Vol. 32, No. 2 April 2008

Asian Light, Asian Fruit

he Nestorian Monument, featured below with frequent ries, of Western military and economic intrusion in that part of Tcontributor Jean-Paul Wiest standing in the foreground the world—which left behind alegacy that will take many more to provide some sense of the replica’s scale, is one of the most Continued next page recognizable symbols of early Christian missionary efforts in Asia. Careful examination of the inset picture, arubbing of the original monument, shows the cross rising out of the lotus flower On Page (symbol of Buddhism), shrouded by clouds and set with aflam- 59 The Protestant Missionary Movement in Korea: Current Growth and Development Steve Sang-Cheol Moon 65 At the Turn of the Century: AStudy of the China Centenary Missionary Conference of 1907 Kevin Xiyi Yao 71 Christian Literature in Nineteenth-Century China Missions—a Priority? or an Optional Extra? John Tsz-pang Lai 72 Noteworthy 77 Guidelines for Doing Theologies in Asia Association for Theological Education in South East Asia 81 The Gift of Being Number Two: A“Buzz Aldrin” Perspective on Pioneer Missions Notto R. Thelle 86 What IHave Learned About Missions from Writing The British Missionary Enterprise Since 1700 Jeffrey Cox 88 My Pilgrimage in Mission James M. Phillips ing pearl (yin and yang, symbols of Taoism). The inscription 93 The Legacy of Elizabeth Russell reads, “Memorial to the Entrance into China of the Religion of Karen K. Seat the Light from Persia.” According to the epigraph on the tablet below the cross, this monument was erected in 781 during the 100 Book Reviews Tang Dynasty (618–907). 101 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2007 for Mission Most of the articles in this issue exploreaspects of Christian- Studies ity’s long, if sometimes tenuous, link to Asia. The articles show that, although for several centuries Christian missions were 110 Dissertation Notices sometimes deeply compromised advocates, or at least beneficia- 112 Book Notes generations to purge—nevertheless the church in asia not only with whether or not chinese believers should be placed under survived but thrives. these treaty protections as well. this issue’s lead article provides asnapshot of what is surely the missionaries’ optimism, as it happens, was warranted— one of the most astoundingmission stories of the last thirty years. though the growth of the church in china, both Protestant and steve sang-cheolMoon and his colleaguesatthe Korea research catholic, did not correspond in any way with their triumphalist institute for Missions (KriM) conducted an extensive survey prognostications. today in china, estimates of the combined between January and august of 2007. the results and analysis number of Protestant and catholic believers range from the confirm what has been anecdotally asserted: Koreans areinthe government’s conservative figureof21million to presumably forefront of christian missions today,with nearly 15,000 known morerealistic estimates that range from 50 to 80 million Prot- Koreanmissionariesworkingin168differentcountriesunderthe estants (Christian Science Monitor,March 9, 2006) to 110million auspices of 174 mission agencies. While some of these mission total christians (World Christian database,figures for 2005). as agencies areinternational with roots in the West that have been Johntsz-pangdiscussesinhisarticle,theproductionofchristian around along time, by far the majority of Korean missionaries literature, so key adimension in Western missionary strategy, (81.4percent)serveinKoreanagencies,whichrunthegamutfrom has in china become an avalanche, yielding its fruit both in the mega- to mini-agencies. the largest Korean mission agency is the churches of the Protestant china christian council and in the Global Missionary society,with morethan 1,800 missionaries. unregistered and roman catholic churches. onehundredyearsago,asKevinyao’sinsightfulstudyofthe as the “Guidelines for Doing theologies in asia” that were greatshanghaiconferenceof1907markingonecenturyofProtes- hammeredoutbetweenoctober2006andnovember2007clearly tant missionary presence in chinareminds us, the opium Wars show,the thirty-year-old “critical asia Principal” (caP), which wereover,the Boxer rebellion had been quelled, and Protestant has served as abasis for atesea and seaGst in theological missionaries wereenjoying atime of unprecedented freedom to education, is atreewhose branches arenow laden with the fruit live and move and work throughout most of that great country. of uniquely asian christian theology,born of the asian soil from the number of chinese Protestant christians associated in one which iwrite the lines of this editorial. way or another with Western missionary activities numbered this issue of the IBMR opens with an in-depth survey of a nearly 750,000. Missionary reports wereinfused with optimism vigorouslygrowingasianmissionarymovementandshowcases and confidence at the prospect of china