Creative Destruction and Destructive Creations: Environmental Ethics and Planned Obsolescence Author(s): Joseph Guiltinan Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 89, Supplement 1: 5th Annual Ethical Dimensions in Business: Reflections from the Business Academic Community (2009), pp. 19-28 Published by: Springer Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40295074 Accessed: 01-06-2020 11:54 UTC

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This content downloaded from 67.189.244.70 on Mon, 01 Jun 2020 11:54:03 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Journal of Business Ethics (2009) 89:19-28 © Springer 2008 DOI 10.1007A10551-008-9907-9

Creative Destruction and Destructive Creations: Environmental Ethics

and Planned Obsolescence Joseph Guiltinan

ABSTRACT. Three decades ago, planned obsolescence computers are discarded each year, and only was a widely discussed ethical issue in marketing 20,000 class- televisions are refurbished each year while rooms. Planned obsolescence is topical again 20 today million are sold, resulting in tremendous envi- because an increasing emphasis on continuous productronmental damage from lead, mercury, and toxic development promotes shorter durables replacement and glass (cf. Boland, 2001; Slade, 2006). Additionally, disposal cycles with troublesome environmental conse- when electronics are recycled, 50%-80% are shipped quences. This paper offers explanations of why product to third world nations where workers use dangerous, obsolescence is practiced and why it works. It then primitive processes for extracting recyclable materi- examines the ethical responsibilities of product developers and corporate strategists and their differing responses als, often to exposing themselves to toxic gases in the this problem. Pro-environment product design process and (Associated Press, 2007). So, while advances marketing practices and innovative government in policies technology and increasingly skillful industrial may alleviate the problem over time. However, givendesign the have enabled firms to develop innovative current lack of understanding about consumer products replace- in virtually every durable category, ment and disposal behavior, it is questionable the asnature to of the materials that are often required whether these practices and policies will be sufficiently and the rapid pace of product upgrading have informed to be effective. Thus, marketing scholars resulted have a in negative environmental consequences for significant opportunity to contribute to sustainable consumers dura- and society (cf. Calcott and Walls, 2005). bles product development. Per Figure 1, two aspects of new product devel- opment strategy drive these environmental problems. KEY WORDS: planned obsolescence, durable goods, First, frequent introductions of replacement products environment, product development increase the opportunities and motivation to replace functioning durables. Mindful of Schumpeter's theory that established firms are often replaced by innovators (through a "creative destruction" process), today's When I first started teaching marketing, strategists Vance focus on rapid new product development to Packard's (1960) criticisms of planned obsolescence defend their competitive space. Industrial designers were widely discussed by students and faculty. and engineersThe also drive replacement frequency by prevailing view was that it was unethical to incorporating design desirable benefits or styles into new products that would wear out "prematurely" products (i.e., (abetted by marketers who promote the have useful lives that were well below customer incremental value of these upgrades). Second, the expectations), particularly if they were costly to recyclability of new products is influenced by choices replace. Today, the mounting numbers of func- of components or materials made by designers and tioning durable goods ending up in landfills have ledengineers. Thus, environmental problems are exac- to renewed criticism of product obsolescence. erbated to the extent that corporate strategies Sources indicate that in North America over emphasizing continuous improvement and those 100 million cell phones and 300 million personal actually involved in creating and marketing new

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/'corporate ^v • Limited functional life design (or u death dating"). f product ) In a recent book, Slade (2006) notes that in V^trategy^/ the 1950s and 1960s death dating was stan- dard practice for many appliances. (At one Frequency of product upgrades point portable radios were designed to last for only 3 years).

