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University of Cape Town i A WEB OF RELATIONS: CO-PRODUCTION ARRANGEMENTS IN URBAN SANITATION INFRASTRUCTURE PROVISION IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN ARUSHA CITY, TANZANIA Town By Cape Furahaof Abwe MSc Urban Planning & Management, Ardhi University, 2010 BSc Urban & Regional Planning, University of Dar es Salaam, 2008 Supervisor: Associate Professor Nancy Odendaal UniversityA thesis submitted for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the School of Architecture, Planning and Geomatics, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN May 2019 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University ii DECLARATION OF FREE LICENCE I, Furaha Abwe, hereby: (a) grant the University of Cape Town free license to reproduce the above thesis in whole or in part, for the purpose of research; (b) declare that: (i) the above thesis is my own unaided work, both in conception and execution, and that apart from the normal guidance of my supervisor, I have received no assistance apart from that stated below; (ii) except as stated below, neither the substance nor any part of the thesis has been submitted in the past, or is being, or is to be submitted for a degree in the University or any other University. (iii) I am now presenting the thesis for examination for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture and Planning (Specialisation: City and Regional Planning). Signed: Date: May 3, 2019 iii ABSTRACT Many city governments and actors have tested approaches or models and technological developments to address urban service crises. But this has tended to be without much success, as the service delivery gap keeps widening, leading to governance failure. One response to this decline in governance capacity has been the evolution of co-production arrangements. The overarching aim of this thesis was to examine the co-production arrangements of urban sanitation infrastructure provision among multiple actors in informal settlements, and to interrogate whether the predominance of such arrangements was indicative of an alternative form of city governance. Two wards within Arusha city (Tanzania) were selected as case studies. A range of research methods was employed to uncover the landscape of actors involved, and to explore co-productive processes, socio-cultural aspects and other complexities shaping sanitation provision in the two selected informal settlements. Case study methodology was used with a range of data collection methods (household surveys, focus group discussions, document review and semi-structured interviews). The study adopted a relational approach informed by Actor- Network Theory as the analytical framework for understanding the human-material interactions in the sanitation chain. Key findings indicate that co-production serves a public function, but it is not recognised as such in Tanzanian public policy. Individual and collective co-production arrangements have been established that bring together various state and non-state actors in the sanitation chain to form networks. These networks make service delivery possible, which one actor alone could not deliver. The study reveals that sanitation infrastructure in informal settlements is largely provided by the household, although some are either inactive or captured co-procuders. Further, the narratives indicate that complexities and the contextual factors (including gender-based power dynamics, social norms, values, traditions and culture) shape access to sanitation facilities in the city of Arusha. The study found that the exclusion of women and children from sharing toilet facilities motivated Maasai men to practice defection in open areas. Further, this study speculates on an alternative form of governing city affairs based on actor-networks in the co-production process: co-productive networked governance. Future research is needed to examine how co-productive networked governance could iv be integrated into the existing city governance structures and how informal governance arrangement could be recognised and enhanced. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I came to the University of Cape Town, not only to register for a higher degree at a world class institution, but also to start, finish and obtain a Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This was indeed a doctoral journey full of hopes, enthusiasm and challenges which could not reach this final destination without the Grace, Protection and Blessings of the Almighty God, the Creator, and my Ebenezer. Besides, numerous people have significantly contributed to the successful completion of this thesis, all of whom I must sincerely acknowledge. My utmost appreciation and gratitude go to my supervisor and mentor, Associate Professor Nancy Odendaal, who patiently guided me through difficult intellectual and emotional territory. Her excellent guidance, continuous