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Apocope in Heritage Italian languages Article Apocope in Heritage Italian Anissa Baird 1, Angela Cristiano 2 and Naomi Nagy 1,* 1 Department of Linguistics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada; [email protected] 2 Department of Classical Philology and Italian Studies, Università di Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Apocope (deletion of word-final vowels) and word-final vowel reduction are hallmarks of southern Italian varieties. To investigate whether heritage speakers reproduce the complex variable patterns of these processes, we analyze spontaneous speech of three generations of heritage Calabrian Italian speakers and a homeland comparator sample. All occurrences (N = 2477) from a list of frequent polysyllabic words are extracted from 25 speakers’ interviews and analyzed via mixed effects models. Tested predictors include: vowel identity, phonological context, clausal position, lexical frequency, word length, gender, generation, ethnic orientation and age. Homeland and heritage speakers exhibit similar distributions of full, reduced and deleted forms, but there are inter-generational differences in the constraints governing the variation. Primarily linguistic factors condition the variation. Homeland variation in reduction shows sensitivity to part of speech, while heritage speakers show sensitivity to segmental context and part of speech. Slightly different factors influence apocope, with suprasegmental factors and part of speech significant for homeland speakers, but only part of speech for heritage speakers. Surprisingly, for such a socially marked feature, few social factors are relevant. Factors influencing reduction and apocope are similar, suggesting the processes are related. Citation: Baird, Anissa, Angela Cristiano, and Naomi Nagy. 2021. Keywords: heritage language; apocope; vowel centralization; vowel reduction; variationist sociolin- Apocope in Heritage Italian. guistics; Calabrese; Italian Languages 6: 120. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/languages6030120 Academic Editors: Robert Mayr and 1. Introduction Jonathan Morris Heritage language (HL) sociolinguistics generally targets “conflict sites” (Poplack and Meechan 1998), that is, portions of a language that differ from the majority language Received: 25 February 2021 (English, in many HL studies), in order to determine the degree of influence of English Accepted: 7 July 2021 Published: 13 July 2021 on the given heritage language. Frequent examples are pro-drop (cf. Otheguy et al. 2007; Silva-Corvalán 1994) and voice onset time (Nagy and Kochetov 2013). Sometimes the Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral investigations are framed in terms of “simplification” or “attrition” of the HL grammar, with regard to jurisdictional claims in but that often coincides with becoming more English-like. published maps and institutional affil- Instead, this paper examines an indigenous pattern of variation, one that appears in iations. non-heritage varieties and, thus, is not attributable directly to contact effects of the majority language in the heritage context. In this first empirical sociolinguistic investigation of the two related phenomena of word-final vowel reduction and apocope (word-final vowel deletion) in Italian, our primary goal is to establish the distribution of contexts in which full, reduced and deleted word-final vowels occur. That is, we first establish the relative Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. frequency of each variant in each context in which it occurs, and what factors, linguistic This article is an open access article and social, condition the variability. This contributes to understanding how and if the distributed under the terms and two processes are related to each other—i.e., if apocope is the final stage of a reduction conditions of the Creative Commons process (cf. Sections 2.1 and6). We first describe the diatopic variation in Italy and Calabria, Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// describing the conversational speech we recorded as ‘Regional Italian’. Section 2.1 discusses creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ two possible changes to vowels—reduction and deletion, focusing on word-final vowels in 4.0/). Calabria. Languages 2021, 6, 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6030120 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/languages LanguagesLanguages 202120212021,, , 6 66,, , x xx FOR FORFOR PEER PEERPEER REVIEW REVIEWREVIEW 222 ofofof 191919 Languages 2021, 6, 120 2 of 19 2.12.1 discussesdiscusses twotwo possiblepossible changeschanges toto vowels—rvowels—reductioneduction andand deletion,deletion, focusingfocusing onon word-word- finalfinalfinal vowelsvowelsvowels ininin Calabria.Calabria.Calabria. OurOur secondsecond