joining the rest of the the historical depth of Western missionary investment in the “civilized” world, thanks partly to missionary educational and world’s most populous continent. at the other end of the spec- medicalefforts.althoughforeignmissionariescontinuedtoenjoy trum, notto thelle’s moving reflection about his own father’s the extraordinary privileges vouchsafed them by the so-called willingness to be “number two” speaks to us of ahumility for the unequal treaties, some weretroubled by the impropriety of try- sake of christ that represents the best that christian missionaries ing to accomplish righteous ends through unrighteous means. have ever had to offer. still, so great werethese benefits that the debate mostly dealt —Jonathan J. Bonk

INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Established 1950 by R. Pierce BeaverasOccasional Bulletin from the MissionaryResearch Library.Named Occasional Bulletin of MissionaryResearch in 1977. Renamed INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH in 1981. Published quarterly in January,April, July,and October by the

Editor OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER,490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. Jonathan J. Bonk (203) 624-6672 •Fax (203) 865-2857 •[email protected]•www.InternationalBulletin.org Associate Editor Contributing Editors Dwight P. Baker Catalino G. Arévalo, S.J. Philip Jenkins Anne-Marie Kool Wilbert R. Shenk Assistant Editor David B. Barrett Daniel Jeyaraj Gary B. McGee Brian Stanley Craig A. Noll Daniel H. Bays Jan A. B. Jongeneel Mary Motte, F.M.M. Tite Tiénou Managing Editor Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. C. René Padilla Ruth A. Tucker Daniel J. Nicholas Samuel Escobar David A. Kerr James M. Phillips Desmond Tutu Senior Contributing Editors John F. Gorski, M.M. Kirsteen Kim Dana L. Robert Andrew F. Walls Gerald H. Anderson DarrellL.Guder Graham Kings LaminSanneh AnastasiosYannoulatos Robert T. Coote Books for review and correspondenceregardingeditorialmatters should be addressed to the editors.Manuscripts Circulation unaccompanied by aself-addressed, stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. Opinions Grace Inae Blum expressed in the IBMR are those of the authors and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. [email protected] The articles in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Bibliogra�a Missionaria, Book Review Index, Christian (203) 624-6672, ext. 309 Periodical Index, Guide to People in Periodical Literature,Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature, IBR (International Bibliography of Book Reviews), IBZ (International Bibliography of Periodical Literature), Missionalia, Advertising Religious and Theological Abstracts, and Religion Index One: Periodicals. Charles A. Roth, Jr. SUBSCRIPTIONS: Subscribe,renew,orchange an address at www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html or write INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN CA Roth Jr Inc. OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH,P.O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning subscriptions and 86 Underwood Rd. missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator,[email protected]. Single copy price: $8. Subscription rate worldwide: one Falmouth, Maine 04105-1418 year (4 issues) $32. Foreign subscribers must pay with U.S. funds drawn on aU.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Mobile: (516) 729-3509 Money Order.Airmail delivery $16 per year extra. The IBMR is available in print and e-journal editions. Fax: (914) 470-0483 ONLINE ACCESS: Use the subscriber number and postal code from the mailing envelope for online access to the journal. [email protected] Visit www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html for details. Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases provided Copyright ©2008 by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company,The Gale Group, and University Micro�lms. Back issues may be purchased OverseasMinistries Study Center from OMSC or read on ATLAS, www.ATLA.com. Consult InfoTrac database at academic and public libraries. All rights reserved POSTMASTER: Send address changes to International Bulletin of Missionary Research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834-3000. Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT.(ISSN 0272-6122)

58 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 the Protestant Missionary Movement in Korea: current Growth and Development Steve Sang-Cheol Moon