support, very valuable comments, prompt communications and encouragement kept my hope of finishing this journey alive. Thousand thanks for using your National Research Fund (NRF) funding to pay my 2018 registration fee. I am deeply grateful to Professors Vanessa Watson and Iain Low for their early communications on my registration with the School of Architecture, Planning and Geomatics. The presence of Vanessa in the school cemented my hope of being at one of the best universities on the continent. It is a prestige and honour to be a graduate of the University of Cape Town. I first met Vanessa at the then University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) in Dar es Salam, now Ardhi University, where she was one of our external examiners in Urban (Neighbourhood) Design. Iain, thank you very much for your encouragement and the farewell lunch offer during my longest stay in Cape Town in March-August 2017. You always made sure that I took breaks and wanted to know my writing progress from Cubicle number 3.09.9 in the Postgraduate / Research Common of the Centlivres Building. Associate Professor Tania Winkler, thank you too for your encouragement. I also got chance to present progress of my thesis writing at a PhD work seminar organised by the African Centre for Cities, particularly, I would like to thank Professors Sophie Oldfield, Nancy Odendaal and Stephen Graham, just to mention a few, for their valuable comments. Stephen is based at the Global Research Institute of Newcastle University in the UK. vi Janine Meyer, you made sure that I had both access and office space for my thesis writing sessions whenever I visited UCT. Thank you for all your support Janine. I am grateful for the widescreen computer which improved my performance. Leon Coetzee thank you for your everyday teasing and for the computer technical assistance. James Duminy, thank you for sharing writing stories and progress. Many thanks to all the Architecture and Planning School staff members who attended my proposal defence for their valuable comments in September 2013 in the Board room of the Menzies Building. Particularly, I would like to mention Professors Vanessa Watson, Iain Low, Alta Steenkamp, and Gordon Pirie. My PhD journey companion Guillermo Delgado, and the other two friends of yours, thank you for organising a small farewell party at a Tanzanian Cuisine when I compiled my first full thesis draft in August 2017. I would also like to extend profound thanks and appreciation to Dr Kate Laburn Peart for her excellent editing of this thesis. Though I started this Doctoral journey with my own resources, I benefited in financial support from different sources along the journey, and these I must sincerely acknowledge. I thank the University of Cape Town (UCT) Postgraduate Funding Office for the Foundation Contingency award and the School of Architecture, Planning and Geomatics for the Hugh & Win Walker Scholarship both in 2019. I also benefited from a grant from Eric Abraham Scholar at Risk managed by International Academic Programme Office at UCT in 2014, many thanks for the financial support. A thousand thanks to Mount Meru University administration for the partial scholarship and for the study leave. Particularly I would like to thank Prof Harrison Olang, Rev Jackson Ecuna, Mr. Eligi Kamili and Mr. Midian Kashambagani for their assistance. Many thanks to all colleagues and staff members for their prayers and encouragement. Dr John Mwakyusa, thank you for the part you played in the short period of time you stayed in the office as the Vice Chancellor of the Mount Meru University. Prof Johannes Monyo, thank you for the support. Mr. Gile Enrico Ombay, thank you for teaching all my courses during my absence. Mr. and Mrs. Victor and Lori Selemani, you are angels sent from God! Your financial and spiritual support were amazing. Kindly accept my gratitude for immense support and prayers. I truly appreciate and thank you for your generous grant and unwavering support. Victor & vii Lori, thank you once more for establishing my early contacts in Cape Town. Many thanks to Janvier and Marie-Chantal Rugira for their moral and financial support. Dr and Mrs. Rugira have been so generous for funding my four months stay in Cape Town when working on my examiners’ reports. You have lived this adage: ‘a friend in need, is a friend indeed’. I am deeply grateful to Peter & Barbara de Beer who provided me with a ‘home away from home’ on my many visits to Cape Town. Alan and Sandy Day, thank you for a warm welcome to Fish Hoek and for arranging my accommodation with the de Beers. My love and overwhelming appreciation are extended to my family and friends for their unwavering support. My beautiful wife Rehema Masimango deserves a special thank-you for her endurance, tolerance and support, and my daughter Blessy and son Ethan for their love. I am sorry for not being there when you most needed me.
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