I D Purchase Behavior • Design for limited repair. Disposable single-use

Attributes designed cameras were designed to be non-repairable, into although a small recycling industry emerged for replacement products. a time until Fuji and Kodak took these firms to court for copyright violations (Adolphson, /Design and^X 2004). McCollough (2007). It suggests that the ( ) Vpractices^y price of repair for consumer electronics encour- ages disposal, and household income correlates Figure 1. Product obsolescence positively with theand propensity the to dispose environment: of and decisions and influences. replace appliances rather than repair them.2 • Design aesthetics that lead to reduced satisfaction. Cooper (2005) shows how aesthetic charac- products are insensitive to the need for sustainable teristics can influence premature disposal. innovation and promote excessive .1 One example is the design of "faultless forms In this paper, I specify the set of product devel- and surfaces" on products like small appli- opment practices that are included under the ances which leave a pristine and polished umbrella of planned obsolescence, and I explain why appearance which, with everyday quickly planned obsolescence is so ubiquitous among dura- becomes damaged, engendering user dissatis- ble goods manufacturers. I then examine the eco- faction and premature disposal. logical responsibilities and responses of technical and managerial product development professionals. I Faster replacement can also be achieved through show that design practices (prodded by regulatory new product replacement strategies designed to initiatives) can be developed for assuring that "cre- foster technological obsolescence. Packard (1960) ations for consumers" will be less destructive to the termed this form of obsolescence "voluntary" be- environment in the future, but that cultural changes cause there was no reason that consumers could not at the product design level are likely to be somewhat continue to be satisfied with their existing products. constrained by corporate and marketing realities and perceptions. I conclude that the lack of under- • Design for . Although comic detective standing of consumer behavior with respect to Dick Tracy kept his two-way wrist radio from replacement and disposal of durable goods is an 1946 until he retired in 1977, today fashion impediment to marketers and public policy makers influences many durables replacement deci- seeking this goal, creating an important opportunity sions. Increasingly designers have applied fash- for scholars in the field of marketing. ion thinking to watches, mp3 players, cell phones, and even computers. Slade (2006) suggests that the rise of Planned obsolescence practices and its displacement of industry leader Ford was the first victory of fashion positioning The objective of planned obsolescence is to stimu- over durability positioning among "hard" late replacement buying by consumers. The most goods. direct way to speed replacement demand is to • Design for functional enhancement through adding shorten the usable life of a product through one or or upgrading product features. Technological more of the following physical obsolescence mecha- development frequently allows firms to nisms. expand the number of uses or benefits of a