heProtestantmissionarymovementinKoreahasrecently aries, which still represents one of the fastest growing national tgone through aperiod of growing pains and now stands missionary movements in the world.3 at acrossroad. careful analysis is needed to determine the direc- the number of Korean mission agencies grew steadily from tion it should now take. this report is based on the most recent 21 in 1979 to 74 in 1990, then to 136 in 2000 and 174 in 2006. in survey,conducted by the Korea research institute for Missions recent years the number of mission agencies has not grown as (KriM)betweenJanuaryandaugust2007.thesurveynotesboth rapidly as it did in the 1990s, which indicates that the sending theincreasingelementsofglobalizationoftheKoreanmissionary structures arebeing established and stabilized. from another movement andthe developmentalissuesthatmustbeaddressed angle, we could say that new missionaries prefer working with forqualitative growth. already existing, stable agencies, apreference that matches the growth in size of mission agencies over the years. in 2006 there TheGlobalizing MissionMovement weretwo sending agencies with over 1,000 members, six with 500–999members,twenty-eightwith100–499,fifteenwith50–99, thenumberofKoreanProtestant missionaries who wereatwork eighty-ninewithlessthan50members,and34supportingagencies in other countries as of the end of 2006 is shown in table 1, as such as missionary training centers. in 2006 the ten largest mis- well as the number of Korean mission agencies and the number sion agencies wereasfollows: of countries in which they wereserving. Marlin l. nelson’s first research on the Korean missionary movement, in 1979, reported agency Members the existence of 93 missionaries. his last report, in 1989, identi- Global Missionary society (hapdong) 1,835 fied 1,178 Korean missionaries. for the next generation of KriM university Bible fellowship 1,463 research, surveys showed agrowth from 1,645 (1990) to 8,103 Presbyterian Mission Board(tonghap) 927 (2000), and then to 14,905 (2006).1 that is, during the twenty- Methodist Mission Board750 seven years from 1979 to 2006, the number of missionaries grew assemblies of God Mission Board664 160-fold! throughout the 1990s the annual growth rate was 25 campus Mission international 561 percent, which fell to 7.6 percent in the 2000s.2 the change in Global Missionary fellowship 560 growth rates indicates that the missionary movement entered a Baptist Mission Board550 holiness Mission Board420 Table 1. The Korean Missionary Movement, 1979–2006: youth With aMission 386 Missionaries, Mission Agencies, and Countries of Service the development of sending structures for overseas missions in No. of No. of No. of Countries Korea is afacet of globalizing church structures that has been Year Missionaries Mission agencies of Service propelled by the globalization of Korean society in general. this 1979 93 21 26 development has been marked in particular by opportunities for 4 1982 323 47 37 unrestricted travel and overseas residence. 1986 5116547in 1979 Korean missionaries wereserving in twenty-six 1989 1,178 66 72 countries around the world. this number morethan tripled by 1990 1,645 74 87 1990, and then nearly doubled again by 2006 (see table 1). such 1992 2,576 90 105 growth reflects the pioneering spirit of Korean missionaries. for 1994 3,272 113119 amonoethnic and monocultural people, it has been unexpected 1996 4,402 113138 indeed to see the numbers of Koreans scattered around the world 1998 5,948 127 145 in so many places for the sake of preaching the Gospel. 2000 8,103 136 162 not surprisingly,the largest number of Korean missionaries 2002 10,422 163 164 serve in asia (47.3 percent). the rest areactive in the eurasian 2004 12,874 165 160 countries of the former ussr (14.6 percent), followed by north 2006 14,905 174 168 america (9.3), africa (7.7), latin america (5.8), the Middle east (4.5), western europe (3.9), the south Pacific (2.9), and eastern europe (2.0), with the remainder in itineration and headquarters stabilizing period in the 2000s, which allows us to project growth (2.0percent).thecomparativelylargedeploymentofKoreanmis- toamaximumof35,000careermissionariesinthenexttwenty-five sionaries in asia is positive because asia is the most populous, years. one factor explaining this rather conservative projection but also the least evangelized, continent. Worldwide, the major is the stagnated growth of Korean Protestantism. nevertheless, countries of service for Korean missionaries arechina, united with an annual growth rate of 7.6 percent, we can expect Korean states, Japan, Philippines, russia, Germany,thailand, indone- churches each year to send out over 1,000 new foreign mission- sia, india, and canada. recently,many missionaries have been sent to Japan, russia, thailand, and india. the missionaries in Steve Sang-Cheol Moon is Executive director of the Korea Research Institute the united states, Germany,and canada aremostly involved in for Missions (www.krim.org), Seoul, and assistant Professor of Mission at campus ministries. Hapdong Theological Seminary,Suwon, South Korea. in terms of the religious or cultural areas served, over half april 2008 59 of Korean Protestant missionaries areactive in the christian over eight years’ experience has increased (46 percent in 2006 (29.1 percent) or islamic (24.1 percent) blocs. the remaining half vs. 28 percent