5 huruf vokal dan 19 huruf konsonan di semua variasi Chagga. Chaga memiliki struktur umum kosa kata ‗CCV‘ yang terdiri dari nasal fonem, oral fonem, dan huruf vokal. Dengan teori Generative CV, di temukan bahwa terdapat 4 penyebab utama proses-proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga sebagaimana dalam bahasa Inggris dengan sedikit variasi yaitu: proses fonologi yang disebabkan oleh rumus struktur kosa kata [insertion], proses fonologi dalam bahasa Chagga yang mempengaruhi suku kata [deletion, rhoticism], proses fonologi karena proses asimilasi [dissimilation, voicing partial, and distant assimilation] dan proses fonologi yang disebabkan oleh alasan fonemik [devoicing, diaffrication, consonan substitution, cluster tolerance, vowel lengthening]. Kesimpulannya, penelitian ini menemukan proses-proses fonologi yang mirip antara bahasa Inggris dan Chagga. Penelitian ini menganjurkan analisis lebih lanjut dalam bahasa Asia untuk mencapai penelitian yang serupa atau penelitian fonologi yang serupa untuk memperkuat bahasa asli. Kata kunci: Proses-proses fonologi, Nativazation, Rumus –rumus fonologi, Bahasa Chagga.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The at hand study observes an English-Chagga comparative study. The chapter includes research background and an overall introduction of the study. It observes research background and the statement of the problem. Furthermore it discusses research objectives, research questions, and research assumptions, significance of the study also the scope and limitations of the study. Chagga is a Bantu language spoken by

Chagga people of Tanzania, south of Mount Kilimanjaro. Chagga people are also called

Wachaga, Jagga, Dschaga, and Waschaga (Mushi 2005). This language is categorized into Bantu language families, as an indigenous African; language spoken by the third largest ethnic group in Tanzania. Chagga people are traditionally living in the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and near Moshi. Dialect continuum is a range of dialects spoken across some natural area that differ only slightly between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that the speech from opposite ends of the continuum is no longer mutually intelligible.

Chagga people descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from the east of Africa into the foothills of Kilimanjaro. Linguistic evidence proves that the migration of these individuals predominantly came from the north and east of

Kilimanjaro (Lema 1973). Lema claims that, after Chagga arrival the development of chiefdoms emerged whereby each of the overriding chiefdoms developed their speech traditions emerged was not a unified Chagga language but a variety of dialects of the

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same language. That is why these people have several dialects while they are all Chagga people, staying in the same geographical location. Though there are no clear proofs about how these people arrived at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro, it is estimated that their arrival was gradually happened until they are fully established.

There is no evidence of a mass migration to Kilimanjaro; it appears that small groups of wandering people came to settle gradually on the mountain at different times and are incorporated into the population. Famine, drought or political instability forced them to leave their homes searching for food, better pastures, and higher rainfall areas and more secure subsistence farming (Lema, 1973).

Chagga people descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from elsewhere in

Africa to the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro. The migration began around the beginning of

11th century (Mushi 2005). Their language is related to Kamba of north-east Kenya and

Dabida, Pokomo in the east. Mushi further says that the Chagga people live at the foot of the famous and tallest mountain in Africa Mount Kilimanjaro.

The Chagga ethnic group has their homeland around southern slopes of Mount

Kilimanjaro, on the Tanzanian side of the Kenya and Tanzania border (Fisher (2012).

Chagga population is difficult to estimate because of the migration from Kilimanjaro to urban and rural areas elsewhere in Tanzania. Fisher gave an example on how 2002 census gives the population of the Chagga dominated districts of Moshi Rural, Rombo and Hai giving a total population of 908,868, since the population of Moshi Urban is of more mixed ethnicity though mostly comprises of the descendants, and is given as

144,336 people. Furthermore, within most of the literature and self-observation, Chagga people themselves readily are acquainted with the situation of diverse origins away from

Kilimanjaro.

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Early migration of the Bantu from the Niger – Congo led the Chagga to settle in the North Pare Mountains, home of the ancestral Chagga (Mtalo & Rubagumya 2015).

As the increase in demography, some of descendants looked for a new place to live.

They later settled in the Southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro which was a thick forest by then. All these movements contributed to lexical addition and reduction.

The Chagga phonemes have all parameters of Bantu languages specifically in its phonological features. Thereafter, comprehending Chagga phonological system particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties act as a helpful language instrument for the research to make a deep analysis of Phonological Processes of Nativized words in

Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga from Standard Swahili. Through this the researcher observed which features are reassigned from Swahili to Chagga, and those which are not. Sounds of Chagga are derived from field data as the researcher could not find enough materials on Chagga since there is no enough phonological documentation of the researched language.

The phonological parameters used to categorize vowels in Chagga language with its varieties are the same as those applied in English language which marks a similarities within a comparative study as: tongue height, tongue position and lip shape. In English language as well as Chagga language the tongue height parameter is concerned with raising part of the tongue involved when producing a vowel sound. Similarly to vowels,

Chagga has the various consonant sounds in its phonemic inventory. Stops [/ p /, / b/, /t/,

/ d/ and / k/], nasals / m, n. ɳ and ŋ/ fricatives [/ f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/], one affricate /

ʧ/. Also the lateral / l / and the trill / r/ and /w and y/. In Chagga language especially in

Kibosho variety glides cannot function as syllable nuclear without a vowel. Sounds of

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Chagga are derived from field data as the researcher could not find enough materials on

Chagga since there is no enough phonological documentation of the researched language.

The study exceeds other Chagga dialects including, Machame, Mochi Dialect,

Uru dialect and Rombo dialect, which said to borrow also from Standard Swahili. The researcher focuses on Kibosho and Marangu dialects which shares the same geographical boundaries, which enabled him to congregate synchronized data. The study limits itself into analyzing Phonological Processes of nativized words in Chagga language borrowed from Standard Swahili. Moreover, this study is limited only on phonological processes of nativized words specifically on vowel epenthesis, consonant deletion, cluster tolerance and feature change.

The phonological processes taking place on Chagga loanwords nativization are caused by different factors. Such factors are phonological processes that occur due to phonemic reason. Second, group of phonological processes is triggered by non- assimilation and assimilation rules. The third are the phonological changes that are motivated by Chagga PSSRs. Phonological processes motivated by syllable structure conditions as in English, also occur on Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga loanwords in that the loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological level is governed by syllable well-formedness in the RL. The phonological processes involved are aimed at realizing well-formed or permissible syllables in a given language. For example in Kibosho and Marangu varieties, the phonological processes include segment deletion, insertion and substitution. The study is restricted in analyzing Phonological

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processes that involved in Marangu and Kibosho dialects. The researcher uses five prominent respondents two from Marangu and three from Kibosho.

Chagga language is classified by Guthrie (1948) as a language belonging to

Niger – Congo class under the Bantu language family. Chagga language is classified as a language that belongs to Niger-Congo; Atlantic-Congo, Volta- Congo, Benue-Congo,

Bantoid, Southern, Narrow Bantu, Central, E, Chagga. Another classification claims that, Bantu languages into language families that show genetic relationships (Greenberg

2009), as the historical criteria. Greenberg believes that languages share a common ancestor by making a list of words in the potential languages that exhibit lexical and grammatical similarities meaning to say, they are similar in sound and meaning. He used Niger-Congo to cover the whole family as the proto languages of Bantu languages with Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga being included.

Chagga language has six dialects namely Marangu, Kibosho, Rombo, Machame, Uru, and Old Moshi. Chagga people speak various Kichagga dialects as their first languages

(Mushi 2005). One of these dialects, specifically Marangu, was standardized as the

Chagga standard variety.

Kirombo, Kimashami, Kikibosho, Kiuru, Kimochi, and Kivunjo are varieties of the same language namely Kichagga since they are small in size as they are spoken in a single geographical area (Mtalo & Rubagumya 2015). For instance, Kikibosho is spoken in Kibosho ward only, Kimarangu is spoken in Marangu ward only. Thus, each variety has a few numbers of speakers to consider it as an independent language.

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1.2 Background to the Study

This study is brought about by the foundations of borrowing phenomenon as the word formation process. It is defined as the act of taking a word or a phrase from one language and used it in another language. Mwaliwa confer on levels of borrowing, as, pure or adopted borrowing and adjusted or adapted borrowing (2014). The concept of pure borrowing as a type of borrowing involves taking the word in the recipient language without making any structural alterations in the word whereas adjusted borrowing as a type of borrowing whereby the loanword undergoes significant structural changes when it gets into the recipient language. These two categories of borrowing occur in all languages, depending on the structure of the languages involved.

Furthermore asserts that pure borrowing will take place if the structure of the Source

Language is similar to the structure of the Recipient Language.

On the other hand, the structure of the Source Language is different from the structure of the Recipient Language there will be adjusted borrowing will occur in that loanwords are usually modified to conform to the structure of Recipient Language. In addition, the recipient language adopts loanwords in order to fill semantic or stylistic slots not occupied by native words (Mutua 2007). Thus, there are some cases where loanwords co-occur with native forms as doublets. Such linguistic phenomena is referred as core borrowing and it is, in most cases, motivated by the prestige attached to the donor language when imported from a source to a borrowing language, loanwords often contain structures that violate phonological well-formed constraints of the borrowing language. Consequently, the beneficiary language typically modifies the new items in keeping with the pre-existing structure of the language. Mutua also observes

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that although languages share some basic sound characteristics, no language has exactly the same sound patterns as the other. The phonemic inventories and syllable structures of languages vary considerably. For example, most Bantu languages have a preference of open syllables.

In the study of language borrowing, one of the types of borrowings may occur across language boundaries. The speakers of a language have various options when confronted with new items and ideas in other languages. Borrowing has the nature in the sense that speakers may adopt the item or idea and the source language word for each

(Hoffer 2005). This nature of borrowing he termed it as Loanword. These forms now function in the usual grammatical processes, with nouns taking plural and/or possessive forms of the new language and with verbs and adjectives receiving native morphemes as well. Another process that occurs is that of adapting native words to the new meanings

(loan shift) further gave another nature which is Loan-translation where morphemes of borrowed words are translated item by item in the borrowing language. On the other hand loan blend is defined as mixed borrowing as there is an element of mixing characteristics of borrowing and lending languages. Phonological processes affect nativazation in order for a linguistic item to incorporate features of received language.

The phonological processes of loanword in Bantu languages undergo various phonological processes (Gardner 2012). He said that when two vowels come together, various phonological processes can occur to remove the hiatus, including: high vowels becoming glides, vowel deletion/elision, and vowel coalescence/merging resulting in a long or short vowel, and even glide insertion usually at the phonetic level. He believed that Glide formation is common in many Bantu languages like Swahili for the

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underlying /m(u)-/ to be realized phonetically as /mw-/ before a noun stem beginning with a vowel, as in;

a) /mu-aka/ (mwaka) Year

Bantu languages maintain a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels, which results into compensatory vowel lengthening following glide formation or before a prenasalized consonant (Gardner 2012). It also provides prove of the subsistence of a metrical tier distinct from the segmental. When two vowels come together, one vowel may delete or a long vowel /e: / may merge with a high vowel, resulting in a mid-vowel

(such as /a + i/ /o :/) and /a + u/ which he term it as vowel merging and deletion whereby the result may be long or short vowel. Language incorporates linguistic feature from another language for some reasons. However, through the process of borrowing, loanwords acquire features of that particular language.

Loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological level is governed by syllable well-formed in the recipient language (Mwita 2009). When a word is borrowed from one language to another, in most cases it violates some constraints of syllable well-formed. The recipient language moves fast to fix the problem. He gave an example, by saying that many languages try to avoid complex onsets and codas. He explains how loanwords from Arabic fit into syllable structure of Swahili language therefore it uses to revamp the nonconforming syllables of the borrowed words like:

Cluster tolerance, Feature change, Vowel epenthesis and Consonant deletion.

It is phonology that determines which combinations are permitted and which ones are not in any given language/sound patterns of the phonological hierarchy can combine. Hence the study strives to establish the means by which the words of the

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addressee system deals with phonologically diverse lexical borrowed from the benefactor languages.

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem

Phonological adjustment of loanwords is a fundamental process accurate to all languages. Nevertheless since the status of universal constraints is language specific, it is important to institute the machinery used by Chagga to indicate how words from

Standard Swahili are nativized by focusing on the possible modification the loanwords undergo in order to conform to the phonotactics of Chagga. Even though Chagga language has the mechanism of adapting loanwords into its system, other factors have made it retain the phonotactics of the donor language leading to changes in its phonology. Meaning to say, the operation of phonological processes on Chagga loanwords, triggered by some phonological or non-phonological factors, has led to changes in the phonology of Chagga language that are worth investigating.

Because Chagga language has not been researched much as English language and others Bantu languages, the study proposes to investigate phonological processes of nativized words that may occur in Chagga language, particularly Marangu and Kibosho dialects of the mentioned language by exploring the phonological rules that may take place in its Phonology.

Prominent linguistics scholars discussed the phonological processes that take place in different Bantu languages such as Ci-Ruuri and Swahili languages (Massamba,

2010). Having reviewing different researches done by various scholars, the study of phonological processes of nativized words become a point of interest in Chagga language and with clear attention on two major dialects as Marangu which said to be

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standardized variety of Chagga language and Kibosho dialect, that have not been researched according to the best of my knowledge as I could not come across with any related materials concerning phonological processes.

Most of scholars focus on Generative Phonology which could not capture certain features bigger than the segment, such as tone, vowel harmony, and syllables. The generative phonology never considered the syllable to have a role in the phonological organization. Hence, the study focuses explicitly on the phonological processes of nativized words that take place in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language.

1.4 Research Questions

This study is guided by three major questions which encouraged the researcher to conduct this phonological study. The questions are as formulated as follows:

1. What are the phonological processes of loanword nativization in Marangu and

Kibosho dialects of Chagga?

2. What rules underlie the phonological processes of nativized words occur in Marangu

and Kibosho dialects of Chagga?

3. What are the similarities and differences between Kibosho and Marangu varieties of

Chagga and English in terms of phonological processes in lexeme nativization?

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The study is guided with three specific objectives. This research was aimed at describing the phonological processes in Chagga lexeme nativization of loanwords from

Swahili. Meanwhile the study has general objective which caters the general and extensive overview of the study as the title advocates. The specific objectives helps the study to be narrowed for the linguistic verification of the searched data on the at hand

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study. Scrutiny phonological processes of nativized words of Chagga language particularly Marangu and Kibosho dialects. Since the study observe that Marangu and

Kibosho varieties said to be more standardized they are used to scrutiny phonological processes and their rules. This general objective develops three specific objectives to the present study as stipulated below.

