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Copyright © and Moral Rights for This Phd Thesis Are Retained by the Author And/Or Other Copyright Owners Izharuddin, Alicia (2014) Gender and Islam in Indonesian Cinema. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/id/eprint/20352 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this PhD Thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This PhD Thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this PhD Thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the PhD Thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full PhD Thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD PhD Thesis, pagination. GENDER AND ISLAM IN INDONESIAN CINEMA ALICIA IZHARUDDIN Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2014 Centre for Gender Studies SOAS, University of London Declaration for SOAS MPhil thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed: ____________________________ Date: _________________ 2 Abstract My PhD thesis draws from feminist and post-structuralist approaches to examine the construction of gender and Islam in Indonesian Islamic cinema between 1977 to 2011. This thesis asks: how, when, and where do Indonesian femininity and masculinity in film become ʻMuslim? Previous studies on representations of gender in Islam have shown that clothes are immediate markers of Islamic identity. This thesis, however, seeks to transcend clothing as an obvious visual marker of Islamic identity and the fixation on the Islamic veil and turban and focus instead on the dynamic relationship between modernity and (trans)-nationalism in the construction of Muslim femininity and masculinity in Indonesian cinema. The Islamic film genre produces various mechanisms to isolate Muslim characters from their non-Muslim counterparts while at the same time marking distinctions between the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ Muslim. This thesis demonstrates that such mechanisms behind the binaries of the Muslim/non- Muslim and ‘good’ Muslim/’bad’ Muslim are shifting concepts rather than fixed and self- evident. Furthermore, these shifting distinctions are achieved through narrative device, audio-visual tropes, and political discourse and governed by economic and cultural imperatives in the Islamic film genre. Ultimately, this thesis aims to make a contribution to the study of gender in Indonesian cinema more generally and to the definition of Islamic cinema as a film genre. 3 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance of my supervisors, Dr Ben Murtagh, Dr Rachel Harrison, Prof Mark Hobart, and Dr Isolde Standish. I have spent years, many months, days and weekends on this intense journey full of introspection and intellectual challenges - all made possible because of Gareth Hughes, and my beloved parents, Mai, Iza, Jan, and Norazian. My gratitude is also extended to Savitri Siddharta and Fara, Norhayati Kaprawi, Harumi Supit. Granita Layungsari, Ekky Imanjaya, Tito Imanda, Eric Sasono, Katinka van Heeren, BJD Gayatri, Debra Yatim, Luluratna, Budi Irawanto, Mbak Elis of Pasar Festival, Mbak Nia and Pak Budi of Sinematek, Intan Paramaditha, and Dr Gina Heathcote. 4 Contents Authorʼs declaration 2 Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 List of illustrations 9 Glossary of terms and abbreviations 12 Chapter 1 Introduction 13 Objectives and research questions 19 Why representations of gender in film? 21 Commodification of Islam and gender in Islamic modernity 25 Ways of making meaning: approaches to film analysis 30 Data and materials 32 Notes on the field sites 34 Interviewing Indonesiaʼs cultural elite 37 Positionality 39 Outline of chapters 42 5 Chapter 2 Gender and Islam in Indonesian cinema 46 as an object of study Gender as a product of state ideology and censorship 49 Stirring slowly from passivity: femininity in Indonesian cinema 56 ʻThe industry is masculineʼ: masculinities in Indonesian 64 cinema Gender through an Islamic cinematic lens 74 Summary 83 Chapter 3 Dakwah at the cinema: identifying the 86 generic parameters of Islamic films Between the purity of dakwah and market forces 89 Film Islami as a genre 97 Commercial and marketing strategies of the Islamic film genre 106 Making films in an ʻIslamicʼ way 115 Obstacles and censorship 122 Summary 127 Chapter 4 Gender, Islam and the nation in New Order 130 Islamic films The men in white: mystics and a revolutionary prince 133 6 Diponegoro: the proto-nationalist Islamic hero 140 Islamic masculinity and the modern Indonesian nation 144 Woman as mother of an Islamic nation 152 A woman driven to apostasy: female emancipation as 158 political emancipation Summary 164 Chapter 5 Empowered Muslim femininities?: 167 representations of women in post-New Order film Islami Domestic struggle as spiritual struggle 171 Khalifah: Muslim femininity reduced to a pair of eyes 180 Women who need salvation: the gender politics of religious 192 conversion in film Islami The rise of the Islamic film star 198 Summary 203 Chapter 6 Poor, polygamous but deeply pious: 206 Muslim masculinities in post-New Order film Islami The polygamous man who meets his comeuppance 208 Rich man, poor man: Islamic commentary on 215 socioeconomic class and masculinity Martyrdom mythologies?: the radical Muslim versus 227 7 the moderate Muslim man in 3 Doa 3 Cinta Summary 236 Conclusions: gender and Islam in Indonesian cinema: 239 beyond the veil and turban? What are the theoretical implications of this thesis? 