in 2000 and only 8percent in 1994). therehave aredivided among peoples that arecommunist (18.7 percent), been concerns about the lack of veteran missionaries who could Buddhist (14.2), animist (4.1), hindu (3.8), or other (5.9). it is provideoversightforyoungandinexperiencedmissionaries,but noteworthy that, at present, moreand moreKorean missionaries theproblemisbeingreduced.Moresystematiceffortsareneeded, aregoing to the islamic world. however,tocarefor and support younger missionaries. What reasons can we give for such aphenomenal growth of as for the level of education of missionaries, 4.3 percent the Korean missionary movement over the last three decades? of Korean missionaries have completed only high school, 65.7 first, the explosive growth of churches in Korea in the 1960s and percent have undergraduate degrees, 25.7 percent have master’s 1970s affected Korean mission growth beginning in the 1980s. degrees, and 4.4 percent have completed adoctorate. We find the missionary movement was the child of church revival.5 that increasing numbers of missionary personnel areeducated second, the globalization of Korean society affects the mission- at the doctoral level, many of them pursuing higher degrees in ary movement. Government policies that include unrestricted mission-related topics such as ethnology or area studies. the travel and overseas residence have facilitated the missionary educational standardofKorean missionaries suggests that they movement. third, asurplus of seminary graduates is another areequipped to carry out highly specialized ministries globally, factor explaining the increase of expatriate christian workers. though certain formative informal and nonformal training is es- Manyyoungchristianswhocommitthemselveswholeheartedly sential in addition to purely academic studies. to the cause of christ’s kingdom decide to enter seminary,and over one-thirdofKorean missionaries areordained pastors then, since thereare not enough ministry positions in Korea for (36.6 percent), with pastors’ wives and laypersons accounting for all graduates from seminary,many look overseas for their future the other 63.4 percent. since amajority of Korean missionaries service. thereare negative sides of this phenomenon, but one have had education in theology,wecount on them to be effective positive is that it is desirable that morequalified people go to in discipleship training, church planting, theological education, the mission fields. and especially leadership development. in the 1970s and 1980s the majority of Korean missionaries Who Are the Korean Missionaries? wereinvolved in diaspora ministry; currently,however,only a small minority (9.6 percent) areinvolved in ministry to the Ko- Korean missionaries reflect the characteristics of Korean society rean diaspora or in home ministries at the headquarters.6 this and the Korean church. these characteristics, which highlight percentagehasincreasedalittlerecentlybecausemissionagencies both the advantages and the disadvantages of being Korean, now have morehome officers, and some mission agencies have work either positively or negatively with respect to current accepted new members who arecurrently involved in diaspora global trends. ministrybutaretargetingotherpopulationgroupscross-culturally slightly morethan half of all Korean missionaries arefemale at the same time. Most Korean mission agencies do not consider (50.3 percent). Married missionaries outnumber singles in the diaspora workers as missionaries. if we include all of them in missionary force by aratio of almost 8to1(88.7 vs. 11.3 percent). the number of missionaries, the total would be much higher.7 the percentage of single missionaries fell from 20.2 percent in Diaspora ministry is characteristic of amissionary movement 1994 to 12.7 percent in 2000, and still further to 11.3 percent in with amonocultural background. 2006. the decreasing percentage of single missionaries can be in terms of ministry focus, Korean Protestant missionaries traced to the gradual development of denominational mission in 2006 weredivided as follows: agencies, whose members arelargely seminary graduates and married, and also to the preference of large interdenominational Ministry focus Percent agencies for married members over singles. 1. church planting 39.1 in age, 71.8 percent of Korean missionaries areintheir thir- 2. Discipleship training 21.5 ties and forties. 3. educational ministries 9.2 4. theological education 5.0 age Percent 5. itinerant evangelism 4.4 20s 7.4 6. social welfare4.3 30s 32.0 7. community development 4.0 40s 39.8 8. Medical missions 3.5 50s 17.0 9. Business and it-related 3.4 60 or older 3.8 10. Bible translation 2.9 11.other 2.7 the age distribution is related to the extent of ministry experience. considering items 1, 2, 4, 5, and 10 above, we see that 72.9 percent Years of experience Percent of the missionaries in 2006 weredirectly involved in evangelistic less than 429.0 and spiritual works, which reflects the conservative theological 4–8 25.2 orientation of the Korean church. Korean missionaries, however, 8–12 22.3 need to grow in practicing amoreholistic concept of missions, as 12–16 15.2 we see it expressed in other bodies of christ around the world. morethan 16 8.3 Strategic Agenda of Korean Missions the percentage of Korean missionaries with less than four years’ experience is lower than in previous surveys (39 percent in 2000 Korean missions must grow according to current global stan- vs. 68 percent in 1994), whereas the ratio of missionaries with dards and needs, but they must not forget the need to adapt to