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product (e.g., adding (Iizuka, 2007). Thus, a increasing camera the rate of replace- feature to a cell phone) or to ment throughimprove obsolescence will enablethe firms levelto: (1) of per- formance on existing stimulate revenues throughbenefits faster replacement; (as when a laptop maker increases (2) reduce competition memoryfrom any used good markets; and (3) speed or reduces weight). byNote virtue of making that used or ownedif goodsthere less com- are clearly stratified benefit petitive, segments increase prices for the replacement in aproduct. , the early generation product may not have a high demand cross-elasticity with the new one because the new Competitive level pressure of for technological performance obsolescence may not be (at least initially) desired or needed by all customers. In While such the "durables cases problem" olderexists even in platforms monopoly settings, as Sonntag (2000) notes com- may be retained as long as there is significant demand for them petitive considerations(cf. Saunders create additional pressures andfor Jobber, 1994) and the obsolescence obsolescence. Pointing out effectthat a consensus haswill be min- imal. The obsolescence emerged that effect cost, quality, time-to-market is stronger and when performance based on distinctive product features many consumers perceive the old products to be "unfashionable" are hallmarks of(cf. competitive Mason, businesses today (see 1985) or when the incremental features of the new also Hua and Wemmerlov, 2006), Sonntag argues that advances in manufacturing practice that yield products are universally perceived as beneficial and desirable. faster product cycles are now a defining force in business strategy. Through the use of flexible, modular, and faster design and production equipment, concurrent product development pro- Drivers of obsolescence and fast replacement cesses, and information technology, firms have reduced both the length of the production process Durable goods producers face a specific challenge in and the time required to adapt production to maintaining a high rate of sales growth. This "dura- demand and competitive actions. The result is rapid bles problem" - the core driving force behind plan- execution of orders and delivery, faster implemen- ned obsolescence in any market structure (from tation of new product concepts, and reduced capital, monopoly to intensive competition) - occurs when inventory, and unit costs. Perversely, such systems successful sellers quickly saturate their markets. The demand growth in output because the technologies more reliable and long-lasting the product, the longer amplify economies of scale and scope which can the repeat purchase cycle and the slower the rate of only be realized through faster product replacement sales growth. If a firm chooses to rent its goods, it and increasing of products designed for would receive a consistent flow of revenue for several particular needs. The competitive success of such years, but once a firm sells its durable goods output it technologies and processes has led to emulation by no longer has a vested interest in the value of those other firms. Thus, the incentives for obsolescence in goods. Instead its interests lie in the next generation of the traditional "durables problem" are compounded goods. (To economists this is known as the "time in industries in which rapid new product develop- inconsistency" problem). The existence of a market ment is embedded in the competitive environment. for used versions of the durable further complicates Gillette's strategy of regularly replacing its mar- the problem, because the more durable the product is ket-leading razors is often cited as an exemplar of the the greater is the competition between new and used competitive necessity of a self-cannibalizing product versions and the lower is the price of replacement replacement strategy. That firm saw the wisdom of products (Bulow, 1986). Thus, durability becomes athis strategy after its experience in 1962 when a small drag on replacement sales volume and, when a used British cutlery and garden tool maker, Wilkinson market exists, on the prices of replacement goods. To Sword, created a stainless steel blade that lasted three mitigate competition from the used market, firms times as long as Gillette's offering and took increase the frequency of the revision (upgrade) cycle away 20% of Gillette's share. Gillette had resisted

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introducing a stainless product steel performance. blade They itself found that durabledue to con- cern for cannibalization product of replacementits existing intervals were market shorter for leading brands and because of unforced the decisions, negative explaining the demandresult with the impact of the longer lasting feature argument that, of in the thecase of voluntaryblades replacement, (Tellis and Golder, 2001). Thus, consumers the are moremanagerial excited about and interested dilemma in regarding "willingness the decisionto cannibalize" to replace and thus more motivated is that to if a firm will not cannibalize act. (The majorits exception own to theproduct's finding that tech- sales its competitors will. nological obsolescence is more of a driver of Additionally, an idea replacement that purchasing has thangained physical obsolescence currency is among marketing managers that unexciting, and out-of-view strategic durable - the planners washing is that brand loyalty is machinea route (Box, 1983)). to The Grewalhigh et al. studyprofitability also because of the higher identified"lifetime various attitudinal value" functions ofserved customersby who can be retained for durable multiplegoods, including social repeat approval, utilitarian, purchases. Firms want to facilitate and migration "value-expressive" functions. of theirIt is difficult customers to to their own version speculate of on thethe relative next impact of fashiontechnological changes advance rather than risk versus functionallosing enhancements them in to replacement competitors because it is generally buying.much However, less if "fashion" expensive is defined to include to retain customers than to acquire aesthetics,new then ones. it is likely toNotably, be a durable goods upgrades factor in themay purchase ofprovide luxury utilitarian goods avenues and to customer retention even in non-durable industries. value-expressive goods as well as goods where Witness the cellular phone service competition in replacement is motivated by the desire for social which free phone upgrades are offered every 2 years approval. as incentives to consumers to renew cellular service Interestingly, rates of technological obsolescence contracts. influence the value that consumers attach to upgrades. Thus, the existence of a highly competitive Rapid envi- product improvements can increase the ronment, combined with the fundamental householdeconomic discount rate (or the "impatience" rate) so motives for obsolescence discussed earlier have cre- that consumers value purchases made in the near term ated a sort of path-dependence for product develop- more than the savings from delayed purchase (Winer, ment strategies geared toward faster replacement of 1997). Moreover, even when improvements are not durables. obvious, an empirical study by Boone et al. (2001) indicated that more frequent introductions of upgrades may be interpreted by consumers as cues to The impact of consumer decision-making processes higher rates of intergenerational improvement, so a policy of "continuous upgrading" creates a height- The success and consequences of technological obso- ened sense among consumers that their existing lescence ultimately depend on consumer behavior in durable is outmoded. Thus, more rapid introductions the marketplace. Consumers decide whether and when appear to motivate faster replacement regardless of the to replace functioning durables with new versions. In at actual level of quality enhancement. In sum, based on least some cases, consumers also have choices among what we do know from the limited studies available, replacement products that differ in their durability or in replacement buying behaviors are complex, hetero- their environmental benefits and liabilities. geneous, and perhaps based more on heuristics and In general, little is know about consumers' dura- extrinsic cues than on a calculative cost-benefit ble goods replacement decision-making processes. tradeoff process. However, technical product obsolescence is clearly a With respect to the process of choosing among more significant driver of replacement timing than alternative replacement durables, there is little evi- physical obsolescence. Grewal et al. (2004) com- dence that durability is a key consumer buying pared "unforced" replacement decisions driven by motive. Economic theory generally assumes that technological (including fashion) obsolescence with warranties signal higher quality, and that firms that replacement decisions that were "forced" by poor build in quality and signal it through warranties are