245 Possible future directions for the study of gender and Islam in 248 Indonesian film Filmography (main films) 250 Other cited films 251 Bibliography 253 Appendix 273 8 List of illustrations FIGURE 1 Fauzi Baadila on the 9 Naga (9 Dragons, 2006, dir. 72 Rudy Soedjarwo) promotional film poster. FIGURE 2 Still from an opening scene of Ummi Aminah (Mother 104 Aminah, 2011, dir. Aditya Gumay). FIGURE 3 Haji Wali (Asrul Sani) delivers a Qurʼanic message in 107 Para Perintis Kemerdekaan (Pioneers of Independence, dir. Asrul Sani, 1980). FIGURE 4 Film poster for Perempuan Berkalung Sorban 110 (Woman in the Turban, 2009, dir. Hanung Bramantyo). FIGURE 5 Film poster for Khalifah (2011, dir. Nurman Hakim). 111 FIGURE 6 Film poster for Ketika Cinta Bertasbih 112 (2009, dir. Chaerul Umam). FIGURE 7 Film poster for Dalam Mihrab Cinta 113 (2010, dir. Habiburrahman El Shirazy). FIGURE 8 DVD cover of Khalifah (2010, dir. Nurman Hakim). 113 FIGURE 9 Film poster for Di Bawah Langit featuring the Islamic 114 singer Opick in the middle (Underneath the Skies, 2010, dir. Opick). FIGURE 10 A publicity editorial for Ali Shahab's 1988 film 117 Kisah Anak-anak Adam (The Story of Adam's Children). 9 FIGURE 11 Still from Sembilan Wali (The Nine Holy Men, 1985, 138 dir. Djun Saptohadi). FIGURE 12 Still from Pahlawan Goa Selarong (Warrior of 143 Selarong Cave 1972, dir. Lilik Sudjio). FIGURE 13 Still from Perjuangan dan Doa (Struggle and Prayer, 151 1977, dir. Maman Firmansyah). FIGURE 14 Still from Para Perintis Kemerdekaan (Pioneers of 160 Independence,1980, dir. Asrul Sani). FIGURE 15 Closing shot from Perempuan Berkalung Sorban 174 (Woman in a Turban, 2009, dir. Hanung Bramantyo). FIGURE 16 Ummi Aminah (right in red headscarf) admonishes her 176 daughter Zarika for having an affair with a married man. (Ummi Aminah, 2011, dir. Aditya Gumay). FIGURE 17 Khalifah wears the face veil for the first time (Khalifah, 185 2010, dir. Nurman Hakim). FIGURE 18 Khalifah compares herself to a mannequin and sees a 189 past self in it (Khalifah, 2011, dir Nurman Hakim). FIGURE 19 Home page from Oki Setiana Dewi's official website. 200 FIGURE 20 A page from Oki Setiana Dewiʼs official website. 201 FIGURE 21 Zeinal, the struggling street trader of framed painting 219 10 Emak Ingin Naik Haji (Mother Wants To Go On the Hajj, 2009, dir. Aditya Gumay). FIGURE 22 Ardan pushes his street cart of picture frames and 223 mirrors for sale in Kun Fayakun (God Wills It, And So It Is, 2008, dir. H. Guntur Novaris). FIGURE 23 The piety of Ardan and family is rewarded with a ribbon- 225 cutting ceremony commemorating the success of his picture frame business. Kun Fayakun (God Wills It, And So It Is, 2008, dir. H. Guntur Novaris). FIGURE 24 Syahid experiments with the terrorist 'suicide note' on 232 video in 3 Doa 3 Cinta (3 Wishes 3 Loves, 2010, dir. Nurman Hakim). FIGURE 25 In 3 Doa 3 Cinta, Rian (in the background) chastises 234 Syahid for wearing the turban, ʻYou don't have to pray like that. You think you're an Arab / in Arabia?ʼ 11 Glossary of terms and abbreviations Azas kekeluargaan - ʻfoundations of the familyʼ Bapak - ʻfatherʼ or address for a man Cadar - the face veil, sometimes known as the niqab Dakwah - Islamic preaching or teaching Dangdut - a popular musical genre with Malay, Arab, and Indian musical styles Ibu - ʻmotherʼ or address for a woman Imam - male Islamic leader Jilbab - sometimes known as the hijab. Jilbab is a headscarf worn around the head, covering the hair, neck, ears, and chest area Kadi - Islamic judge Kerudung - loose headscarf for women, sometimes worn like a shawl over the head Kodrat pria - menʼs essence Kodrat wanita - womenʼs essence Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI) - National Council of Ulamas Pesantren - Islamic boarding school Sinetron - film made for television Ulama - an Islamic cleric Ustazah - female Islamic teacher and preacher Wali songo - Nine Javanese mystics of myth and legend 12 Chapter 1 Introduction When I began researching for this thesis, the Indonesian film industry was experiencing the boom years of Islamic cinema or film Islami, between 2008 to 2011.
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