60 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 local cultural situations. for meaningful further growth of the others after several weeks. this incident shows how necessary it Korean missionary movement, efforts must be directed in both is to base frontier missions on arealistic assessment of risks and directions—global and local. on adequate preparation. Passion and zeal arenot enough. We need information, strategy,and wisdom in order to do frontier “Glocalizing” the missionary movement.toproperly glocalize the missions well, just as we need abalance between frontier and Korean missionary movement, we must evaluate it with global established missions. it is not amatter of either/or but of both/ standards and must also pursue development creatively in lo- and. Proponents of frontier missions in Korea,however,typically cal environments. in both areas we need insight for growth and emphasize only unreached peoples, neglecting areas that show maturation from the global mission community. receptivity to the christian Gospel. We need to follow,rather Working with international agencies provides agood oppor- than precede, the holy spirit in strategizing global missions, tunitytolearnwhatitmeanstoworkmulticulturally.accordingto whether on asmall or alarge scale. frontier missions requires the 2007 survey,18.6 percent of Korean missionaries areworking long-time perspectives, but Korean missions and churches tend withinternationalagencies,versus81.4percentwithKoreanagen- to be moreshort-term oriented, ready to plunge in, often without cies. the percentage of missionaries working with international consideringthelocalsocioculturalsituation.Koreanmissionaries agencies was higher in the 1980s than it is now.inthe 1990s the need to learn to wait patiently for God’s timing. figuredropped significantly but now is increasing again. this growing percentage reflects the new generation’s preference for Strategizing for the Korean missionary movement.inthe survey, international agencies over Korean agencies, which, considering Korean mission executives identified what they felt werethe the need for globalization, is adesirable trend. greatest single strength and the greatest weakness of Korean international agencies need to complement their corporate missions.9 structureand culturewith significant input from local situations. in this global age it is no longer adequate to maintain uniform Greatest strength Percent standards and regulations across an institution. agencies need Personnel resources 75.0 to learn and adopt local cultural traits and to maintain aspirit technological expertise 11.5 and philosophy of multiculturalism embracing both the global Know-how for missions 8.7 and the local. Moreand moreinternational agencies aremaking financial supply 4.8 efforts to localize their principles and policies in different parts of the world, although many still refuse to decentralize their Greatest weakness functions. it is encouraging that afew have included Korean Weak supporting systems 45.1 missionaries on their leadership team, but much moremust be lack of know-how 25.2 donebyinternationalmissionagenciesinsharingmissionleader- lack of experts 24.3 ship with the Majority World church. furthermore, glocalization Poor application of technology 5.4 efforts need to be morefully reflected in the corporate cultures of the agencies. itiscurioustoseemissionknow-howidentifiedasbothastrength WhereKorean agencies areweaker in the global aspect than and aweakness, adiscrepancy that fuller definition of “know- in the local aspect, they need to cooperate closely with churches, how” might resolve. as for the top item identified as aweakness missions, and missionaries from other countries. By doing so, for Korean missions, it is clear that without proper supporting their members can develop global expertise, as well as practice systems, the missionary movement cannot continue its growth. local diversity.local agencies may feel uncomfortable about agencies must thereforecommit themselves to establishing crossing organizational boundaries, but they nonetheless need better supportsystems both within Koreaand abroad. local to make conscious efforts to cooperate.8 churches need to invest in the establishment and strengthening as globalization deepens and widens, the need increases for of support systems rather than solely emphasizing