This study aimed to identify phonological processes involved in nativization in

Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language. The study observes the stated phonological processes as used in English language and analyses if they exist and how they happen/used. In doing so, the study is limited only on phonological processes of nativized words specifically on vowel epenthesis, consonant deletion, cluster tolerance and feature change. This will derive some of English phonological processes and their realization in the two varieties of Chagga.

The study also aimed to discover the underlying rules of the phonological processes for nativized words in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga. Since the study come with the phonological processes that occur in Kibosho and Marangu varieties, the study also analyses the possible formal and informal rules that govern the processes. The rules are verified by CV-Generative Syllable structure. By the help of such theory, the study is developing varieties of phonological rules that easily explain the processes.

The third objective is describing the similarities and differences between English and Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language. This study is implicitly observing possible variations occur in between English loan words from different

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languages of the world and that of Chagga from Standard Swahili. The variation is explained in each process.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study provides assistance to linguists with information that they may little have or never been aware of with view to phonological processes of nativized words.

The study also is of, significant as it inserts knowledge to the continuing studies on the loanword phenomena in Bantu languages. It is expected that this study on nativization of Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language loanwords is an important source of information on African linguistic studies and it will add to scholarly knowledge through the use of ‗CV‘ Phonology theory. It is a useful linguistic study for it emphasize on upgrading local contents. The study also invites language scholars to engage in the use of smart instruments for data collection and by doing so one improves his/her techknowledge ability.

The at hand study is believed of promoting local and Bantu language for it alert language users all over the universe to come up with the improvement of the same study and even rather related study. Chagga users get to know how their native language is of important on how they are to promote, protect and preserve their local linguistics studies.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this section with its focuses on, a review of relevant literature related to the study and the theoretical framework is well observed. The foremost, session advocates empirical review of related studies. The second part discuses the theory which the study is based on and its relevance. The last section of this chapter discusses the tenets of

‗CV‘ Phonology Theory that is be used in this study and the applicability of the theory in accounting for the loanword phenomenon in Marangu and Kibosho varieties of

Chagga language.

2.1 Review of Related Studies

This part is about literature review based on the works of various scholars who have conducted study on Phonological Processes and Phonological adaptation in their respective language including; Newman (2010), Zivenge (2009), Massamba (1991),

Chimhundu (2002), Mahlangu (2007), Ziegler & Goswami, (2005), Mwihaki (1998),

Mwita (2009), Massamba (2010), Ndambuki (2013), Mwaliwa (2014).

Although languages have certain basic properties which they tend to share; it is very unlikely that any two languages will have exactly the same sound patterns

(|Massamba 1991). Moreover, each language has its own sequential constraints. He claims that, those sequences of sounds that are acceptable in the formation of words of a language are said to be well-formed while those that are not are said to be ill-formed.

He further clarifies that, it is also possible to have a form which, according to sequential constraints of a given language, is ill-formed but it is found in the lexicon of that

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language. He gave an example of [skw] as not allowed in Swahili language but it occurs in [skwea] adapted from the English word [square]. His observation is of great significance in the present study as the aspect of phonological change as a result of borrowing will be investigated. Consequently this observation is very important to this study that looks into how such illicit clusters are dealt with in Chagga language. Later he came with the discussion on the inventories of some African languages and argues that,

―All languages cannot be the same‖ because each language chooses only a limited number of phonemes to represent its sounds (Massamba 1996). xTo view the inimitability of languages, Massamba argues that, ―Each phonological system utilizes sound segments from the central pool of sounds in its own way (Massamba 1996:14).‖

He moves on to dispute that; ―Each phonological system has its own order of occurrence of sounds, its own number of possible sounds, its own processes that effect sound changes, its own nature of distinctiveness of sound features and its own redundancies (Massamba1996:14).‖ His work is of much use to the at hand study in the following ways. Firstly, some of the phonological processes he discusses also obtain in varieties of Chagga language. The discussion on the phoneme systems of languages is also useful in that the at hand study aims at coming up with Chagga phoneme catalog.

A loanword is a word adopted from one language the benefactor language and incorporated into another language without translation. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that share an etymological origin in common. Loanword nativization in some Bantu languages has, to some extent, been explored by various scholars. Mwihaki has conceded out A Phonological Study of

Kikuyu Loanwords Borrowed from English (1998). His study identifies three aspects of

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loanword adaptation: phonemic, phonotactics and prosodic. Phonemic adaptation addresses the grammatical constraints of unitary sound substitution. Phonotactics adaptation defines the harmonic motivation for phonemic combination and distribution in the loanword. Prosodic adaptation considers the principles of syllabification and the assignment of the prosodic features. The main variation between Mwihaki‘s study and the present study is on the theoretical orientations. Whereas Mwihaki‘s study employs

Auto segmental and Metrical Phonology in the analysis of loanwords, this study focuses at Generative ‗CV‘ Phonology.

A study on ‘Comparative Linguistics of African languages’ was done by

Newman 2010. He provides a paradigm of Hausa language which, before the influx of

Arabic loanwords, did not have /h/ as a distinct phoneme. The sound /h/ existed, but only as an allophone of /f/ before back vowels as in: ‗dafu’ [dahu] meaning {be cooked}. As a result of wide reaching Arabic influence, subsequently reinforced by loanwords from English, /h/ emerged as a fully functional consonant in the language.

This over view is of essential as it will guide the research in establishing the extent to which Kikamba phonology has been affected by borrowing.

Chimhundu writes on the Adoption and Adaptation of English Words into the

Shona language. He looks at consonant and vowel nativization that he prefers to refer to as adaptation (2002). In his argument, some sounds and consonant clusters that are found in the English language are not recognized in Shona and as a result they are rephonologized so that they become agreeable with Shona linguistic rules, the receiving language. This notion of adaptation in the context of Shona, will provides the in progress study insight into some of the processes of nativization such as substitution.

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Chimhundu‘s account of adaptation is also insightful in that he establishes that usually monolinguals completely adapt foreign words, at the same time as bilinguals sometimes choose to incorporate some aspects of phonology of the foreign language into the native form. Chimhundu does not account for the various phonological changes that occur during nativization which will be the major focus of this particular study.

A research on the Effects of Spelling Consistency on Phonological Awareness and found out that among natural languages, no writing systems without spoken language but there are spoken words without writing systems (Ziegler and Goswami,

2005). In other words, it is by and large the sound system that determines the writing system but not otherwise. They further claim that studies on the impact of the first language orthography thus cannot rule out the confounding variable of spoken language results may be attributable to first language phonology rather than to first language orthography.

Besides, Mahlangu (2007) has studied and depict how Ndebele, a South African

Bantu language, phonologically and morphologically adopts lexical items that come from Afrikaans and English. Mahlangu‘s study considers the possible rules that Ndebele applies in the adoption of foreign words. The study reveals that not all Afrikaans and

English consonant clusters conform to the Ndebele consonant system. Some of the donor languages‘ consonant clusters, for instance, are adopted ‗as is‘, meaning that they do not conform to the CV syllable structure of Ndebele as is the case of most African languages. Although the approach taken by Mahlangu, is different from the one taken by the present study, his study is relevant as it lays foundation for the phonological scrutiny of Chagga language which is also a Bantu language.

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Nativization is the process of adapting a loan word to the phonetic structure of the native language. Nativization is the process of developing a pidgin language into

Creole. Zivenge (2009) in Phonological Nativization of English Loanwords in Tonga accounted for the phonological performance and changes that take place in English words that enter into Tonga. The study analyzed phonological processes that are employed during nativization of loan words by analyzing how Tonga speakers handle aspects of English language such as diphthongs, triphthongs, cluster consonants, CVC syllable structure and sounds in repairing unacceptable sequences in Tonga.

He found that many phonological processes found in Tonga‘s main purposes are to break English diphthongs, triphthongs and cluster consonants which are illegal in the language. He discusses the language‘s syllable structure. He notes that like many Bantu languages, the optimal syllable structure in Tonga is the canonical CV. His study is advantageously in the scrutiny of phonological processes in Chagga language. Ziveng‘s study considers only substitution and vowel epenthesis in the adoption of foreign words whereas at ease study observes much on all possible phonological processes that occur in Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga loanword nativization.

A donor language refers to the language from which a loanword is derived.

Standard Swahili is a donor language in this perspective. Meanwhile a receiving language can refer to language which acquires a loanword. Hence Chagga language is hereby a receiving language. Mwita did research on The Adaptation of Swahili

Loanwords from Arabic and came up with results that the processes that loanwords undergo when they are adapted from Arabic into Swahili (2009). The data used is from

Bosha (1993) and a constraint-based analysis was used. The results also shows that

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Swahili language mainly uses vowel epenthesis to repair syllables but other procedures like consonant deletion, cluster tolerance and feature change are also used.

It has also been confirmed that Kiswahili is susceptible to consonant clusters within syllables because of its long association with non-Bantu languages, mainly

Arabic and English. He further claims that rules of phonological borrowing contain little actual analysis of the phonological adaptations that loanwords undergo in the course of being borrowed. He noted that the P rules (Phonological rules) accounts for only phonetic information in their environment. The phonetic information includes syllable boundaries of borrowed words which is the use features which have instristic phonetic content. His conclusion is on phonological rules which occur in loanword nativization; assimilation, strengthening and weakening. The morphemes deleted and inserted in the borrowed word justify these rules.

2.2 Review of Related Theories

Borrowing refers to the act of taking a word or a phrase from one language and used it in another language. Mwaliwa confer on levels of borrowing, as, pure or adopted borrowing and adjusted or adapted borrowing (2014). The concept of pure borrowing as a type of borrowing involves taking the word in the recipient language without making any structural alterations in the word whereas adjusted borrowing as a type of borrowing whereby the loanword undergoes significant structural changes when it gets into the recipient language. These two categories of borrowing occur in all languages, depending on the structure of the languages involved. In borrowing processes, one of the types of borrowings may occur across language boundaries. The speakers of a language have various options when confronted with new items and ideas

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in other languages. Borrowing has the nature in the sense that speakers may adopt the item or idea and the source language word for each (Hoffer 2005). This nature of borrowing he termed it as Loanword. The researcher needed to review the related theories from various sources for adhering to the objectives and research questions particularly the first and the second question. The study goal is to find any differences and similarities in between English and Chagga languages pertaining some selected phonological processes. The discussed theories provide a range of the study to be of equal observation hence avoidance of biasness in study discussion. The following are the related theories that this study cater to discuss.

2.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis

This phenomenon deals with the insertion of vowel between two consonants or after a consonant in a syllable final position. The below example provide lexemes from

Arabic language to standard Swahili with its transcriptions and the gloss of such lexemes. This is shown in data beneath;

Arabic Coding Swahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding

a) Sebab sababu /sa.ba.bu/ reason

b) Unwan anwani /a.nwa.ni/ address

c) Adhuhr adhuhuri /a u.hu.ri/ trouble

d) Urs arusi /a.ru.si/ wedding

The above data provide the vivid of what is referred to be phonological vowel epenthesis whereby some vowels undergo changes soon after been borrowed from

Arabic language to Swahili. The process happens also for making native speakers of

Swahili easier pronunciation of nativized lexemes.

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2.2.2 Consonant Deletion

In this phonological process, some words violate consonants so as to respect the syllable structure of the Bantu languages which is CVC. The process is done for that the lexemes adopt the word system of the target language. Examples are stipulated below;

Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding

a) Ammar amiri /a.mi.ri/ begin

b) Budd budi /bu.di/ alternative

c) Assubh asubuhi /a.su.bu.hi/ morning

This is to say the nativized lexemes from Arabic language are experiencing consonant deletion phonological process for making phonotactics resemblance of the borrowed lexemes. The syllable structure of Bantu language influences the process to take place hereby speakers could easily utter the nativized words.

2.2.3 Cluster Tolerance

There are few cases where recipient language maintains the cluster that was in borrowed language as stipulated in the below extract.

Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding

a) Izz enzi /en.zi / power

b) Unwan anwani /a.nwa.ni/ address

c) Amr amri /am.ri/ command

As stated above the example provided are borrowed lexemes that abide with the rule of retaining their former state of phonetics. The change of the phonotactics are not emphasized in such lexemes from Arabic language shifted to Swahili. Thus there is a great retain of lexeme cluster as the words do not change their structure.

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2.2.4 Feature Change

Sometimes, features of the borrowed words like as observed in English language, are changed since it might happen that there are some phonemes that are in borrowed language but not found in the recipient language. If this happen, then it has to be changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. The following are the examples where Arabic /q/ and /kh/ are realized as /k/ and /h/ respectively.

Arabic Coding Kiswahili Coding Formal Transcription English Coding

a) Waqf wakfu /wak.fu/ religious endowment

b) Usquf askofu /a.sko.fu/ bishop

c) Waqt wakati /wa.ka.ti/ time

Afterward, Massamba states that in phonology of a language there are some natural processes which could not be found in every language (2010). He further argues that during the phonological processes a sound segment is made alike to behave more like a neighboring segment? In other words a segment may acquire features from a neighboring segment. The process may be whether progressive or regressive. Moreover, there also non assimilatory processes which could also occur in a language and it is very difficult to provide clear reason as to why they occur.

Ndambuki studied on A Constraint-Based Analysis of Kikamba Nativized

Loanwords .His study has investigated the strategies used by the recipient system,

Kikamba, to handle phonologically different words from English (2013). The study noted the beneficiary language has open syllables and does not allow consonant clusters in the onset. English has closed syllables and allows consonant clusters in both onset and coda positions. Moreover the phonemic inventories of the two languages also differ

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considerably. The borrowed words are, therefore, significantly modified in order to conform to the phonotactics of Kikamba. The scrutiny have revealed that in dealing with disallowed codas and consonant clusters, three main strategies: insertion, deletion and feature change are used in order to satisfy high-ranked markedness constraints in

Kikamba. In addition he points out that content word are borrowed more easily than function words since the former have a clear link to cultural content and the latter do not. The findings are very important as it contribute to analysis of phonological processes of nativized words in Chagga from Standard Swahili language.

Additionally, Mwaliwa conducted a study on Analysis of the Syllable Structure of

Standard Swahili Loanwords from Modern Standard Arabic and argues that syllable structure rules {PSSRs} are the rules that convert complex or abnormal syllable structures to simpler or normal ones (2014). PSSRs are the syllable structure processes that are motivated by syllable structure constraints of a language. That is, these processes determine the positions of consonant and vowel segments in a syllable or word as governed by the language‘s phonotactics rules. For instance, preferred syllable structure rules in Kiswahili are vowel coalescence, segment deletion, glide formation and segment insertion. Maximum differentiation rule is also referred to as a dissimilation rule. In Kiswahili, glide formation is an example of maximum differentiation rule. This process occurs in the environment of two contiguous vowels, where one of the vowels changes to a glide due to this change, one of the vowels becomes less similar to the other, such that there is a sequence of a glide followed by a vowel.