goalgoal isis toto determinedetermine thethe extentextent tototo whichwhichwhich HeritageHeritageHeritage ItalianItalianItalian speakers,speakers,speakers, livinglivingliving ininin Toronto,Toronto,Toronto,Our second replicatereplicatereplicate goal thethethe is to grammargrammargrammar determine thatthatthat the conditionsconditionsconditions extent to which thisthisthis variability,variability,variability, Heritage Italian includingincludingincluding speakers, sensitivitysensitivitysensitivity living to intoto Toronto, replicate the grammar that conditions this variability, including sensitivity to both bothboth linguisticlinguistic andand socialsocial factors.factors. InIn additionaddition tototo socialsocialsocial factorsfactorsfactors suchsuchsuch asasas ageageage andandand gendergendergender thatthatthat linguistic and social factors. In addition to social factors such as age and gender that are areare predictedpredicted toto influenceinfluence homelandhomeland speakers,speakers, wewe considerconsider generationgeneration (since(since immigration)immigration) predicted to influence homeland speakers, we consider generation (since immigration) and andand anan arrayarray ofof ethnicethnic orientationorientation measuresmeasures forfor thethe heritageheritage speakers.speakers. ItIt isis importantimportant toto an array of ethnic orientation measures for the heritage speakers. It is important to note that, notenote that,that, forfor heritage-languageheritage-language speakers,speakers,speakers, use useuse of ofof the thethe language languagelanguage is, is,is, generally, generally,generally, more moremore restricted restrictedrestricted for heritage-language speakers, use of the language is, generally, more restricted to casual tototo casual casualcasual (at (at(at home) home)home) contexts contextscontexts than thanthan is isis the thethe case casecase for forfor speakers speakersspeakers in inin Italy. Italy.Italy. Hjelde HjeldeHjelde et etet al. al.al. (2019, (2019,(2019, p. p.p. 186) 186)186) (at home) contexts than is the case for speakers in Italy. Hjelde et al.(2019, p. 186) note that notenote thatthat heritageheritage languagelanguage speakersspeakers oftenoften araree “able“able toto useuse thethe heritaheritagege languagelanguage butbut withwith heritage language speakers often are “able to use the heritage language but with a reduced aa reducedreduced registerregister andand withwith lexicallexical andand grammaticalgrammatical reductions,reductions, andand withwith deviationsdeviations com-com- register and with lexical and grammatical reductions, and with deviations compared to the paredpared toto thethe baseline,”baseline,” likelylikely resultingresulting fromfrom thethe restrictedrestricted contextscontexts ofof use,use, seesee SectionSection 2.2.2.2. baseline,” likely resulting from the restricted contexts of use, see Section 2.2. 2. Language Varieties in Italy 2.2. LanguageLanguage VarietiesVarieties in in Italy Italy The Italian linguistic repertoire is complex and multidimensional. Therefore, system- TheThe ItalianItalian linguisticlinguistic repertoirerepertoire isis complexcomplex andand multidimensional.multidimensional. multidimensional. Therefore,Therefore, Therefore, system-system- system- atic descriptions, based on spontaneously produced speech (talk-in-interaction), of the aticatic descriptions, descriptions, basedbased on on spontaneously spontaneously pr producedproducedoduced speech speech (talk-in-interaction), (talk-in-interaction), of of the the main aspects of this system are important for understanding the factors that influence mainmain aspectsaspects ofof this this system system are are important important for forfor understanding understandingunderstanding the thethe factors factorsfactors that thatthat influence influenceinfluenceinfluence Italian speech. ItalianItalianItalian speech.speech. speech. The diatopic axis plays a primary role in the Italian picture: Berruto (2006) sets geo- TheThe diatopicdiatopic axisaxis playsplays aa primaryprimary rolerole inin thethe Italian Italian picture:picture: BerrutoBerruto ((2006)(2006)2006) setssets geo-geo- graphic variation as the basis for all the other types of variation, with which it intertwines. graphicgraphic variationvariation asas thethe basisbasis forfor allall thethe the otherother other typestypes types ofof of variation,variation, variation, withwith with whichwhich which itit it intertwines.intertwines. intertwines. Some scholars claim that certain patterns only emerge in spontaneous speech (cf. Abete SomeSome scholars scholars claim claim that that certain certain patternspatterns onlyononlylyly emergeemergeemerge in ininin spontaneous spontaneousspontaneousspontaneous speech speechspeechspeech (cf. (cf.(cf.(cf. Abete AbeteAbeteAbete 2011;2011;2011;
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