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THE ROLE of GROUNDWATER FLOW in the GENESIS of STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS : a QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS by Grant Garven B.Sc. the Univ

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THE ROLE of GROUNDWATER FLOW in the GENESIS of STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS : a QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS by Grant Garven B.Sc. the Univ THE ROLE OF GROUNDWATER FLOW IN THE GENESIS OF STRATABOUND ORE DEPOSITS : A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS by Grant Garven B.Sc. The University of Regina, 1976 M.S. The University of Arizona, 1980 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENTJOF:' THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ' THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of Geological Sciences) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October 1982 © Grant Garven, 1982 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of ^la.ojlo^oco-^. ^cie^n CJL^ The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date Oof-ob^ U , tf??. nrc-6 n/sn TO AUDREY ii ABSTRACT Many conceptual models have been proposed to explain the fluid-flow mechanism responsible for the origin of carbonate-hosted lead-zinc deposits such as those in the Mississippi Valley and at Pine Point. This study is devoted to the quantitative investigation of one ore-genesis mechanism : gravity-driven groundwater-flow systems. Numerical modeling techniques are used to develop a self-contained computer code for two-dimensional simulation of regional transport processes along cross sections through sedimentary basins. The finite-element method is applied to solve the steady-state, fluid-flow and heat-transport equations, and a moving-particle random-walk model is developed to predict the dispersion and advection of aqueous components. The program EQ3/EQ6 is used to compute possible reaction-path scenarios at the ore-forming site. Full integration of geochemical calculations into the transport model is currently impractical because of computer-time limitations. Results of a sensitivity analysis indicate that gravity-driven ground- water-flow systems are capable of sustaining favorable fluid-flow rates, temperatures, and metal concentrations, for ore formation near the thin", edge of a basin. Dispersive processes render long-distance transport of metal and sulfide in the same fluid an unlikely process in the genesis of large ore deposits, unless metal and sulfide are being added to the fluid along the flow path. The transport of metal in sulfate-type brines is a more defensible model, in which case the presence of reducing agents control the location of ore deposition. Hydrodynamic conditions that could result.--in ore formation through mixing of two fluids are rare. iii iv The theoretical approach is a powerful tool for gaining insight into the role of fluid flow in ore genesis and in the study of specific ore districts. A preliminary model of the Pine.Point deposit suggests paleoflow rates on the order of 1.0 to 5.0 m3/m2 yr, paleoconcentrations of zinc on the order of 1.0 to 5.0 mg/kg • H^O, and paleotemperatures in the range 60°C to 100°C. Under these conditions, the time required for the formation of Pine Point would be on the order of 0.5 to 5.0 million years. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES , . vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . xv 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. CONCEPTUAL MODELS FOR THE ORIGIN OF CARBONATE-HOSTED LEAD-ZINC DEPOSITS OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY TYPE 7 Geologic Setting 9 Southeast Missouri District 9 Pine Point District 13 Conceptual Models of Ore Genesis 18 Fluid Flow Mechanism 18 Fluid Composition and Temperature 28 Source, Transport and Precipitation of Metals „ 29 Source of Sulfur 33 Timing and Paths of Fluid Migration 35 Summary •. 36 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN ORE GENESIS 38 Governing Equations 39 Fluid Flow 40 Heat Transport 45 Mass Transport 48 Equations of State 52 Geochemical Equilibrium and Reaction Paths 56 Coupling of Transport Phenomena 64 Summary of Equations and Assumptions 65 4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUMERICAL MODELS 69 Numerical Formulation of the Governing Equations 71 Fluid Flow 72 Heat Transport 77 Mass Transport 78 Geochemical Equilibrium and Reaction Paths 85 Solution Procedure 89 The Complete Transport Model. 89 A Simplified Model 92 Model Verification .... ..... 98 Simulation Example .... ...... 103 v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS — Continued Page 5. EVALUATION OF TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN ORE GENESIS : QUANTITATIVE RESULTS ................... 118 Factors Controlling Fluid-Flow Patterns and Velocity ..... 120 Hydraulic Conductivity 121 Temperature and Salinity Gradients 135 Basin Geometry 152 Factors Controlling Subsurface Temperatures 171 Hydraulic Conductivity 175 Thermal Conductivity . 179 Salinity 183 Thermal Dispersivity ............ 184 Geothermal Heat Flow 186 Climate 192 Basin Geometry 192 Factors Controlling Mass Transport 198 Hydraulic Conductivity 201 Dispersivity 211 Geology 217 Geochemical Models of Transport and Precipitation 223 Metal-Sulfate Brine Models . 