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2.3 Theoretical Framework

This study is carried out by Generative CV Phonology developed by linguists,

Keyser and Clements 1983. This theory strives to guide the present study on scrutinize phonological processes with their rules govern in Marangu and Kibosho varieties. This theoretical framework provides a great and prominent significant role on a Bantu language analysis from north eastern part of Tanzania.

2.3.1 Generative CV Phonology

Phonological environments refer to the surrounding sounds of a target speech sound, or target phone, in a word. The phonology environment of a phone can sometimes determine the allophonic or phonemic qualities of a sound. Meanwhile phonological processes are prescribed ways of analyzing speech sounds of any language of human. They are the patterns that young children, use to simplify adult speech.

Generative CV-Phonology is a non-linear model focused on the syllable structure that was developed by Clements and Keyser 1983. The theory grasps that many phonological rules only receive appropriate formulations regarding the syllable.

Clements and Keyser affirm that a syllable is a phonological unit that plays a noteworthy role in determining the organization of segments in a language. Many phonological processes in language are motivated by the need to maintain the preferred syllable structure of the language.

The Generative CV Phonology model was built upon Kahn‘s 1976 theory of syllable representation. Kahn‘s model of the syllable has two tiers, to be exact the syllable line and segmental level. Clements and Keyser modified Kahn‘s model by introducing a third layer, known as CV tier to reconcile between the syllable tier and the

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segmental level. The CV line was introduced so as to tackle the shortfalls identified in

Kahn‘s model. Clement and Keyser clarify that in his study Khan proposed to expand the notion of phonological representations assumed in such works as Chomsky and

Halle‘s Sound Pattern of English, 1968 by introducing a new tier of representation involving strings of the symbol [s] representing the node ‗syllable‘ (1983: 3). Hence the modification of Khan‘s notion was done.

Also, according to Clements and Keyser claim, ―The CV Phonology theory provides a complete characterization of all statements and processes referring to the syllable and its constituents.‖ In light of this observation, the present study will employ this concept in order to insightfully account for syllable structure processes such as glide formation, epenthesis, assimilation and substitution in Chagga language particularly Marangu and Kibosho varieties. Clements and Keyser major concern is to demonstrate a syllable structure. They argue that syllable is a hierarchical unit, which has tiers as immediate constituents. Clements and Keyser, demonstrate that the syllable has three tiers, the syllable node, the CV tier and the tier for the bundles to differentiate the segments, as stipulated beneath:

Syllable node ζ ζ ζ

CV tire C C V C V C

Segmental tier M w a l i m

Figure 1: Types of tier in Syllable Structure [Cited from Clements Keyser 1983]

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2.3.2 The Foundation of the Theory

Clement and Keyser (1983) provide that a universal theory of syllable has, in their view, three specific tasks or main aspects (pp: 25). These are stipulated below; commencing with, CV Phonology must specify the well-formed expressions of the theory. Thus, it provides an alphabet out of which syllable units are constructed together with a characterization of the permissible array of alphabetic units. Thus, it must specify the parameters along which individual languages vary in their choice of syllable types.

Moreover, it must exemplify the class of language particular rules which modify or extend the underlying syllable representations (syllabification rules) and state how these rules are integrated into the general organization of the phonological component. The theory can be clarify and exemplify by considering some examples from the following study which have used the theory.

Clement and Keyser (1983) in CV Phonology: A Generative Theory of the Syllable collected and analyzed some data from Turkish. In their analysis of Turkish syllable they discovered that phonological processes have an effect of eliminating extra-syllabic segments from representation either by deleting them degemination, inserting an epenthetic vowel epenthesis or else deleting one mora of a long vowel/vowel shortening. These processes are illustrated below:

ζ ζ ζ ζ

C V C V V C C V C V C

z a m a n [Earlier] z a m a n

Figure 2: Vowel Shortening

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ζ ζ ζ

C C V C V C

M w a l i m [Teacher] (Apocope) Figure 3: Apocope in Swahili Language Thereafter, figure two (2) provided an example of phoneme shortening whereas Swahili borrowed lexeme appeared to be shortened for easy articulation by speakers. The shortening is observed while pronunciation of such lexeme. Meanwhile for figure three

(3), apocope happened to the nativized lexeme after deletion of the vowel and insertion of semi vowel/approximant phoneme into the lexeme also purposely on utterance need.

In the analysis of phonological processes of nativized words in Chagga language, the research focused much on Generative CV Phonology. The rationale is that

Generative CV Phonology is a non-linear model focused on the syllable structure that uses the hierarchical model in analyzing a segment. Many phonological processes in language are motivated by the need to maintain the preferred syllable structure of the language. Under Generative CV Phonology model it was found that when the onset first principle is applied, it obtains a different syllable structure. The stated syllable-based theory will be applied to conduct an empirical analysis of the Phonological Processes of loanwords borrowed from Standard Swahili language in Chagga language.

2.3.3 Theory Implication for the Study

Tanzania has got many scholars dealing with linguistics studies, but almost have usual focus on the phonological studies that the Bantu languages apply in the

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nativization on loan words especially content words like; verbs, noun. Never the less,

Linguists do not heated discussion the fact that borrowing is never the same in borrowing languages. Adoption and adjustment of loan word in the phonological and morphological system of the borrowing language are the key principles that every borrowing language implies, meaning that area on loan item has to be pronounceable in that receiving language.

A study using CV-phonology was done and came up with result that languages that have C+C+V syllable pattern, vowel sequencing can be realized as VV (-C+V-C+V), where each V element is a nuclear of a syllable. Example is drawn from the Tonga language word /muenzi/ meaning visitor, where /ue/ is a VV vowel sequence. In other words, these are two syllables (–C+V-C+V) and not diphthongs, since Tonga does not allow diphthongization of vowels (Zivenge 2009). This VV sequencing is acceptable in

Tonga language. Conversely, glides may be epenthesised to have +C+V+C+V sequencing. In the language, only glides may be epenthesised to function as onsets in

VV vowel sequencing but cannot function as codas, since it does not have codas on its syllables.

a) ζ ζ ζ

C V V C C V

m u e d z i [moon]

VV {vowel sequencing}

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Figure 4: Vowel Sequencing

b) ζ ζ ζ

C V C V C C V

m u w e d z i [moon]

{Phonemic change: Gliding}

Figure 5: Gliding due to Phonemic change

c) ζ ζ

C V C V

C C

m w e d z i

Figure 6: Phonemic change The phonological process advocated by figure six shows its relationship from the feature change occurred from figure five due to gliding process of the two long

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vowels /u/ and /e/ changes to semi vowel/approximant, /w/. This process is affected by the phonological environment. It is claimed that the change is experienced on segments that are both dominated by V-elements, thus with greater sonority especially in English language, it follows that the outcome should have vowel characteristics. The only class of segments with vowel characteristics is that of glides. This provides a gap for the recent study to be conducted.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

In this section, the study observes research methodology and its design.

Discussed components include the type of study to be used for recent study, source and number of data. Furthermore, data collection techniques thus methods to be used for collecting data are shown. The section also includes data analysis steps and how data are presented. Lastly this chapter discusses result verification of the study since it is an empirical scrutiny.

3.1 Type of Study

This thesis is a phonological study in Bantu language particularly Chagga language. The study employs qualitative method to scrutinize phonological processes of nativized loanwords in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga language, from

Standard Swahili language. In order to understand well phonological processes occur in

Chagga language the study advocated by qualitative approach so as to sort out all possible nativized Chagga loan words from the data source. A case study design is of useful for this study.

Two study areas are used for the means by the researcher has a limited range of time to conduct the study. He used the data source for interview to testify the borrowed words and analyzing the phonological processes found in the words from standard

Swahili language. The studied areas provide at hand study with accurate information as the chosen respondents were of well informants three from Kibosho and two Marangu varieties of Chagga language. The number of respondents (five) shapes the study to be of qualitative in nature by providing prominent information as was required.

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3.2 Source and number of data

The well dexterity of (2009) with a total numbers of (201) data both verb inventory and noun inventory category, is of useful data source with current usage of the lexemes by the five prominent speakers of the two selected varieties of Chagga language. The criterion used to select informants is the fact that the informants are

Chagga speakers and of the two selected variety with standard Swahili ability. Not only native and active speakers were selected, but also aging was a prior factor for selecting respondents for analyzing the corpus with much wisdom and credibility to the linguistic knowledge for Bantu speakers.

The study covers Kilimanjaro region particularly Kibosho ward at Moshi rural district, and Marangu ward at Vunjo district. Kibosho and Marangu five language skilled native speakers of Chagga language are the target of the study. Also the selection observes respondents who are well interactive with the standard Swahili language.

3.3 Data Collection and Data Selection

In this section the study discusses much on sample size and the study techniques used in the study. The at hand study employs interview technique for stimulating the knowledge on nativazation phenomenon towards respondents. The researcher employ voice note to acknowledge advancement of science as well as getting the pure utterance of lexemes from respondents. Furthermore he uses introspection linguistics data collection for lexeme categorizing.

3.3.1 Interviews

It was worthy employing interview for that the researcher uses the secondary data namely dexterity lexical data project. The point of view is to testify the

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pronunciation by native speakers of Marangu and Kibosho dialects of Chagga language.

Respondents were also kindly requested to utter the corpus 2 and 3 of Swahili version. It later helps in identifying the borrowed words from standard Swahili language by means of voice note. Respondents without any prior information of such phonological processes uttered the words from the provided corpus by the researcher and this analyzes the homogeneous pronunciation of the sorted words from the two varieties of

Chagga language.

3.3.2 Voice Note

This study finds the need to acknowledge the advancement of science and techknowledge, by using voice note from smart phones. Respondents are being recorded willingly by the researcher using smart phone program on voice detection for pronunciation purpose. Later the recorded voices are to be deleted by the researcher after pronunciation verification since is the agreement between researcher and his respondents. The researcher does not exemplify the notion of phonological processes to respondents for the main reason of getting the pure utterance of the selected two varieties of Chagga language. The other purpose of using voice note is a linguistic variable need for homogenous resemblance of the uttered lexical items from the two varieties hence the researcher easily determine the phonological processes.

3.3.3 Introspection

This study aims mostly on loan words. Introspection refers to linguistics data collection procedure where at stake are inner states and processes. For a while it was thought that in some strands of linguistics that the linguists could obtain data by introspection. Therefore the use of introspection is purposely to clearly find the notable

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Chagga words even out of noun and verbs that undergo phonological process before shifted to beneficiary language. It is also mostly used by linguists for categorizing word classes in a large number of lexeme (like the present study) for easy sorting.

The researcher mostly applies introspection since he individually wanted to get data at hand. He didn‘t want to get all the data from respondents as he has competence and well performing abilities on selected varieties. It is a cognitive and empirical observation of the researcher on the word category of the selected (201) nativized lexemes from standard Swahili. Meanwhile it has not only become empirically obvious that such products are often unreliable, but there is also a consensus that in view of the methodological standards set out in the section on data they are not data in the sense of any scientific discipline as this of phonological processes.

3.3.4 Sample size

The study employs five native and active speakers of Chagga language. Three respondents from Kibosho and two from Marangu variety were chosen. Respondents‘ selection is advocated by the age significant since the researcher believes the study requires personnel of the studied language hence a range of 40 and above fits the study.

The sample size is believed to be of useful so as to avoid bias. The other prominent criterion used by the researcher for selecting respondents is education level of his respondents. The study requires most of the data to be of linguistics benefits and avoidance of redundancy hence employs the best respondents to suit the intended objectives.

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3.4 Data Presentation

The study observed that there are four major causes of phonological processes as those motivated by syllable by syllable structure rules, phonological processes in

Chagga language affecting syllable, phonological processes due to assimilation and those processes motivated by phonemic reasons therefore the researcher discussed the processes in the four range. In each of the processes discussed first the study observed whether there is existence of such phonological process, then the study derived the rule underlying observed process and at each discussion the study provided the variation between English and Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga for easy understanding and avoidance of data redundancy.

Firstly; the researcher discussed the phonemes of studied language in comparison with English language with its syllable structures and cluster. Then empirical analysis is done to categorize collected corpus and arrange them systematically referring to their word classes as data 1 to be named appendix one (1) thus verbs, and data (2) two as nouns. This has softened the reduplication of contents.

Researcher then provides some interview to respondents for brainstorming their little understanding about lexeme nativazation from Standard Swahili to Chagga. This will provide the study with clear classification of the selected lexemes of (201) from the two varieties of Chagga language which are said to be more standard.

Secondly; Phonological processed words are sorted for instrumentalizing syllable structure that the researcher easily analyzes the collected data. Since the researcher is prominent and an active speaker of Chagga language, he linguistically transcribed the collected data (Phonetic transcription), and with the guidance of the

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theory he determined the phonological processes that occur in the preferable dialects

(Kibosho and Marangu), of nativized Chagga language as a way of presenting the collected data and come up with both formal and unceremonial/ informal rules. Each process is separately presented with prominent examples from the required dialects and the formulated rule(s), thus formal and informal ones. The English – Chagga phonological processes comparison is in a range of observation by this study to find any similarities and differences exist in between English and Chagga.

3.5 Data Analysis

The study data are sampled and collected from a well dexterity lexical project data of 2009. Implicitly it was verified by respondents from Kibosho and Marangu to find either there are any phonological processes occurred in those loan words. The researcher systematically selects the respondents who suit the study. The required respondents are from native and active speakers of the two dialects chosen. Expected number of days to spend finding the prominent respondents is four to five days. Three days were used for Kibosho speakers and two for Marangu speakers by confirming their willingness and trustworthy on providing assistance towards fulfillment of this study.

3.6 Result verification

The study on phonological processes of nativized words from standard Swahili is firstly verified by the help of the CV-Generative Phonology structure theoretical framework. Thus the foundation of the study is guided with the overview of this theory.

The theory determines the results as when they co-occur one another. This phonological rule is used to test the collected data and the information provided by respondents. The researcher is using the theory to verify the linguistics empirical information obtained so

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as to come up with rules that provide the vivid on existence of such phonological processes in the two selected varieties of Chagga.

The related literature review also plays a great prominent role towards results of this study as most of the studies are from Bantu languages as well as the most recently searched studies which have close relation to Chagga. Various prominent scholars in this linguistic field like lecturers, writers, are used for result verification in due their knowledge about the present study. At most the implicit comparison between English phonological processes with their rules and the two dialects of Chagga will provide a vivid verification since there is great resemblance of the processes versus the formulated rules.

The researcher also verified the study data by assuring that the provided research questions have met their required answers. Since the study is a linguistics approach thesis, its answers and the formulated rules if matched with known rules then the study marked them as empirical verified analysis. The study questions and objectives were the mostly targeted goal for this study verification. Hence this marks the third means of study verification for the present research.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section scrutinizes the data collected by the researcher from the informants.