This content downloaded from 67.189.244.70 on Mon, 01 Jun 2020 11:54:03 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Creative Destruction 23 rewarded with higher frequent prices the replacement (cf. and the lessUtaka, recyclable the 2006). But a study in the UK (Cooper, durable, the greater the 2004) problem. indicates that consumers who buy Thepremium responsibility for the negativeappliances consequences do not do so because they view of plannedhigh obsolescence prices is a shared as one. signalsFirst, when of higher durability. Moreover, technical a professionals recent (engineers retail and industrial study of TV purchasing concluded designers) that involved warrantyin new product development information trailed behind picture design durables quality, to foster premature brand physical obso-name, price, and picture size in rated lescence they importancecreate corporate (and possible personal)(Cervini, 2005). There is also substantial evidence that consumers gains at the expense of consumer welfare and the ignore information on features that reflect product environment. Second, managers responsible for durability (cf. the discussion of the furniture industry product replacement strategies act in ethically ques- consumer in George, 2000). Indeed Cooper's tionable ways if they "psychologically condition" aforementioned study concluded that: consumers areconsumers to believe that the utility of a product is equally divided on whether appliance life spans are diminished simply because a new version becomes adequate; often do not consider durability to be available.a By extension, offering frequent product critical attribute; and see product life span as a quality "upgrades" while touting minor or illusory benefit issue - not an environmental issue (Cooper, 2004). improvements might be considered a wasteful and Similarly, environmental attributes play a modest potentially misleading practice (cf. Giaretta, 2005). role at best in durable goods decision-making with Third, from the perspective of utilitarian theory, green purchasing restricted to a small segment of the consumers may also act unethically when they add to population. Right now, any expectation that con- the public burden with what some might consider sumers will suddenly become dramatically pro- frivolous, self-serving replacement behavior as well as environment in their purchasing behavior seems when they knowingly use or dispose of products in excessively optimistic. A Finnish study by Niva and ways that are environmentally harmful in order to Timonen (2001) on product purchasing points out save time or money. Even when new products yield why this is the case: (1) consumers lack knowledge significant increases in consumer benefits, mass about the environmental implications of their pur- replacement of the existing stock can still be a neg- chases - even in product categories where such ative if improper disposal is a result. For example, one impacts are widely discussed in the media; (2) con- can anticipate mass replacement of analog television sumers believe it is the responsibility of manufac- sets as HDTV set ownership diffuses through the turers to produce environmentally benign products market. and for distributors to screen for such qualities, and What are the options available to firms for that consumers have little impact on those activities. addressing the environmental concerns about plan- Of course environment-related attributes will only ned obsolescence? This is a question that must be influence purchase choices when there is some answered at two levels: (1) the designers and engi- variance among the alternatives offered on the neers responsible for choosing specific components, environmental dimension. If competitors do not materials, architectures, and interfaces, and (2) create or promote such attributes one cannot expect marketing and business strategists. "green" purchasing by consumers.