22~5 Metal-Sulfide Brine Models ... 242 A Preliminary Application to the Pine Point Deposits _ 251 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 278 REFERENCES ' 291 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Characteristics of carbonate-hosted lead-zinc deposits (after Snyder, 1968, and Macqueen, 1976). 8 2. Equations governing chemical equilibrium in a system containing t elements, s species, and X minerals (after Wolery, 1979a) 60 . 3. Governing equations 66 4-. Modeling decisions 70 5. Model parameter data for simulation example Ill 6. Outline of sensitivity analysis 119 7. Hydraulic conductivity and intrinsic permeability range of geologic materials 123 8. Porosity values of geologic materials 124 9. Summary of the velocity components at the reference site for various temperature and salinity-dependent flow models 14-9 10. Thermal conductivity range of geologic materials 180 11. Longitudinal dispersivity range of geologic materials . 213 12. Model parameter data for simulation problem of a reef • structure at depth ::222 13. Geochemical models for stratabound ore genesis. '. (after Anderson, 1978 and Sverjensky, 1981)-. ...... 224 14-. Initial conditions for the metal-sulfate brine model. 227 15. Initial conditions for the metal-sulfide brine model. 244 16. Mass of sphalerite precipitated in reaction with dolomite as a function of salt concentration 247 17. Mass of sphalerite precipitated in reaction with dolomite as a function of temperature ......... 247 vii viii LIST OF TABLES — Continued Table Page 18. Relative masses of minerals precipitated in cooling from 100°C to 60°C (.per kg«H20) 249 19. Pine Point simulation : input parameter data. 263 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Geologic structure of mid-continent region and location of cross sections (.after Oetking, Feray and Renfro, 1966) 10 2. Regional cross sections through mid-continent area (after Oetking, Feray and Renfro, 1960; and Bennison, 1978) 12 3. Geologic structure of the Western Canada sedimentary basin (after Bassett and Stout, 1967) 14 4. Regional cross sections through the Western Canada sedimentary basin (after Gussow, 1962; and Douglas, et al., 1973) 16 5. Schematic representation of the youthful and mature stages in the evolution of a sedimentary basin (after Levorsen, 1967) 19 6. Conceptual model of gravity-driven fluid flow in sedimentary basins 23 7. Effect of topography on regional groundwater flow (after Freeze and Witherspoon, 1967 ) 24 8. Effect of geology on regional groundwater flow (after Freeze and Witherspoon, 1967 ) 25 9. Variation in water density with temperature and NaCl concentration at a depth of 1 km 54 10. Variation in water viscosity with temperature and NaCl concentration at a depth of 1 km 55 11. Vector diagram showing particle-transport components during a single time step At - 82 12. Region of flow and finite-element mesh for two- dimensional analysis of transport processes in sedimentary basins 90 13. Flow chart for simplified transport code. (.Dashed lines indicate route is optional.) ......... 94 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued Figure Page 14. Mesh used in testing moving-particle code against analytical solution at A-A' 102 15. Comparison of moving-particle random-walk solutions of three-different treatments of particles crossing no-flow boundaries with analytical solution 104 16. Simulation example 10 5 17. Finite-element mesh and basin dimensions for sensitivity analysis 122 18. Homogeneous-isotropic basin showing relationship of fluid velocity and hydraulic conductivity 125 K K 100 19. Effect of anisotropy on fluid flow xx/ zz = • • • • 128 20. Effect of layering on fluid flow 130 21. Effect of aquifer lens in upstream end of basin . 133 22. Effect of aquifer lens in downstream end of basin .... 134 23. Fluid-flow pattern where density is a function of temperature alone 136 24. Fluid-flow.pattern where viscosity is a function of temperature alone ..... 138 25. Effect of temperature-dependent fluid properties on regional fluid flow 14-0 26. Velocity profile in discharge end of basin showing the effect of temperature-dependent fluid flow . 14-1 27. Fluid-flow pattern where density is a function of salinity alone 14.3 28. Fluid-flow pattern where viscosity is a function of salinity alone. ...... 144 29. Effect of salinity-dependent fluid properties on regional fluid flow 14-5 30. Velocity profile in discharge end of basin showing the effect of salinity-dependent fluid flow. .... 14-6 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued Figure Page 31. Effect of combined temperature and salinity-dependent fluid properties on regional fluid flow. ...... 148 32. Variation in hydraulic-head patterns and fluid velocity as a function of salinity gradient 150 33. Dimensionless cross section showing the relationship between regional fluid flow and basin size 153 34. Hydraulic-head patterns as a function of the length-to- depth ratio of a 3 km-thick basin 155 35. Hydraulic-head patterns and fluid velocity as a function of the length-to-depth ratio of a 300 km-long basin 157 36.
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