The main guide for the findings and analysis was the objectives of the study and research questions more specifically the informants were interviewed and relevant as well as required information was provided. This chapter includes sounds of Chagga and the findings. The sounds were discussed here for easy understanding and reader friendly of the present study. In order to understand sound of Chagga the study further discussed the syllable structure so as to allocate how one can derive the phonological rules of a certain phonological processes. It should also be noted that, the sounds of Chagga and syllable structure are not the data analysis but they provide prior information for one to understand how phonological processes and their formulated rules brought about. This analysis deals only with the borrowed words from Standard Swahili.

The implicit comparison between the selected dialects and English language is implicitly observed. It is phonologically enlightening for the study to make an easy discussion for readers to understand the discussion by commencing with sounds of

Chagga language, also syllable structure rules for determining the rules underlying the processes as well as the cluster in the studied language for one to comprehend how a certain rule is derived. Then the study describe the processes according to their four causes with their formulated rules and hence the comparison for readers easy adhering to the study.

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4.1 Sounds of Chagga

An inclusive scrutiny of the sound segments and the sequences in which sounds appear could give us grounds for predicting which sounds a speaker would be likely to substitute in each given case. It is necessary to describe the phonemic inventories of the languages under study. The Chagga phonemes have all parameters dealt with the study of lexicon of Bantu languages specifically on phonological features. Thereafter, comprehending Chagga phonological system particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties is helpful language instrument for the research to make a deep analysis of

Phonological Processes of Nativized words in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga from Standard Swahili. Through this the researcher observed which features are reassigned from Swahili to Chagga, and those which are not. Sounds of Chagga are derived from field data as the researcher could not find enough materials on Chagga since there is no enough phonological documentation of the researched language.

4.1.1 Chagga Vowels

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parameter shows the point along the tongue that is involved in the articulation of the vowel sound1.

Nurse and Philippson (1977) discussed on the Chagga sound inventory as a result, they came up with five vowels: [a, e, i, o, u]. According to study observation,

Chagga language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties also has five vowels [a, e, i, o, u]. The stated vowels of Chagga by this study constitute all varieties of Chagga.

The five dialects uses the same vowels regardless of their variation in either pronunciation, orthography or even meaning. Chagga descendants recognize the vowels in their level of language usage. The mentioned Chagga vowels are represented by the following table with their tongue height, tongue position and lip shape as the basic categories on classification of vowel sounds.

Table 1. The Chagga Vowel Sounds

Front Mid Back

High i u

Mid e o

Low a

Bantu languages are grouped into two. One group are languages with five vowels [a, ɛ, i, ɔ, u], and in the second group are those with seven vowels [a, ɛ i, e, o, ɔ, u]. Guthrie

(1948)

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The above Chagga vowels with their distinctive phonological features namely; tongue height, tongue position and lip shape can be observed in the following Chagga lexemes with the initial example of English lexemes for the study comparison.

1. /a/ {mid, low unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; car/kar/, party/pa:r.ti/,

park/pa:rk/, calm/ka:m/, drama/dra:ma/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

a. ura /ura/ ‗buy‘

b. kumba /kumba/ ‗sell‘

c. maruu /maru:/ ‗bananas

d. nangu /nangu:/ ‗calabash‘

e. enna /enna/ ‗drink‘ 1) /e/ {front, mid, unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; let/let/, tell/tel/,

end/end/, send/send/, press/pres/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss a. deda /deda/ ‗talk‘

b. ende /ende/ ‗bring‘

c. madende /madende/ ‗legs‘

d. mremi /mremi/ ‗farmer‘

e. terewa /terewa/ ‗ask‘

2) /i/ {front, high, unrounded vowel} as in English lexemes; it/it/, tip/tip/,

pick/pik/, busy/biz:i/, pity/pit:i/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

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a. ichoondi /ičo:ndi/ ‘sheep’

b. ikari /ikari/ ‗ a car‘

c. ikumbi /ikumbi/ ‗hoe‘

d. kilima /kilima/ ‗mount‘

e. iriwa /iriwa/ ‗lake‘

3) /o/ {back, mid, rounded vowel} as in English lexemes; not/not/, copy/kop.i/,

rock/rok/, bottle/bot.l/, model/mod.l/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

a. mdo /mdo/ ‗head‘

b. mso /mso/ ‗flour‘

c. pfo /fo/ ‘not’

4) /u/ as in English lexemes; look/luk/, book/buk/, put/put/, could/kud/,push/puʃ/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

a. busua /busua/ ‗pour‘

b. ura /ura/ ‗buy‘

c. kulya /kulya/ ‗to eat‘

d. runda /runda/ ‗work‘

4.1.2 Long Vowels in Chagga

A long vowel in Chagga is the result of vowel coalescence. Heine and

Philippson (1977) claim in their study that in Chagga as well as in English language the rules of vowel coalescence should be emphasized that the coalescence of any two vowels does not automatically result in a phonologically long vowels. There are

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basically four long vowels in Chagga language; /a:/ mid, low and lax vowel, /e:/ a front, mid lax vowel, /o:/ a back, mid, rounded lax vowel, /o/ a more back low, rounded lax vowel. The further illustration on their occurrence is stipulated in example six (6) below. They said that we should not always consider the result of the coalescence to be a phonologically long vowel. Let us consider the word lia in Chagga which means ‗(to) eat‘

6) a. /lia/ [lya]

b. /lia / /li+a/ [la]

However in some cases the result of coalescence generates phonologically long vowels as in data below:

aamelia  ‗he has eaten‘

a+a a

/aamelia/ [amelya]

In Chagga as in English, phonologically long vowels can arise from the following cases of coalescence.

Lexeme Gloss

5) a. /a + e/ [e:]

/wa-e-ke-ka-a/ [we:kekaa]2 ‗they usually stay/live'

b. /a + o/ [o:]

2 Almost 97 percent of Bantu languages are tonal and agglutinative in nature in which verbs have an elaborative set of affixes. Most Bantu languages have SVO structure.

(Heine and Philippson: 2003).2

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/wa-ose/ [wo:se] 'all'

c. /u + a/ [o:]

/wu-ah-w-a/ [wo:o] 'killed‘

d. /u + e/ [o:]

/su-e/ [so:] 'we'

Phonologically long vowels are also to be found before nasal clusters in at least one case in Chagga. Let us consider the following data

6) a. /waandu/ [wa:ndu] 'people

b. /waana/ [wa:na] 'children‘

4.1.3 Chagga Consonants

Similarly to vowels, Chagga has the various consonant sounds in its phonemic inventory. The phonemes found in Chagga language are categorized similarly to those of English. There are five stops which are produced with a pose in oral cavity and suddenly released with a burst sound [/ p /, / b/, /t/, / d/ and / k/]. Also nasal consonants which are produced when oral cavity is in complete closure hence the air passes through nasal cavity and they are four [/ m, n. ɳ and ŋ/]. The language is having five fricative sounds; [/ f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/] and only one affricate / ʧ/. Moreover there is one lateral / l / as in English and one trill sound / r/ with the other two approximant which are [/w/, /y/. In Chagga language especially in Kibosho variety glides cannot function as syllable nuclear without a vowel. As claimed by Nurse and Philippson (1977) glide /w/ is realized into two allophones. They can be realized as phoneme [β] before sound /i/

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and [e], meanwhile [w] before sound /a/, o and u/. Sound [w] realization is stipulated in the following data;

a. /nguwe/ [nguβe] ‗pig‘

b. /nguwe/ [nguwe] ‗pig‘

At hand study provides the good example of Chagga consonant sounds with their phonological place of articulation, manner of articulation as well as the state of glottis. The study provided the Chagga consonant table that clearly illustrates the manner of articulation of Chagga consonant, the place of articulation and thereafter for easily predicts the state of glottis. The study clearly recognizes the great linguistic resemblance of the phonemes used in Chagga language and those used in English language. The following table two (2) provide a well phonological vivid on the preferable consonant sounds used in forming lexemes by the major five varieties of chagga.

Table 2. Chagga Consonants

Bilabial Labial- Alveolar Post- palatal Velar Glottal

dental alveolar

Stops p b t d k

Affricate ʧ

Nasal m n ɳ

Liquids l r

Fricative f v s ʃ h

Glide w y

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Source: Researcher‘s Illustration (2017)

English consonants in comparison with Chagga consonant are elaborate below with examples as analyzed phonemes are bolded. The first provided examples illustrate the English lexemes and the bolded phoneme as comparison element. The researcher considered the place of articulation of both language phonemes, manner of articulation and state of glottis for the comparison;

/ p/ as in English lexemes; /priest/, /pick/, /top/, /public/, /paper/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Kapa ‗bit‘

Para ‗broke‘

/b/ as in English lexemes; /buy/, /best/, /baby/, /boy/, /ball/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Baka ‗cat‘

Subu ‗soup‘

/m/ as in English lexemes; /my/, /mother/, /make/, /more/, /money/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Malela ‗milk‘

Muna ‗child‘

Mndenyi ‗village dweller‘

/ t / as in English lexemes; /tune/, /time/, /tell/, /tender/, /task/,

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Terewa ‗request‘

Terii ‗soil‘

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Tambua ‗innovate‘

/d / as in English lexemes; /dear/, /dog/, /die/, /duty/, /day/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Dooka ‗break‘

Uda ‗satisfied‘

/s/ as in English lexemes; /send/, /some/, /smooth/, /simple/, /songs/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Samba ‗wash‘

Somoka ‗left‘

/l/ as in English lexemes; /let/, /love/, /live/, /alone/, /late/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Lya ‗to eat‘

Lau ‗when‗

/n/ as in English lexemes; /student/, /never/, /need/, /funny/, /network/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Ndee ‗father‘

Ndoari ‗curse‘

/f/ as in English lexemes; /five/, /fast/, /female/, /found/, /fighter/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Fuma ‗gone‘

Fiadu ‗shoes‘

/v/ as in English lexemes; /give/, /vivid/, /voice/, /even/, /heaven/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

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Vuruga ‗disturb‘

Vinsha ‗potatoes‘

/tS/ as in English lexemes; /church/, /chose/, /chaplain/, /chair/, /cherish/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Nchaa ‗hunger‘

Ninchaa ‗well‘

/ ʃ/ as in English lexemes; /shoes/, /shine/, /fashion/, /sharing/, /show/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Oshoo ‗come‘

Msheku ‗grandmother‘

/k/ as in English lexemes; /kind/, /king/, /kill/, /kilogram/, /look/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Kitima ‗chair‘

Kwacha ‗far ‗

Nguku ‗cock‘

/ ŋ / as in English lexemes; /sing/, /going/, /song/, /sitting/, /fishing/,

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Ng‘ama ‗tomorrow‘

/ɳ / as in Nnywa ‗drink‘

/y/ as in English lexemes; /yet/, /yatch/, /yard/, /yield/, /year/

Chagga Lexeme Gloss

Yakwa ‗mine‘

Yaifo ‗absence‘

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In Chagga language as in English the presented phonemes have same manner and place of articulation characteristics. The study observes the absence of sound phoneme /ɳ / in English language meanwhile in most of Bantu languages Chagga and

Standard Swahili inclusively said to observe the use of this sound. The notable phenomenon is due is that, some phonemes in Chagga language are totally not found.

For instance phoneme /z/, / g /, /ð /, /ɵ/, / ʒ/ and /ʤ/. Hence native speakers tend to have difficulties in pronouncing nativized words from Swahili with mentioned phonemes and the solution is they use sound with similar place of articulation. The study observes that

English phonemes have same denotation as those in Chagga language due to the similar place and manner of articulation also the state of glottis (voicing).

4.2 Chagga Syllable Structure

A syllable is a phonological unit of utterance that constitutes an onset, nucleus and coda. The most important part of the syllable is the nucleus. Every syllable must have a nucleus which can be occupied by either a vowel or a syllabic consonant. The onset and the coda are optional and they are occupied by consonant(s). A syllable does not have any grammatical or semantic function, but it breaks a word into units of utterance of time.

The study data, observed that Chagga has three (3) syllable structures as VCV, CV and CCV. This study advocates the similarities found in both English and Chagga languages since English has the same syllable structure mentioned above as found in

Chagga. For instance in English lexemes we can have same syllable structure derived in

Chagga language; CV[bye], VCV[ego], CCV[tree]. In that Chagga language has

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the general fixed syllable structure of CCV constituting a nasal consonant, an oral consonant and a vowel, for instance:

7) a. Mburu (CCVCV) ‗goat‘

b. Mremi (CCVCV) ‗farmer‘

c. Mka (CCV) ‗wife‘

d. Mdima (CCVCV) ‗soul‘

Given that vein, another syllable structure that is found in Chagga language is a cluster of two consonants with a vowel. This type is usually restricted to syllables with either a nasal as the first consonant or the approximants /y/ or /w/ as the second consonant. The study observes the similarity in English as in Chagga syllable structure of this pattern.

Meanwhile the difference appears only in example (b). Here are examples of words:

8) a. Mwaasha (CCVCV) ‗tall‘

b. Mwininge (CCVCVCCV) ‗give‘

c. Mwewu (CCVCV) ‗a black person‘

Another CCV syllable constitutes an oral consonant, a glide and a vowel, for example;

9) a. Kwacha (CCVCV) ‗far‘

b. Kwi (CCV) ‗where‘

c. Yakwa (CVCCV) ‗mine‘

At present study takes these two sequences of syllables as CCV. Since the theory applied in this study, that is, Generative CV-Phonology recognizes only the consonant and vowel elements. According to this theory, the nasals and glides are observed as

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consonants except when they function as nuclear in a syllable. Another syllable is the

CV which constitutes one consonant. Let us consider the following data.

10) a. Kinu (CVCV) ‗pestle‘

b. Madende (CVCVCCV) ‗legs‘

c. Nguwe (CVCV) ‗pig‘

d. Tereva (CVCVCV) ‗request‘

Also, Chagga has syllable structure of VC in that vowel is at the word initial position.

Consider the following data;

11) a. Ikanda (VCVCCV) ‗leaf‘

b. Ichondi (VCVCV) ‗sheep‘

c. Ikumbi (VCVCCV) ‗hoe‘

d. Itumfu (VCVCCV) ‗mountain‘

Although Chagga does not frequently have consonant clusters, when they occur they are to be found at the beginning and end of words or syllables.

4.2.1 Consonant Cluster at lexeme Initial Position

In here the study observes little lexemes with consonant cluster at initial position of the Chagga lexeme. The great similarity has been clearly observed in between English and Chagga. For instance lexeme in English like [tree, free, cream, scream] are said to be of prominent examples.