Environmental ethics: responses from industrial design Ethical responsibilities and responses and engineering

While innovation and technological progress are With respect to product development practice, one good (ceteris paribus), the gains from some new could argue that significant progress is being made in products may not always be worth the consumer orbuilding a sustainable design culture among indus- societal cost. To the extent consumers and society trialat designers and engineers involved in new prod- large incur the economic and environmental costs uct development. Design trade groups have placed associated with disposal of durable goods, the more sustainable and ethical design practices high on their

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educational agendas, and designed many into new products firms will usually, that in part, employ designers and design reflectfirms strategic aredecisions buying regarding the frequency in toof such practices (Cooper, 2005). product change). Design is one way of attempting to increase replacement intervals. For example, classic designs (such as the one used for years by Volvo) or local, Corporate cultural responsibility and marketingdesigns /business strategythat com- municate a community identity are sources of "timeless" designs that As makenoted earlier, a relentlessproduct's product change appeal has long lasting (cf. Zafarmand become et theal., centerpiece 2003). of new Typologiesproduct develop- of strategies for sustainable ment strategy design in many durable are goods available industries. But from several sources (cf. Charter to some observers and (cf. Tischner, Giaretta, 2005) relentless 2001). Similar kinds of strategies product change are is a one-sided being strategy developed because it in engineering. For example, focuses on the Sonntagneeds of the firm at the(2000) risk of det- suggests that firms could adapt riment to thethe environment current and to consumer welfare.technologies of lean and flexible manufacturing She argues that a firm should seek for a market producing posi- value-added products thattioning that will distinguishes be it moreon the basis ofintensively true used by consumers (such customer satisfaction,as multi-function environmental friendliness, prod- ucts). One option for andcoping reliable long-term with usefulness changing of its products. needs driven by culture, fashion, Adolphson or (2004) function offers an insight is on what"design is for adaptability" (cf. Kasarda entailed in etredefining al., a firm's 2007) agenda to- implement the devel- opment of new products such repositioning. that Following are Werhane's amenable (2002) to adaptation by replacing concept subsystems of "moral imagination" he orargues thatmodules firms as an alternative to fiill product need to revisereplacement. their mental schémas for new product Many new processes developmentand technologies to include a "biophysical" perspective have also been developed for the which cross-functional places the economic system in the largercommuni- cation process in firms context of anwhere ecological system. sustainable In this perspective, new product development valueis cannota priority. always be captured in Thesemonetary terms. include important tools like "design For example, nature for performs environment," work that is valuable "life cycle assessment," and without "environmental any exchange of money. This occurs effect when anal- ysis" (cf. Tingstrom farmers and reuse Karlsson, seeds from produce to plant2006). future Pujari (2006) argues that the crops. leading On the other firmshand, the single-use in cameradeveloping eco-innovations are those forces premature that disposal have and thusfully energy integrated such tools into their resources. new This constitutesproduct a of development"natural capi- planning so that they think tal" that would in normally a positive be ignored in estimatessustainability of mode rather than a reactive the consequences mode of a given of decision. just eliminating environmentally problematic Such thinking wouldfeatures. mean that managers For should example, King and Burgess (2005), consider recognizing the costs of product disposal theto be real strengthcosts of the culture of fashion that someone obsolescence, must bear rather than as "externalities," argue for applying platform strategy so that the decision-making thinking "script" (i.e., inthe protocol which key components and subassemblies by which new product canproposals bemove throughremanufac- the tured and integrated into development new process fromproducts. concept to launch) for each These developments wouldnew product developmentseem businessto bodecase includes well an for the evolution of environmentally ecological dimension. A Swedish friendly example of revising product development or, at least, the script for is reported increased by Byggeth et al. (2007).attention They on creating products that developed consumers a specific set of " will keep product longer. However, design decisions assessment atmodules" the for evaluatingindividual proposals that product level will have to be consistent with the firm's could be easily adapted to a variety of established strategic priorities on positioning and growth protocols to pro-actively identify opportunities for objectives. (Per Figure 1, the specific attributes improved sustainability (such as energy savings, use of