12) a. Kwacha /kwa:cha/ ‗far‘

b. Kwii /kwi:/ ‗where‘

c. Mmka /mka/ ‗wife‘

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d. Mdima /mdima/ ‗soul‘

4.2.2 Consonant Cluster at the Word Middle Position

The at hand study came up with a single example from Chagga language as the number of daily usage lexeme with such category are said to be of few. The same recognition in English language whereas the syllable structure with consonant cluster at the middle word position is rare. The two languages share the same phonemes that found in middle position as the combination of nasal bilabial sound /m/ and a stop bilabial phoneme /b/ to make a middle cluster of [mb]. Example fourteen provides a vivid of Chagga lexeme with middle consonant cluster. i.e. English lexeme [limber, limbo].

13) Sambuka /sambuka/ ‗walk‘

4.2.3 Consonant cluster at word final position

This study also tries to analyze a bit on the syllable structure on Chagga lexemes with the consonant cluster at the final word position. These lexemes mostly are accompanied with nasal sounds. In English language the same process takes place whereas two nasals sound preceding one another ending to final consonant cluster. i.e.

English lexemes [tomb, country, comb, limb]. This provided the study with great similarities between English and Chagga consonant cluster at the final lexeme position.

14) a. Emba /emba/ ‗sing‘

b. Marende /marende/ ‗legs‘

c. Sambia /sambia/ ‗wash‘

d. Yakwa /yakwa/ ‗mine‘

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Generally, the study observes that Chagga has the open syllables VC, CV and

CCV. In a nut shell, whenever CCV appears in Chagga, they are realized in three position; word initial, middle and word finally.

4.3 Phonological Processes of Nativized Lexeme in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga

The phonological processes taking place on Chagga loanwords nativization are caused by different factors similarly to those in English language. Such factors are phonological processes that occur due to phonemic reason. Second, group of phonological processes is triggered by non-assimilation and assimilation rules. The third are the phonological changes that are motivated by Chagga PSSRs [Phonological

Syllable Structure Rules]. To answer research questions number one, two and three the following discussions provide their answers by identifying the phonological processes, then discovering their rules governed and lastly describing the similarities and differences found in between English and Chagga language.

4.3.1 Phonological Processes Motivated by Syllable Structure Rules

The study discovered that: Phonological processes motivated by syllable structure conditions as in English, also occur on Kibosho and Marangu varieties of

Chagga loanwords in that the loanword adaptation or nativization at the phonological level is governed by syllable well-formedness in the RL. The phonological processes involved are aimed at realizing well-formed or permissible syllables in a given language. For example in Kibosho and Marangu varieties, the phonological processes include segment deletion, insertion and substitution. These processes as in English

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language occur on both vowels and consonants so as to realize the preferred syllable structures in Chagga loanwords nativazation.

4.3.1.1 Insertion

To address research problem one the study observed that there is phonological process referred to insertion. Insertion is also named as epenthesis whereby is a phonological process in which a segment is added into a word. In English language, epenthesis (insertion) is one of the PSSRs aimed at breaking up consonant clusters. This is a dominant process in any language in that segment clusters are disallowed in pronunciation as they make segmental sequence obscured. This process consists of four categories namely; vowel insertion, anaptyxis, prothesis and consonant insertion at the word middle position which are all found in English language lexemes.

Besides, Epenthesis refers to the process of inserting a phoneme in both English and Chagga, either vowel or consonant in a word to break the consonant cluster system.

It is usually motivated by the need to meet the phonotactics constraints of a beneficiary language. This process as mentioned above is categorized into major four categories.

The study observes all of them with their variation in English and application in

Chagga.

Firstly is the vowel insertion. Insertion in Chagga involves anaptyxis and prothesis by inserting a vowel so that to have practically easy articulation. The infringement of practicality in the epenthetic segment in Chagga has no equivalent in the input. Vowel epenthesis in Chagga loanwords borrowed from Swahili may be explained in view of the variations in the syllable systems of both languages. There are

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different forms of vowel insertion occurring in the Chagga loanwords nativization: prosthesis and anaptyxis. Prothesis is motivated by morphological factors; while

Anaptyxis is motivated by PSSRs in Chagga loanwords. Thirty words are absolutely a result of vowel insertion.

The study found that, in English epenthesis is often motivated by the need to make consonant contrasts more distinct. For instance in some English varieties such as

Ireland, South Africa and Scotland vowels are inserted for breaking the cluster. For instance the English lexeme as, i.e. film. The study also observes that this category of insertion can be brought about by different means in which the major cause is said to be a non-standard pronunciation. For example: Lexemes, athlete, film. Thereafter this study declares that the same process done in Chagga language appeared to be done in

English with the same rule. Observe the below English example:

i) Film  / filəm/ [ epenthesis due to dialect distinction]

ii) /athalete/  athlete [epenthesis due to non-standard pronunciation]

iii) /filum/  film [epenthesis due to non-standard pronunciation]

The second category in insertion is what in English referred to as anaptyxis.

Anaptyxis is a phonological process where an extra vowel is inserted between two consonants. From field data it is seen that this process commonly takes place in Chagga nativized loanwords. Let us consider the following four derived data from the corpus whereby their phonological environment are as similar to those of English:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

31) a. Shtua sutua ‗astound‘

b. Trekta itirekita ‗tractor‘

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c. Shtuka isutuka ‗be astound‘

d. Boksi ibookisi ‗box‘

In fact number 31(a) and (b) vowel is inserted between the consonants for the purpose of breaking the consonant sequences as well as to make easy for articulation.

This process is therefore motivated by PSSRs which results in obtaining the preferred syllable structure in Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga particularly, that is, CV.

To adhere the research problem two this process can be recapitulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived in the study:

An unceremonious rule:

ø v c c

Formally, this process is represented by the following rule

ø + syll -syll -syll - cons +cons +cons

Explicitly a syllable gets inserted in between consonants in order for Chagga speakers particularly Kibosho and Marangu origin to have preferred syllable structure. To address problem three of the study the phonological rule derived in this process denotes that English anaptyxis is also adapted in Chagga nativized lexemes.

The third category that this study observes in insertion is prosthesis. Prosthesis is among English phonological process involving vowel insertion at word initial position.

In English language, prothesis which is linguistically derived from post-classical Latin based on Ancient Greek [πρόθεζις] to mean placing before.`` Thus the study concludes that, it is the linguistics process that focuses on adding a sound or syllable in the word

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initial word position without changing the lexeme`s semantic category or it`s etymological structure.

It is observed that, in English language prothesis is highly utilized since Middle

English and Old one by scholars like William Shakespeare and Edgar Alan Poe in poetic writing purposely on rhythmical manner and to raise emphasis. For instance Poe in English language literary text; the stanza states:

i) …``Thus much let me avow, you are not wrong who deem``…

The vowel `a` is inserted in the initial lexeme vow purposely to make literary piece more rhythmic by Poe. Shakespeare in his poetic writing he provided an example of

English prothesis such in the following stanza saying;

ii) …``Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain, storming her world with

sorrows wind and rain``…

The poet wanted to put more emphasis on his reading by inserting vowel `a` at lexeme

`twain` purposely by the vowel insertion in the initial word position. Furthermore another Poe literary work is observed in the English stanza;

iii) …``What though that light thro` storm and might so trouble from

afar``...

The poet uses prothesis as vowel `a` for giving pace of rhythm. Thereafter English language uses mostly inserted vowel sound /a/ for as its prothesis marker. Meanwhile this study claims that, in Chagga a high front vowel /i/ gets inserted at the word initial position. For instance the below twelve stipulated Chagga lexemes nativized from

Standard Swahili:

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Swahili Chagga Gloss

32) a. Tawanya itawanya ‗stretch‘

b, Ua iwa ‗flower‘

c. Dirisha itirisha ‗window‘

d. Gari ikari ‗car‘

e. Godoro igodoro ‗mattress‘

f. Shati ishati ‗shirt‘

g. Boksi ibokisi ‗box‘

h. Shone ishona ‗stitch‘

i. Basi ibasi ‗bus‘

j. Trekta iterikita ‗tractor‘

k. Shimo ishimo ‗outlet‘

l. Yai iyai ‗egg‘

This process can be summarized as shown hereby:

An unceremonious rule:

ø v #

Formal rule

ø +slly # -cons

At present study observed that in data number 32(a) a front high vowel /i/ is inserted at the word initial position as triggered by environment of different consonants/b/ ,/d/, /k/, /ʃ/ and /y/. The process is thus motivated by PSSRs which results in obtaining the preferred syllable structure in particularly the two varieties researched.

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Moreover, a front high vowel is inserted at the environment that is the result of succession of the two vowels taken from Swahili language. Let us consider data 32 (b):

i.e. Ua iwa ‗flower‘

From the above data a high back vowel /u/ glides to /w/ so that to allow insertion of a high front vowel /i/. This is because in Chagga a succession of three vowels sound is not allowed.

*ua iwa

Therefore this is presented by the following rules;

u w #

Formal rule for gliding

+high glide # +back

Therefore, a high back vowel /u/ changes to glide.

elmr l mulF

ø +high glide

-back

Thus a front high vowel /i/ is inserted at the word initial position as triggered by environment of glide.

The last and the fourth category of insertion discussed in this study is consonant insertion at the word middle position. As sound segments in English structure, consonant insertion in Kibosho and Marangu dialects of Chagga involves the insertion of a consonant between vowels to break a sequence of two vowels. This study observes that, not only vowels can be inserted but in English sometimes consonant can be

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attached at the middle of the syllable for the phonotactics reasons. Provided a prominent example in English language on the use of definite and indefinite articles [a, an]. In

English language we can consider article `an` with consonant [n] to be useful in phonology of breaking the cluster of two vowels. Consider the following; [a apple  an apple]. The study observes three Chagga lexemes of this consonant insertion at the middle position.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

33) a. Jua ruva ‗sun‘

b. Suruali suruvali ‗trouser‘

To address research problem two this process can be recapitulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived in the study:

Unceremonious rule: cons ø v-v

Formal rule

+cons +high -high -syll ø +back -back +lab

Hence a voiced dental fricative /v/ is inserted in between a high back /u/ and low front /a/ vowels. In addition to that a glide /w/ is inserted in between a front high /i/ and front low /a/ vowels.

c. Ua iwa ‗flower‘

The above data is therefore presented by the following rules;

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Unceremonious rule

i #

ø w intervocalic

Formal rule

ø +high #

-back intervocalic

+cons

+syll

+glide

4.3.2 Phonological Processes in Chagga Language Affects Syllable

To answer research question one of the present study, it is observed that, there are various phonological processes that involve syllable geared towards the realization of Chagga language and particularly Marangu and Kibosho dialects, preferred syllables.

The study provided also English examples on such lexemes affected by reduction or deletion of some sounds or syllables. In these processes, syllables are deleted or reduced in Chagga nativized words.

4.3.2.1 Deletion

In English linguistics, a sound, such as a stress less syllable or a weak consonant, is not pronounced; for example, most American English speakers do not pronounce the phoneme [d] in lexeme "handbag", phoneme [n] in lexeme "condemn", and phoneme [k] in lexeme "know". Hence, it can be denoted as a process by which a sound present in the phonemic form is removed from the phonetic form in certain 60

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environments forease of production. Thus there are three types of deletion in English and some Germanic languages: aphaeresis which is initial deletion as in English phrase

[I am  I'm, I have  I’ve] or the initial loss of /k/ before /n/ as in know, knight, syncope is formative internal deletion: the term is most frequently used with vowel loss, but some authors broaden it to consonants as well. This can be seen in American and

British forms of certain lexemes:

i) /sɛkrɪtɛri/ vs. /sɛkrɪtrɪ/  'secretary'

ii) ‗Sign ' assign.

Meanwhile apocope is the loss of a final element as phoneme /t/ before a word beginning with another consonant in English language, ' last time', also low stress words may lose their finals as in lexeme ['and', 'of'].

This study observed three categories of consonant deletion in Chagga namely;

Apocope, syncope and aphaeresis as is stated in English language above. In chagga thereafter apocope is the deletion of a sound, usually a vowel at the word final position.

In Chagga loanwords, Apocope affects syllables. Two syllables at the word final position are deleted as shown in the following example of Chagga loanwords.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

34) Chakula chao ‗ food‘

Thus, two syllables get deleted at the word final position .This process can be sum up as:

Syll ø #

The first category to be discussed in here is syncope. As stated above on English likewise in Chagga language this process occurs when there is loss of a segment in the

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medial position of a word. This affects syllable in Chagga loanwords nativization especially in Kibosho and Marangu varieties which are the more standardized one.

Hence Chagga language loss of a vowel appears at the central of the word, not from initial position, nor from word final position in rapid speech. Consider the following four extracted data from Chagga language found in this study:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

35) a.Kisu ‗kyandu‘ knife

b.Kikapu ‗kkabu‘ basket

c.Kijiko ‗kliko‘ spoon

To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the study:

Unceremonious rule

i ø k

Formal rule

+high ø +cons

-back -syll

+velar -voice

Thus, a high back vowel is silent when preceded by a voiceless plosive velar sound. For the study to adhere research problem three it discovered equal comparison between

English and Chagga languages. The minor different is easily observed only on the deleted phonemes though the rule applied to both languages in their nativized lexemes.

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Secondly, is the deletion in the initial position namely aphaeresis. In English;

Aphaeresis is a phonological process in which a segment is deleted at word or syllable initial position as explained previously. This change occurs in six lexemes of Chagga language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties whilst loanwords from Standard

Swahili are nativized. The following data as collected from field and written document show how sound segments are word initial position deleted.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

36) a. Baba aba ‗father‘

b. Kufa fo ‗to die‘

c. Kula lya ‗to eat‘

d. Kunywa nna ‗to drink‘

e. Nyumba mba ‗house‘

To continue addressing problem two of the study, this process can be informally noted as follows;

Unceremonious rule for data b - e

Syll → ø #

Thereafter, the formal rule supporting such phonological process is,

+cons ø # -syll

Generally, in extract above (36 a- e), the bilabial plosive / b/, velar plosive /k/, and nasal /ɳ/ in Chagga (Kibosho) is deleted in the process of nativization. From data b

– e, the whole syllable get deleted in the environment of word initial position. To

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answer research question three thus, the study claims that the deletion of sounds at initial lexeme is both recognized in English and in Chagga nativized lexemes.

Unceremonious rule for data a and f is;

Cons ø #

Then the formal rule is likely to be;

+cons ø # -syll

Thereafter to represent research question three, the study discovered that, a consonant sound gets deleted at the word initial position during nativization of words from Swahili in Chagga as sometimes occur in English nativized words from other languages.

4.3.2.2 Rhotacization

This is among the phonological process that affects the Chagga syllable.

Rhotacization is the phonological process in which phoneme /s/ or /z/ becomes r; usually this takes place between vowels or glides. English Language especially

American standard variety rhotacization occurs into two types. The first type is a situation in which a strident fricative changes to a trill often z changing to /r/. Secondly; rhotacization also refers to a process in English language and other world`s languages in which vowels are pronounced with a /r/ sort of coloring. In Chagga language especially

Kibosho variety during the process of nativization, /s/ (or z) becomes /r/; usually this takes place between vowels as in the following nine extracted lexemes from the list:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

37) a. Mbuzi mburu ‗goat‘

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b. Mzimu mrumu ‗spirit of the dead person‘

c. Wazimu warimu ‗craziness‘

d. Uzito uritro ‗weight‘

e. Maziwa maruwa ‗milk‘

f. Mzinga mringa ‗beehive‘

g. Mwezi mwiiri ‗moon‘

h. Mwezi mwiri ‗month‘

i. Meza mira ‗swallow‘

To represent the research problem two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the study:

Unceremonious rule

z (s) r v- v

Formal rule

+cons +cons +syll +syll -syll -syll -cons -cons +strident +trill +fricative

Thereafter, in Chagga language an alveolar fricative /z/ changes to trill in between vowel sounds. This address the study problem three with the phonological process of rhotacization exist in Chagga particularly Kibosho lexemes as also observed in English.

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4.3.3 Assimilation

Assimilation is a process whereby one sound causes an adjacent sound to be more similar to it. Sounds become more like neighboring sounds [n] ➝ [m]/__

[+bilabial] Assimilation can be conditioned by preceding or following sounds. Thus assimilation means that one sound becomes more similar to another in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually adjacent sound. Also one can define assimilation to as all adaptive modifications of a segment in a chain of segments by a neighboring segment. For example, in English lexemes with phoneme

/m/ is rendered [ɱ] (labiodental nasal) instead of bilabial [m]. Similarly, infant phoneme

/n/ is often rendered as [ɱ]. Also, phoneme /l/ is devoiced after placed in between phoneme /f/ and /k/ in flight and clean and lips are rounded in the articulation of /p/, /k/, and /l/ respectively due to the occurrence of rounded vowel /u:/ immediately after these consonant segments. The assimilated English lexemes examples due to the mentioned phonemes are stipulated below:

i) /p/ [pool]

ii) /k/ [cool]

iii) /l/ [loom]

iv) /m/[triumph , nymph]

Most English assimilations are partial assimilations in which the assimilated sound becomes only more similar, but not identical, to the influencing sound. Partial assimilation in English language can also refer to another assimilation which is called contact assimilation in which the two sounds involved are directly adjacent. For instance, the phrase 'ten pikes' is pronounced as /tembaiks/ in English instead of /ten

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baiks/ in colloquial speech. Here, the alveolar phoneme /n/ changes to nasal /m/ which is a bilabial sound under the influence of phoneme /b/ which is also a bilabial sound.

What is meant by complete assimilation in English language is that a sound is totally affected by a neighboring sound in which both sounds become one, or become identical. For instance, the following English phrase;

i) / ðæt pleɪs/  / ðæp pleɪs/.

It is clear that the phoneme /t/ sound is totally, or completely, assimilated to the /p/ sound and becomes identical to the one in the next word. Meanwhile in Chagga assimilatory are classified in terms of distant and partial. The study scrutinizes the two categories in both Marangu variety and Kibosho variety with examples taken from the corpus chosen by the researcher. The stipulated examples in chagga passed through phonological accepted rules which are similarly to those of English nativized lexemes.

4.3.3.1 Partial Assimilation

In Chagga language particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties different from

English, partial assimilation occurs when the assimilating sound acquires some traits of another but does not become fully identical to it. Partial assimilation in Chagga appears at word initial position. Partial assimilation is realized in different sounds as stipulated below the study observes in Chagga language to which it is clearly seen that there is no such assimilation in English language.

Partial assimilation of Sound /d/  / s/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

38) Damu samu ‗blood‘

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Due that, to address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:

Unceremonious rule d s #

Formal rule + cons +cons -syll -syll # +stop +fric

Given that a voiceless alveolar /s/ acquires some traits of voiced alveolar /d/. Although the two sounds are articulated at the same point (alveolar) variation in between is only in the manner of articulation in the sense that during the production of fricative the sound is blocked as plosive but it released with gradual. Find the following eighteen

(18) assimilated Chagga lexemes due to different phonemes (assimilated phonemes), as taken from the chosen corpus for this study:

Partial Assimilation of Sound /ʧ /  /ʃ/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

39) a. Chai shai ‗tea‘

b. Chafua shafuo ‗make dirty‘

c. Chama shama ‗party‘

d. Chako shako ‗yours‘

e. Changa shanga ‗collect‘

f. Chemsha shemsha ‗boil‘

g. Choroko shoroko ‗green gram‘

h. Chuma shuma ‗pick‘

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i. Chumvi shumbii ‗salt‘

j. Chupa shuba ‗bottle‘

Therefore, also to adhere to research problem two, the above data can be presented through the use of the following formal and unceremonious rules;

Unceremonious rule is ʧ ʃ #

Formal rule

+cons +cons -syll - syll # +affric +fric

Thus, in Chagga a voiceless palatal alveolar affricate /ʧ/ acquires some traits of a voiceless palatal alveolar fricative /ʃ/ at the word initial position. Partial assimilation of the two sounds is triggered by the point of articulation (palatal alveolar). Thus to represent research question three the study observed no such process in English language regarding such phonemes.

Partial Assimilation of Sound /b/  /v/, /g/  /v/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

40) a. Debe ideve ‗tin‘

b. Mwoga mwoova ‗coward‘

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Unceremonious rule g b v v - v

Formal rule +cons +cons -cor -syll Intervocalic +lab +lab +voice

+cons -syll -cor +voice

Using the above rule in generative phonology is costly as it misses the important generalization about the behavior of consonant with regard to its point of articulation.

Therefore the above rules can be captured by one rule.

α +cons

-syll Intervocalic

+lab

Therefore a voiced bilabial plosive or a voiced velar plosive is assimilated to labial dental fricative intervocalic ally. This is because /v/ sound subsumes many features of / b/ and /g/. In relation to question three this study observed no such process in English language.

Partial Assimilation of Sound /t/  /d/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

41) a. Moto modo ‗fire‘

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b. Ota oda ‗sprout‘

c. Pita ida ‗pass‘

d. Tua dua ‗put down‘

e. Tuma duma ‗send‘

f. Vita vida ‗war‘

The above finding which represent research problem two is governed by the following unceremonious and formal rules:

Unceremonious rule for data a, b,c and f and e

t d v-v

Formal rule for data (a, b, c and f)

+cons +cons +syll +syll -syll -syll -voice +voice -cons -cons

Thereafter a voiceless alveolar plosive is assimilated to a voiced consonant alveolar plosive in between vowel sounds environment of Chagga. This study also in relation to problem three it observed no such process in English language phonemes.

Unceremonious rule for data e and d

t d #

Formal rule for data ( d and e)

+cons +cons +syll +syll -syll -syll -voice +voice -cons -cons

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One can therefore claims that, a voiceless alveolar plosive is assimilated to a voiced alveolar plosive in environment of word initial position. In finding 41 (a, b, c, d, e and f) the voiceless consonant triggers the two rules that account for the similar changes. Hence the a voiceless plosive is affected in its point of articulation as it is articulated in the same point with the preceding and following sounds or in between vowel sounds. Given that the two rules have something in common.

Using the three rules in generative phonology using the three rules above is costly as they miss the important generalization about the behavior trill with regard to its point of articulation. That is to say, a voiceless plosive will be articulated at the same point of articulation with the preceding and following sounds which now become the conditioning factor.

4.3.3.2 Distant Assimilation

In Chagga language which varies with English language, assimilation at distant is triggered by consonant in that a consonant is assimilated to the next consonant. In which Chagga distant assimilation occurs in different position as triggered by place of articulation. On the other hand distant assimilation is triggered by manner of articulation. The data collected from the field indicate cases of distant assimilation in

Chagga. The recent study observes that in Chagga different from English there are major three kinds of distant assimilation as from phonemes; /k/  /f/, /ʧ/  /s/, /ʃ/ 

/s/ respectively. The below phonemes with example of lexemes in chagga are providing the phonological vivid:

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Distant Assimilation of Sound /k/  /f/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

42) a. Chako chafo ‗yours‘

To address the research problem two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:

Unceremonious rule is;

k f #

Formal rule

+cons +cons -syll - syll # + plosive +fric

Hence a voiceless velar plosive becomes more similar to voiceless dental fricative in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually adjacent sound.

Distant Assimilation of Sound /ʧ/  /s/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

43) Cheka seka ‗ lough‘

This can be presented by the following rules;

Unceremonious rule is ʧ s #

Formal rule

+cons +cons -syll - syll # +affric +fric

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Thus a voiceless palatal alveolar fricative becomes more similar to voiceless alveolar fricative in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually adjacent sound. This study to answer research question three it observed no such process in English language phonemes.

Distant Assimilation of Sound /ʃ/  /s/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

44) Shingo singo ‗neck‘

Unceremonious rule is

ʃ s #

Formal rule

+cons +cons -syll - syll # +affric +fric

Therefore a voiceless palatal alveolar fricative becomes more similar to voiceless alveolar fricative in that a change in a sound brought about by the influence of neighboring usually adjacent sound. This study also observed no such process in

English language phonemes.

4.3.3.3 Dissimilation

In English language; Dissimilation is the process whereby a sound becomes less similar to one another. When a sound changes one of its features to become less similar to an adjacent sound is what is referred to dissimilation, and usually to make the two sounds more distinguishable. This type of rule is often seen among people speaking a

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language that is not their native language where the sound contrasts may be difficult so the rule is applied for ease of production and perception. In other words, one can denotes as a phonological process that changes feature values of segments to make them less similar. For instance consider the following English lexemes;

i) Annual  annular

ii) Sexual  secular

iii) Cultural cellular [to mean cell]

iv) Penal  perpendicular

Dissimilation is not common processes in Chagga language particularly to the two varieties chosen as most standard ones. Dissimilation in Chagga language often happens at a distant especially when the less similar sound is in between vowels. Consider the following extracted example:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

44) Bakuli bakuri ‗bowl‘

To adhere research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulted from the present study:

Unceremonious rule

l r v v

Formal rule

+cons +cons +syll +syll -syll -syll +high +high -Sibilant + sibilant +back -back

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Thereafter a non-sibilant sound is assimilated to a sibilant sound especially between vowel sounds in Chagga language. Hence to address the present study problem three, both English and Chagga languages have dissimilation as a phonological process for nativized lexemes with the same rule.

4.3.3.4 Voicing

Voicing (or sonorization) is a sound change where a voiceless consonant becomes voiced due to the influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with a specific vowel. In English language, the morpheme that expresses plural is realized as the voiced fricative [z] after a vowel, a sonorant consonant, or a voiced obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, it is voiceless. This process is known as ―progressive voicing assimilation‖. Consider the following English lexemes:

i) Bee + /z/ ‡ bee[z],

ii) Lion+ /z/ ‡ lion[z],

iii) Dog + /z/ ‡ dog[z],

iv) Cat + /z/ ‡ cat[s].

A morpheme that ends in a voiced obstruent in isolation is realized with a voiceless obstruent before a suffix that consists of - or begins with - a voiceless obstruent and this process is called ―regressive voicing assimilation‖ in English linguistics. Likewise in

Chagga language, the prefix /p/ is pronounced /b/ when it follows a vowel sound.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

45) a. Paka baka ‗cat‘

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b. Pesa besa ‗money‘

c. Pima bima ‗ measure‘

d. Pambana bambana ‗struggle‘

e. Pakua bakuo ‗serve‘

f. Pakia bakia ‗load‘

g. Pete bête ‗ring‘

The seven linguistic data above from the corpus selected, shows that some Swahili loan words changed their features so that they can acquire the Chagga native features .Sound

/p/ has features of voiceless, bilabial plosive sound. This sound changed to /b/ with features of voiced, bilabial plosive sound. In this explanation, sound /p/ has acquired voicing.

Thus to address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived from the present study:

Unceremonious rule p b #

Formal rule

+ cons + cons -syll -syll # -voice +voice

Therefore, voiceless consonant sound has changed to be a voiced consonant before front vowel sound at the word initial position. Apart from what is presented in

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data (46 (a-f), the following data change from voiceless to voiced when placed intervocalic ally.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

h. Supu subu ‗soup‘

i. Pera ibera ‗guava‘

j. Papai ibabai ‗papaw‘

k. Panga ibanga ‗machete‘

The rules governed the above data for addressing research question two are presented below both formal and unceremonious rules:

Unceremonious rule p b v v

Formal rule

+ cons + cons +syll + syll -syll -syll -cons -cons -voice +voice

Thus, voiceless bilabial plosive consonant has changed to be a voiced bilabial consonant in between vowel sounds in the process of Chagga nativization. For answering research problem three, the study indicated that, voicing as a phonological processes exist both in

English and Chagga with little variations particularly in some phonemes.

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4.3.4 Phonological Processes Motivated by Phonemic Reasons

Moreover to address research question two regarding phonological processes the study discovered that, the phonemic inventories of Swahili and Chagga differ significantly. There are some sound segments that are found in Swahili language but not in the Chagga phonemic inventory. If a loanword has such a phoneme, then it is changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. In the nativization process in Chagga, the study observed that sound change may involve consonant substitution. In some cases devoicing also involve sound change in cases where the sound is in Chagga language particularly Kibosho variety but it is rarely used by speakers. For example / v/ is there but rarely used in some words hence make speakers to change /v / to /f/ during nativazation process.

4.3.4.1 Consonant Substitution

There are some sound segments that are found in Swahili but are not in the

Chagga language phonemic inventory. If a loanword has such a phoneme, then it has to be changed to the nearest equivalent in the recipient language. At present study scrutinizes the substituted phonemes as, /d/  /s/, /w/  /v/, /g/  /v/, /z/  /s/, and /g/

 /k/. This study found that such processes on substitution of the listed phonemes do not exist in English language. The phonemes in Chagga with examples are stipulated below along with their formulated rules both formal and unceremonious one.

Substitution of Sound /ð/  /s/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

47) a. Adhabu asabu ‗sin‘

b. Dharau sarau ‗scorn‘

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c. Dhamana samana ‗guarantee‘

d. Dhahabu sahabu ‗gold‘

To address the research problem two this process can be elaborated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules derived from the present study:

Unceremonious rule

ð s v- v for data (a)

Formal Rule

+cons +cons -syll -syll +syll +syll +stop +strident -cons -cons +voice

Hence dental stop /ð/ is replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga loanwords nativization. The above data confirm what is stated in first part of this

Chapter, that /ð/ is not a phonological phoneme in Chagga. Given that, the dental stop has been substitute through the processes of nativization.