This content downloaded from 67.189.244.70 on Mon, 01 Jun 2020 11:54:03 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Creative Destruction 25 recyclable materials, Suchand dilemmas dispensability). also exist at the consumer level. A similar ini- tiative being applied The in cost andIreland effort of recycling, is tradingreported off lower in Maxwell and van de Horst (2003). price or some other desirable benefit to buy a more These perspectives environmentally are friendly consistent product, and denying one with the "stakeholder" model self (or delaying)of corporatethe benefits of a prospective responsibility which would acknowledge upgrade are examples of perceivedthe sacrificepossibility that that a responsible product impedes replacement more "green" consumer behavior. strategy may com- promise profitability One solution (cf. for aGodfrey social dilemma is public and policy Hatch, 2006). They are also consistent action. Many of thewith strides being the made in sustainableAmerican Market- ing Association's statement design were initially motivated of byNorms public policy and Values. That statement calls directives. on For example,marketing the EU is stipulating professionalsmini- to support specific ethical mum reuse and valuesrecovery rates forincluding end-of-life auto- "Responsi- bility - to accept the motive vehiclesconsequences (cf. Ferrao and Amaral, 2006),of and our marketing decisions" and "Citizenship another EU directive on -waste to electrical fulfill and elec- the economic, legal, philanthropic, tronic and equipment societal makes manufacturers responsibilities and importers that serve stakeholders ins responsible a strategicfor the treatment and disposalmanner." of products However, Sonntag (2000) indicates discarded by consumers that in those categories.the ProductWorld Business Council for Sustainable "take-back" laws are Development"on the books" in many parts of (a CEO-led global association of Europe 200 and East Asia,companies) and efforts to enact such legis-purposely does not include extending lation haveproduct occurred in nearly durability all the 50 States of the on their list of eco-efficient practices United States (Toffel,because 2004). 3 These of efforts the are based belief that fast repeat purchase is onhealthy the belief that such forlaws provide their incentives to bottomfirms lines as well as for the public to implement designgoal changes of that will higher reduce the levels of employment. The environmentallatter burden point created by futureraises new products a challenging issue for public policy: while shifting the costwhen from local government. two public goals - employment and the Because environment product take-back laws increase in thethis unit case - are in potential conflict, cost ofhow new products does (when disposal one costs are factoredresolve this di- lemma. It also reflects in) they the are an reality"upstream solution" that - one individualthat is firms operate in a complex intended to environmentmotivate the design and marketing thatof includes investor norms and greenexpectations. products. Current environmental policy wis- dom favors "upstream" solutions over "downstream" solutions (those that focus on recycling incentives and Public policy initiatives taxes) (cf. Thorgerson, 2000). As Calcott and Walls (2000) argue, downstream solutions such as disposal To corporate strategists, fees only influence upstreamasking behavior whenfirms there is a for volun- tary reductions in fully the functioning rate recycling at market which in which recyclers new product improvements are brought pay each household to for eachmarket recycled item andwould the be akin to a request for unilateral price varies with competitive the value of recyclable components disarmament. Moreover, absent aof thematching product. Because such systems response appear infeasible, from other firms, the net effect they on argue the that the total next best volumeapproach is a deposit- of durables sold may not change -just refund the system distribution (producers pay a tax and recyclersof market shares. So, it would take industry receive the refund). agreements (anti-trust issues notwithstanding) to reduce Thus, public policy such initiatives cycles have the potential or to assure that all sellers deliver to the market durables which are to motivate business and marketing strategists to equally environmentally benign (at the likely cost of support environmentally friendly designs emerging reducing some consumer benefits). Because this will from new product designers and engineers. But as lead to the return of the "durables problem" industry- Malcolm (2005) notes, the effectiveness of upstream wide economic sacrifices are the price of sustainability. solutions ultimately depend on whether "greener" Thus, we have a social dilemma. products will be competitive in the mind of the