Substitution of Sound /w/ / v/

Substitution of w to v in Chagga occur especially at the word initial position in that the w sound is there but is rarely used by the speakers of the language hence they find themselves prefer v to w. Observe the following data;

Swahili Chagga Gloss

48) a. Wakulima vakulima ‗peasants‘

b. Wazimu varimu ‗crazness‘

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c. Watu vandu ‗people‘

d. Wote voose ‗all‘

e. Wengi veengi ‗many‘

Unceremonious rule

w v #

Forma rule

-cons +cons -syll -syll # +glide +lab

This implies that, a glide is replaced by the labio dental stop / v/, in all the Chagga loanwords nativization. The above data confirm what is stated in first part of this

Chapter, that / w/ is not a phonological phoneme in Chagga. Hence, the dental stop has been substitute through the processes of nativization as how also observed in English from French. A great point to note is that, what is stated above, substitution of w to v also appears between vowel sounds as in data;

Swahili Chagga Gloss

48) f. Dawa dava ‗medicine‘ g .Kahawa kahava ‗coffee‘

Consequently, the above data 48 (f and g) is clearly advocated through the use of the following rules;

Unceremonious rule

w v v-v

Formal rule

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-syll +cons -high -high

-cons -syll

+lab +lab -back -back

-cor

+high +back

Thus voiceless bilabial /w/ is substituted to a voiced alveolar fricative /v/ in between vowel sounds.

Substitution of Sound /g/  /v/

Swahili Chagga Gloss

49) Mwoga mwoova ‗coward‘ Unceremonious rule for substitution g v Formal rule

+cons +cons +syll +syll -syll -syll -con -cons +velar +lab

Substitution of Sound /z/  /s/

In Chagga language particularly Kibosho dialect, the alveolar fricative / z/ is replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga loanwords nativization such as;

Swahili Chagga Gloss

50) a. Ambukiza ambukisa transmitting

b. Angaza angasa ‗light ‗

c. Apizo apiso ‗curse‘

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d. Ngozi ngosi ‗skin‘

e. Meza mesa ‗table‘

f. Mbuzi mbusi ‗goat‘

The at hand study observes that, what is stated in Chapter One, as / z/ is not a phonological phoneme in Chagga do have vivid through its nativized phonemes. Thus, the alveolar fricative has been substitute through the processes of nativization. The substitution in (24 a-c) is informally represented as follows:

Unceremonious rule

z s v — v

The alveolar fricative / z/ is replaced by the alveolar fricative / s/, in all the Chagga loanwords nativization as shown above.

Formal Rule

+cons +cons -syll -syll cons +syll +syll +strident +strident -cons -cons +voice -voice

This marks that, a voiced alveolar fricative has been substituted to a voiceless alveolar fricative when appeared between vowel sounds.

Substitution of Sound /g/ /k/

Furthermore, substitution in Chagga language in specific Marangu variety is when velar plosive/g/ is replaced by another velar plosive /k/. In that a voice velar plosive /g/ is replaced by voiceless velar plosive /k/ since it is not the phoneme of

Chagga.

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Swahili Chagga Gloss

51)a. Ufagio ufakio ‗broom‘

b. Garama karama ‗expense‘

The findings can be presented in these rules;

Unceremonious rule

g k [Chagga]

Formal Rule

+cons +cons -syll -syll [Chagga] +Voice -voice

Thereafter, a voiced velar plosive changes to be a voiceless velar plosive in

Chagga during nativization process.

4.3.4.2 Devoicing

In English as well as in Chagga, Devoicing (desonorization) is a sound change where a voiced consonant becomes voiceless due to the influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing. Devoicing phonological process in English language has two different groups, which behave differently from one another. Group one (1): Obstruent consonants /b d ɡ v ð z ʒ dʒ/. Group two (2): approximant consonants /w r l j/‗‗. For the group one (1) consonants to retain full voicing they must be surrounded by voiced sounds. If one of the group one consonants is preceded by a voiceless sound or silence, or followed by a voiceless sound or silence,

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then some or all of its vocal fold vibration will be lost. Here are some English sentences that provide the vivid:

i) This boy /ðɪs bɔɪ/ [ð ɪs b ɔɪ],

ii) My dog /maɪ dɒɡ/ [maɪ dɒɡ ],

iii) Misbehave /mɪsbɪheɪv/ [mɪsb ɪheɪv ],

iv) She‘s so good /ʃiːz səʊ ɡʊd/ [ʃiːz səʊ ɡʊd ]

This study claims that in English language devoicing takes place at the initial position, at the middle or the final position of lexemes. Hence group one of this finding in English appeared to be the frequent occurrences of devoicing in Standard English.

Also this process is observed at final lexeme position particularly in German language,

Polish, Russian language and Dutch. In Chagga language, devoicing can occur when preceded by nasal consonant, word-finally or in contact with a specific vowel. For example, Chagga phoneme /v/ is pronounced as phoneme /f/.

Swahili Chagga Gloss

52) a. Mvua mfua ‗rain‘

b. Vua fua ‗take off‘ c. Viatu fiatu ‗shoes‘ d. Vitu findo ‗things‘ e. Mbivu mbifu ‗ripe‘ f. Vumbi fumbi ‗dust‘ To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:

Unceremonious rule v f [ # ] [v – v

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Formal rule

+cons +cons # -syll -syll +syll +syll -lab +lab +cons -cons -cons +dent +dent +nas +voice -voice

Therefore a voiced sound becomes voiceless sound that is affected either by one environment or the other. To adhere to research question three Chagga language particularly Marangu variety, sound v become f when the sound is either at the word initial position, preceded by nasal consonant or when it is between vowel sounds which is different from English language.

4.3.4.3 Cluster Tolerance

Chagga language as well as how English does, it admits consonant clusters as a phonological co-occurrence. Any English syllable can begin with a vowel, with one, two or three consonants. The study with scholars, observes that no lexeme in English begins with more than three consonants this means the maximum number of segments in the word initial consonant cluster is three. At the beginning of English words/syllables, there are 55 two-consonant clusters. In many cases the first element is phoneme /s/ and the second consonant is approximant /l, r, w, j/. In English language there are two major categories of consonant cluster namely, initial and final consonant cluster. For instance the initial English consonant cluster starting with oral plosive: [pr,

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pl, pj, pw, pf, ps, pʃ, br, bl, bj, tr, tw, tj, dr, dj, dw, kr, kl, kw, kj, km, kn, kv, gr, gl, gw] making a total of 26 phonemes; those starting with nasal plosive: [nj, mj, mw] with a number of 3; and also the ones starting with fricative: [fl, fr, fj, vj, vw, θr, θw, θj, st, sp, sk, sl, sw, sn, sm, sf, sj, sr, sv, zl, ʃr, ʃm, ʃn, ʃp, ʃw, hj] in total a number of 26.

Also, there are 55 final two-consonant clusters in English. They usually end with

/s, z, t, d, θ/ which represent separate morphemes /s, z/ are the sound forms of ending -

(e)s, and /t, d/ stand for ending -(e)d. There are those starting with oral plosive: [pθ, pt, ps, bd, bz, tθ, ts, dz, kθ, kt, ks, gd, gz] in total comprises of 13 phonemes; also those starting with nasal plosive: [mp, mf, mt, md, mz, nθ, nt, nd, ns, nz, nʃ, nʃ, ŋθ, ŋt, ŋd, ŋz,

ŋk, ŋg] on a range of 18; moreover are the ones starting with fricative: [fθ, ft, fs, vd, vz,

θs, δd, δz, sp, st, sk, zd, ʃt, ʃd] of 14; there are others starting with approximant: [lp, lf, lθ, lt, ld, ls, lz, lk] which are only 8 and lastly the ones starting with affricate: ʃt, ʃd 2.

On the other hand, the study observes that, some of the loanwords from Standard

Swahili were found to have retained consonant clusters in the borrowed Swahili words.

Consider the following findings from Swahili to Chagga language with its gloss in

English as taken from the corpus:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

53) a. Anza ansa ‗start‘

b. Chumvi shumbi ‗salt‘

c. Dhambi sambi ‗sin‘

d. Chumba shumba ‗room‘

e. Chemsha shemsha ‗boil‘

f. Zungumza sungumsa ‗chat‘

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g. Vimba imba ‗swell‘

The present study clearly observes that, the beneficiary language has tolerated the consonant cluster [mb], [mʃ], [mz] and [nz, ns] that are permissible in Chagga language. Cluster tolerance in Chagga language is generated by prestige as it overrules well-formedness. Although the beneficiary language has a means of adapting innovative words, sometimes not all syllables are changed; there is a high level of broadmindedness. Nonetheless, from the study it is observed that Chagga and Swahili languages are Bantu languages so it is likely to share some phonological features as words were found to have retained the phonotactics of the lending language.

4.3.4.4 Vowel Lengthening

In English linguistics vowel lengthening is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may have arisen from one etymologically, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most other dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in many other languages, for instance in Arabic, Finnish, Fijian, Kannada, Japanese, Old English, Scottish

Gaelic and Vietnamese. Moreover vowel lengthening happens in lexeme syllable soon before the voiced consonant. It plays a phonetic role in the majority of dialects of

British English and is said to be phonemic in a few other dialects, such as Australian

English, South African English and New Zealand English. It also plays a lesser phonetic role in Cantonese, unlike other varieties of Chinese. Mostly vowel lengthening in

English is used for emphatic language purpose.

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For instance; when one wants to explain about something with huge size or has been made of much expense will longer the vowel to show emphasis.

i) The medal is made from the veeeery cost expenditure

ii) She was sooooo calm at a time

iii) His wife is veeery veeeery ignorant

Thereafter at present study recognizes the use of this phonological process varying from its purpose in Chagga and that of English. Chagga language in a specific manner

Kibosho and Marangu varieties, vowel lengthening do happen as, some of the vowels said to be lengthened when nativizing Swahili words into Chagga language. Observe the below seven vowel lengthening findings;

Swahili Chagga Gloss

54) a. Daktari dakitaari ‗doctor‘

b. Binamu binaamu ‗cousin ‗

c. Boksi ibookisi ‗box‘

d. Mwoga mwooka ‗coward‘

e. Shule ishuule ‗school‘

In lexemes ‘binaamu’ and ‘dakitaari‘ in the findings 54 a-b the front open vowel sound

/a/ has been lengthened in order to create the preferred sounds of Chagga language.

To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:

Unceremonious rule

a aa c c

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Formal rule

+low +long +con +cons

-back -syll -syll

The front half closed vowel sound /e/ in the word ‘basikeeli’ in data (54c) has been lengthened also in order for a word to acquire the native language (Chagga) features.

Also to answer problem two the following rules is derived by the study:

Unceremonious rule

e ee c c

Formal rule

+mid +long +cons +cons

-back -syll -syll

The lexeme ‘biiblya’ (data 54 d) has vowel that has been lengthened for a word to acquire the preferred pronunciation in borrowing language and the lengthened vowel sound is /i/, the front closed vowel. This can be derived with the following rules so as to adhere to research question two:

Unceremonious rule

i ii i c

Formal rule

+high +long +high +cons

-back -back -syll

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In the lexeme ‘ibookisi’ data (54 e), the back, half closed vowel sound /o/ has been lengthened so that a word to acquires native features.

Unceremonious rule:

o oo c c

Formal rule

+mid +long +cons +cons

+back -syll -syll

In Chagga language some cases lengthening of vowels is caused by the gliding and oral consonant environment. The lexeme ‘mwoova’ data (54 f), the back, half closed vowel phoneme /o/ has been lengthened so that a word to acquires native features. This is shown by the rules derived as the result of problem two of the research presented below:

Unceremonious rule

o oo

Forma rule +mid long +cons +cons +back -syll -syll +glide +lab

In lexeme such as ‘shuule’, the back closed vowel sound /u/ has been lengthened so as to create the preferred sound in Chagga language as the process of nativizing loan words. Thus the below rules answer question two of the research:

Unceremonious rule

u uu c c

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Formal rule

+high +long +cons +cons

+back -syll -syll

4.3.4.5 Diaffricativization

In English language it is the phonological process, whereby an affricate becomes a fricative. It can also refer to the deletion of a stop component from an affricate leaving only the continuant aspect. For instance: English lexeme [cheese] is processed with a fricative voiceless sound /ʃ/ and the voiced affricate [jar] is processed and to be pronounced as phoneme /ʒ/ The process is motivated by native speakers‘ pronunciation during speech production.

i) Cheese /iz/ sheese /ʃiːz/

ii) Jar / dʒaer/ zhar /ʒaer/.

This phonological process is also clearly observed in the study particularly Kibosho variety of Chagga. This study observes and clarifies the below three lexemes findings from Chagga language with its phonological rule that govern its occurrence:

Swahili Chagga Gloss

55) a. Uchawi Usawi ‗magical‘

b. Macho miso ‗eyes‘

c. Mchawi msawi ‗witch‘

To address the research question two this process can be stipulated with both unceremonious and formal phonological rules resulting from the present study:

Unceremonious rule

ʧ s

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Forma rule

+cons +cons intervocalic ally

-syll +sibilant

+affr +cons

+alve +nas

-voice

Thereafter, a voiceless fricative becomes a voiceless fricative either intervocalic ally or proceeded by nasal consonant.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

At the hand study, scrutiny on the phonological processes of nativized words in

Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga language, from Standard Swahili has clearly observed. The scrutiny on phonological processes of nativized words in the two varieties has been clarified by the greater influence of Generative CV Phonology

Theory. This very session provides the summary, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further studies in either Bantu or Asian (Indonesian) languages to which have not much studied.

5.1 Conclusion

The study has observed in general view that Chagga language particularly

Kibosho and Marangu varieties has five vowel systems. The five vowels are categorized also into four long vowels and short vowels. The five Chagga vowels are [a, ɛ, i ɔ and u]. Meanwhile English language has got twenty vowels. Chagga has nineteen consonants phonemes different from those twenty four consonants phonemes in English language. The nineteen consonant phonemes of Chagga includes; the five stops phonemes which are produced with complete closure and then sudden released with a burst sound; / p /, / b/, /t/, / d/ and / k/. Chagga has five fricatives phonemes which includes; / f/, / v/, / s/, / ʃ/ and / h/. Also the language has only one affricate / ʧ/. Never the less it has lateral phoneme / l / and the trill sound / r/ as well as glides/semi-vowel phonemes / w/ and / y/. Hence the language has a sum of twenty four phonemes comprising five vowels and nineteen consonants in all Chagga varieties.

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In addressing problem questions one, two and three simultaneous the study observed the syllable structure of Chagga first hence pronouncements that, Chagga language has the syllables structure of VCV, CV and CCV. Thereafter, Chagga has the syllable general syllable structure of `CCV` constituting a nasal phoneme, an oral phoneme and a vowel. Chagga has two common syllable structures which are CV and

CVCV. As well, the study shows the processes that Swahili language lexemes undergo as they are being adapted by Chagga language as how English adapt direct from French; i.e. Madamemadam, Chaisechair, Longuelong, Cartecard, Fatalefatal,

Objetobject, Raisonreason. The italicized lexemes are the origin borrowed lexemes from French to English after nativazation.