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consumer with "less disposalgreen" often requires alternatives practical skills and knowledge once the costs and benefits of thatgreen are not readily alternatives available to consumers, so forare weighed against the cost (tax consumersincluded) to have behavioral and control benefits they need of less green options. Additionally, meaningful choices the and complete effectiveness and relevant infor- of take back laws presumes compliancemation about those choices. onManagers the and public part of the consumer who must still bear the transaction costs policy makers need to know what constitutes a choice of returning durables to manufacturers' recycling that is "meaningful" to consumers and how infor- drop-off sites. mation about these choices can best be communi- cated. Specific questions of interest would include:

Conclusion • What information content, framing, timing, and sources will be effective in educating and The World Business Council on Sustainable motivating consumers to consider and choose Development includes the following as a major"greener" options or to make more "rational" action point: "Encourage consumers to prefer or eco- cost-effective evaluations of when to pur- efficient, more sustainable products and services." chase upgrades? (World Business Council for Sustainable Develop- • What would the consumer response be to new ment, 2000). As noted, such products could include products that were more resistant to techno- goods that pose fewer toxic threats that are logicalmore obsolescence (e.g., adaptable products readily recyclable, or that consumers will per keep the discussion of sustainable design strate- longer. Prospects for achieving this goal giesare from above) or to leasing of durables that enhanced by the fact that sustainable product might be modified or refurbished/ re manufac- development is now a motivating force for manytured for next generation production? (Recall product development engineers and designers. that rental of durables reduces the reliance of Additionally, this action point is consistent withthe manufacturer on repeat purchase demand public policy initiatives focused on "upstream" for future revenue. It also assures that consum- solutions. However, two impediments exist: (1)ers willthe return the good to the manufacturer or competitive pressure for and consumer expectations its agent). of frequent upgrades for durable goods; (2) • theWhat lack incentives (tax credits, rebates, trade-in of consumer concern for environmental conse- discounts) or disincentives (deposits, taxes) quences when contemplating upgrades of durable will influence upgrade purchasing patterns or goods. Thus, achieving the WBCSD's goal requires choices? not only green design but also effective green • What kind of information about disposal marketing by firms and public policy initiatives that options or costs (personal and societal) of offer the right mix of consumer and manufacturer durables will be evaluated and used in the incentives. consumer's decision-making process? Iyer (1999) makes the pessimistic argument that a sustainability paradigm based on encouraging "green" Unfortunately, as noted earlier, the marketing liter- consumer behavior is inadequate. He notes that this ature offers very little insight on the drivers of up- "anthropocentric view" presumes that more pressure grade behavior or on the decision-making processes by green consumers will result in products that do not involved. Our current theoretical understanding reduce human quality oflife, yet there is little evidence about how consumers perceive, understand, and use that consumers exercise their market votes in a way environmentally related goods product information that will achieve this outcome. It is not clear that we has limited managerial utility because of the com- know why this is the case. However, as Moisander plexity and variety of the decision situations that (2007) notes, a consumer's motivation to act partly might be studied (Leire and Thidell, 2005). More- depends on his/her perception of the degree of over, what we do know about why people are behavioral control they have in a given situation. motivated to perform certain green behaviors (e.g., Ecologically responsible purchase/consumption/ energy saving practices) is not readily translated to

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