Furthermore the present study instituted that since the phonotactics of the benefactor language (Swahili) in here and the beneficiary language (Chagga) particularly Kibosho and Marangu varieties are different; then beneficiary language uses some approach to adapt the phonologically different words. The main approaches used were insertion, deletion, assimilation, and voicing, devoicing, vowel lengthening and feature change/substitution. Two types of insertion/epenthesis which are anaptyxis and prosthesis have been found to operate on Chagga language loanwords which are also found on phonological processes in English.

For the third question precisely the scrutiny has shown that vowel epenthesis/prothesis is more common than vowel epenthesis/anaptyxis which made the study recognizes the little variation with that of English. Also there is no consonants are inserted in word initial or final position during the nativization processes.

Supplementary the study instituted that for insertion processes in the two varieties only

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one vowel sound; /i/ is inserted in the word initial position during prosthesis process as well as anaptyxis in Chagga language in specific Kibosho variety. Meanwhile for

English language, vowel insertion is used mostly inserted vowel sound /a/ for as its prothesis marker. Also the study observed that, in English language prothesis different from Chagga purpose, is highly utilized since Middle English and Old one by scholars like William Shakespeare and Edgar Alan Poe in poetic writing purposely on rhythmical manner and to raise emphasis.

Moreover another similarities observed so as to answer question three include, insertions of vowel sounds where the two are more consonants occur in one syllable and it also apply at word final position. All these are done purposely to make sure that the preferred sound of borrowing language is achieved. Apart from that, insertion of vowel occurs in order to have the needed syllable structure or the common structure of a borrowing language and for the purpose of native speakers to have pronunciation ability. Standard Swahili has some words that have the CC cluster and when these words borrowed into Chagga, they must be simplified by inserting vowel in between the two consonants. This makes native speakers to have easy articulation of Kibosho lexemes nativized from Swahili.

The recent study also in relative to problem one observed that as English does likely in Chagga language there are three types of deletion: Apocope, aphaeresis and syncope have been found to operate on Chagga loanwords with their derived rules respectively. Deletion of consonants takes place in the nativization of loanwords in

Chagga especially in aphaeresis whereas the deletion of syllable takes place in syncope and apocope. The study verifies that as applied in English language, Chagga language

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do admit consonant clusters. However, from the findings collected, (04) loanwords were found to have retained consonant clusters in the borrowed Swahili language lexemes.

There are some cases where borrowing language does not modify or change features of lending language. Nothing which is modified in that the recipient language has endured the consonant cluster of: [mb], [mʃ] and [nz] that are allowed in Chagga language.

Adhering to question three, devoicing also occur in Chagga language as in

English language when a voiced consonant becomes voiceless due to the influence of its phonological environment. Devoicing is mostly commonly, result of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing. The study observes that

Chagga language, devoicing can occur when preceded by nasal consonant, word-finally or in contact with a specific vowel. In addition, voicing (or sonorization) is due to the influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is a result of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound. In Chagga language voicing occurs in a word final or in contact with a specific vowel.

Furthermore in addressing question three, feature changes exhibited by

Consonant substitution in Chagga as well as in English. This occurs especially to replace segments which are not part of Chagga phonemic inventory. Many of them are replaced by Chagga segments that are in proximity to them in terms of place and manner of articulation. There is also rules change when nativizing Swahili borrowed lexemes. Thus, for some words to acquire native languages, the rules change must occur. For instance; in chapter four, sound /p/ has changed to sound /b/ in the environment of upper back vowel sound /u/ and in the environment of front, half closed vowel sound /e/. Vowel sound lengthening has also occurred when nativizing Swahili

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language loanwords in Chagga language. At present study recognizes the use of vowel sound lengthening phonological process varying from its purpose in Chagga and that of

English. English uses it purposely for emphatic reason. Chagga language in a specific manner Kibosho and Marangu varieties, vowel lengthening do happen as, some of the vowels said to be lengthened when nativizing Swahili words into Chagga language.

The study findings have also shown that the loanword phenomenon can be described using Generative CV Phonology. The scrutiny of the phonological processes of loanwords is conducted using the framework of Generative CV-Phonology theory.

The stated syllable-based theory is applied to conduct an empirical analysis of the

Phonological Processes of loanwords borrowed from Standard Swahili in two selected varieties of Chagga Language (Kibosho and Marangu).

The study shown that, in relation to research problem three, Swahili has made the recipient language tolerate consonant clusters which is very common in English language. Changes in the phonotactics of Chagga occasioned by the phonological processes operating on Chagga loanwords have thus been identified. The scrutiny shows that, compared to other vowels, /i/ is the most common epenthesised vowel. In the same vein, voiceless obstruents are favored compared to voiced obstruents and this marks among the differences in between Chagga and that of English. This generates the devoicing analyzed in the study findings.

5.2 Suggestions for Further Research

At present study provides answers to the three questions asked in chapter one.

The findings as given out by research respondents provide vivid that the phonological processes of nativized loanwords in Chagga from Standard Swahili do subsist. Due to

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this, the researcher has now confirmed that the intended processes are there as same found in English language with very minor variations. Nativization of loan lexemes which triggers phonological processes is an avoidable process in the sense that, if any language has contacts with another language (Indonesian and Malayu language, English and Germanic languages, English and Indian languages, English and French) as a result of economic, social, cultural and even historical way, borrowing is said to be inescapable/mandatory.

Chagga language has contacts with many languages some of them being

English, but mostly Swahili language as the major Bantu language. All borrowed words must acquire the features of borrowing language which are relying in the phonological and morphological levels of linguistic. They must have features that resemble that of native language. In most cases, the addressee system is usually at the substratum in comparison to the patron language which is at the super stratum as also stated by Mwita,

2009. Those adjustments in the phonology of Chagga revealed in this study discussion are triggered by already mentioned data.

This study has utilized Generative CV- Phonology Theory to study phonological processes of nativized lexemes in Chagga with English language as the comparison. The study has provided a light for the study of other language phenomena in Chagga using

Generative CV- Phonology. It therefore, suggests that further research be carried out in other areas of Chagga morph-phonology /phonology such as tone and syllable structure.

The researcher has only concentrated on the nativization of Kibosho and Marangu varieties of Chagga loanwords from Standard Swahili. Chagga has also borrowed

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lexical items from other African languages. Further research on how Chagga adopts lexemes from other languages should be carried out for linguistics purposes.

The study proves that there is nativization process in that triggers the phonological processes in Chagga, here are the recommendations as suggested by the researcher: Since the researcher was dealing only with scrutiny of phonological processes of nativized lexemes in two varieties of Chagga language from Standard

Swahili, other aspects of Morphological Linguistics should be investigated as well for linguistics broadening in local languages all over the world.

The researcher recommends that some linguistics researches should be carried in local Asian languages such as Javanese, Indonesian and Papuan Malayu languages.

Also there should be highly observation of other Bantu languages closely related to

Chagga so as to study if the phonological processes are different or resemble those of

English. The researcher further recommends on supplementary study to see the extent to which Chagga language has influenced Swahili language as a result of linguistic contacts.

Summing up the study clearly only considered borrowed nouns and verbs. A study on other word classes would give more light on Chagga loanword phenomenon.

Notably, Chagga and Swahili are basically agglutinating. A study on the behavior of different morphemes in borrowed words would be very interesting. Since semantics studies said to be abandoned by linguists the researcher found out a need for nativazation impact on meaning relation on loan words in different languages of the world (Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese, and Indo European languages) for adding more linguistics data.

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REFERENCES

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APPENDICES

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Appendix 1: The Interview Guide Questions a) Kindly point out some loanword you are aware of.

b) Assuming that you borrow a lexeme from a new language, do you encounter any language modification?

c) Kindly adhere to the following lexemes and inform me if they are etymologically from your variety. d) Kindly with your own mother tongue pronounce the following lexemes.

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Appendix 2: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga- Noun Category

Swahili Chagga Word Gloss category s/n

1 Apizo apiso N curse 2 Adhabu asabu N punishment 3 Bakuli bakuri N bowl 4 Basi ibaasi N car 5 Baba papa N father 6 Binamu binaamu N cousin 7 Blanketi iblangeti N blanket 8 Boksi ibookisi N box 9 Chai shai N tea 10 Chafua shafuo N make dirty 11 Chakula chao N food 12 Chama chaama N club 13 Chako shako N yours 14 Cheka seka N laugh 15 Chenza ishenza N tangerine 16 Chokaa shokaa N lime 17 Choroko shoroko N green gram 18 Chubua shubua N bruise 19 Chuma shuma N iron 20 Chumba shumba N room 21 Chumvi shumbi N salt 22 Chupa shuba N bottle 23 Chupi shubi N underpants 24 Dagaa dakaa N very small fish 25 Damu samu N blood 26 Dawa dava N medicine 27 Debe ideve N tin 28 Debe ideve N tin 29 Dhahabu sahabu N gold 30 Dhamana samana N guarantee 31 Dhambi sambi N sin 32 Dharau sarau N scorn 33 Dirisha dirisha N window 34 Embe imweembe N mango

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35 Garama karama N expenses 36 Gari ikari N car 37 Godoro ikodoro N mattress 38 Gunia ikunia N sack 39 Iva ira N ripen 40 Jembe iyembe N hoe 41 Jicho riso N eye (singular) 42 Jiko riko N kitchen 43 Jina rina N name 44 Jiwe iwe N stone 45 Jua ruva N sun 46 Kiatu chaatu N shoe (singular) 47 Kijiko kiliko N spoon 48 Kikapu kikabu N basket 49 Kiporo kiboro N food left – over 50 Kisu kishu N knife 51 Kitanda kitara N bed 52 Kufa fo N to die 53 Kula lya N to eat 54 Kunywa nna N to drink 55 Macho meso N eyes (plural) 56 Mate mata N saliva 57 Maziwa maruva N milk 58 Mburu mburu/mbusi N goat 59 Mchawi msai N witch 60 Mdogo mdoko N younger 61 Meza mesa N table 62 Mkopo mkobo N credit/debit 63 Mlango mwaango N door 64 Moto modo N fire 65 Msitu msutu N forest 66 Mvi mfi N grey hair 67 Mvua mfua N rain 68 Mwezi mweeri N moon 69 Mwoga mwoova N coward 70 Mzimu mrimu N spirit of dead person 71 Mzinga mringa N beehive 72 Mzungu msuungu N white man 73 Nazi nasi N coconut fruit 74 Nchi nji N territory/country 75 Ndugu nduku N brother 76 Ng‘ombe umbe N cow 77 Ngazi ngasi N stair

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78 Ngozi ngosi N skin 79 Nguruwe nguve N pig 80 Nguvu ngufu N strength 81 Njaa nshaa N hunger 82 Njaa nshaa N hunger 83 Njia nshia N path 84 Nyanya nyaanya N tomato 85 Nyoka njoka N snake 86 Nyonya onga N suck 87 Nyuki njuki N bee 88 Nyumba mba N house 89 Nyundo nundu N hammer 90 Nzi insii N fly 91 Paka baka N cat 92 Pakua bakuo N serve 93 Pambana bambana N struggle 94 Panga ibanga N bush knife 95 Panga ibanga N arrange 96 Papai ibabai N pawpaw 97 Pera ibera N guava 98 Pesa besa N money 99 Pete bête N ring 100 Picha pisha N picture 101 Pilipili bilibili N pepper 102 Pipa ibiba N barrel 103 Povu pofu N foam 104 Pua mbua N nose 105 Shangazi shangasi N aunt 106 Shati ishati N shirt 107 Shimo ishimo N hole 108 Shingo singo N neck 109 Shule sishuule N school 110 Shtua sutua N astound 111 Suruali suruvali N trouser 112 Tawanya itawanya N strech 113 Tone itone N drop 114 Trekta itirekita N tractor 115 Ua iwa N flower 116 Uchawi usawi N magical 117 Uchungu ushungu N bitterness 118 Ufagio ufakio N broom 119 Ugali ukari N gar 120 Ugonjwa ugonshwa N illness 121 Upya uiya N newness

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122 Utelezi utelesi N slipperiness 123 Utu undu N virtue 124 Uwanja uwansha N play ground 125 Uwezo uweso N ability 126 Uzito urito N weight 127 Viatu fiatu N shoes (plural) 128 Vita fita N war 129 Vitu findo N objects 130 Watu vandu N people 131 Wazimu warimu N craziness 132 Yai iyai N eggs 133 Zaka saka N ten percent 134 Zamu samu N shift 135 Mji mri N homestead 136 Miaka maka N year 137 Mwezi meri N month 138 Mbegu mbeu N seed 139 Ulimi olumi N tongue 140 Pembe ombe N horn 141 Jino ihiho N tooth

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Appendix 3: Directory of Nativized Words from Swahili in Chagga - Verb Category s/n Swahili Chagga Word Gloss category 1 Adhabu asabu V punishment 2 Ambukiza ambukisa V transmit 2 Meza mera V swallow 3 Angaza angasa V light 4 Anza ansa V start 5 Chafua shafua V make dirty 6 Chambua shambua V clean 7 Cheka seka V laugh 8 Chelewa shelewa V delay 9 Chemsha shemsha V heat 10 Chenga sheenga V avoid by trickery 11 Chinja shinja V butcher 12 Choka shoka V tired 13 Chora shora V draw 14 Chuki shuki V hate 15 Chukiza shukiza V displease 16 Fua ifua V wash clothes 17 Fyeka ifeka V slash 18 Koroga koroka V stir 19 Kufa fa V die 20 Kula lya V eat 21 Kunywa nywa V drink 22 Meza mera V swallow 25 Nyima ima V deny 26 Nyonya onga V suck 27 Ogopa ohova V fear 28 Pakua bakua V dish up 29 Panga ibanga V arrange 30 Pima bima V measure 31 Pita ida V pass 32 Saga saha V grind 33 Shona ishona V sew 34 Shutuka ishutuka V startle 35 Tawala tavala V govern 36 Tawanya itavanya V spread 37 Tega teka V set a trip 38 Tetemeka itetema V tremble 39 Tua itua V put down 40 Tuma duma V send 41 Ua waa V kill

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42 Vimba imba V swell 43 Vua dua V take off 44 Washa ata V light 45 Zomea somea V mock 46 Zunguka sunguka V revolve 47 Zungumza sungumsa V chat 48 Chafuka shafuka V become dirt 49 Ota odia V dream 50 Weka vika V put 51 Ona wona V see 52 Vaa raa V wear 53 Lima suma V dig 54 Toa duo V take away 55 Ruka runduka V fly 56 Kua kuo V get big 57 Lala laa V sleep 58 Funga shinga V close 59 Twende honde V let go 60 Njoo nshio V come

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