the need to tentmaking,whichcanoftendealwithglobalrealitiesmoresensi- send missionaries to the “front lines.” tively and morecreatively than traditional full-time missionaries Mission executives suggested several ways to improve sup- can. tentmaking ministries, through their greater economic op- port systems. portunities,enablecreativeapproachestolocalculturalsituations. Korean missions need to be creative in developing awider range Ways to improve support systems Percent of tentmaking efforts, for currently only one-thirdofall Korean introduce good models of ministry 46.3 missionaries (33.5 percent) can be categorized as tentmakers, raise awareness of missions among churches 38.9 including those who areinvolved part-time in business. More control the number of missionaries 11.1 experimental and creative minds and efforts areneeded to sug- raise individual and corporate support 3.7 gest effective models of tentmaking. concrete working models areneeded, not merely further conceptual study.for example, a Good examples and models of ministry can overcome mission proper development of tentmaking requires marketing consul- fatigue among the stakeholders of missions. short-term evalua- tants for microbusiness. tion may lead to prematurejudgment, so long-term perspective frontier missions, which aremoredifficult and dangerous is needed to monitor the fruitfulness of present ministries. and which requiremoreeffort and careful attention than work in response to an open question about the most urgent de- in established missions, aim to experience the full cycle of mis- velopmental issue facing Korean missions, mission executives sionary work. in 2006 asizable minority (29.6 percent) of Korean pointed to the following areas: missionaries wereinvolved in frontier missions, apercentage that has been increasing over the years. in the summer of 2007 Most urgent area of development Percent the taliban in afghanistan kidnapped twenty-three Korean Missionary care25.0 missionaries, eventually killing two of them and releasing the leadership 21.4 april 2008 61 research and development 18.8 Estimate of missionaries in 2030 Percent Missionary training 16.1 15,000–20,000 10.1 Missionary children’s education 9.8 20,001–30,000 24.7 support systems 8.9 30,001–50,000 18.0 50,001–80,000 24.7 of the various ways to exercise careofmissionaries, professional 80,001–100,000 11.3 carebyexperts is emphasized (by 44.9 percent of respondents) over 100,000 11.2 morethanmutualcareamongfieldmissionaries,carebyhomestaff members, or carebylocal church people in Korea. Missionaries although most mission executives do not expect to see 100,000 oftencarrydeep-seatedpersonalproblemsandneedprofessional missionaries on the field in 2030, they nevertheless believe that carebycounselors, psychiatrists, educators, and administrators. the Korean church is able to send many moremissionaries than such experts need to work closely with mission leaders and mis- the 14,905 on the field in 2006. siologists to give systematic carefor the missionaries. Which country will be the leading missionary sending When it comes to children’s education, Korean mission ex- country in the twenty-first century? the majority of respondents ecutives identified (47.3 percent) establishing the child’s sense highlighted Korea. of identity as the most important factor; internal issues must be resolved beforeaddressing other concerns. the identity issue Leading mission country Percent seems to be acomplex one indeed for a“missionary kid” who Korea 51.9 grows up in acomplex cultural and educational milieu. Mission china 36.8 agencies and local churches thereforeneed to invest in develop- united states 7.5 ing educational programs to help establish and strengthen MKs’ india 2.8 sense of identity. united Kingdom 0.9 Missionexecutiveswereaskedtoidentifytheareaofresearch they viewed as most significant. the results highlighted the need collectively,the respondents assumed that the leading mission- for developing mission strategy. ary countries will change dramatically from Western to Majority World countries. the u.s. church is underestimated perhaps be- areas needing research Percent cause of lack of awareness of the size of theamerican missionary Mission strategy 45.7 force and of the leading role the u.s. mission movement plays in field research 26.7 foreign missions especially in terms of strategy development. Personnel research 23.8 the mission executives wereasked which Korean mission historical research 3.8 agency they thought was the best. the highest vote-getters were Global Missionary fellowship (GMf,10out of 55 respondents), that is, pragmatic concerns wereconsidered moreurgent than Global Bible translators (GBt,the Bible translation arm of GMf theoretical and conceptual research such as in the theology of and affiliated with Wycliffe Bible translators, 10), and Global missionandmissionhistory.still,wecannotdisregardtheoretical Mission society (GMs, Presbyterian/hapdong, 8). if we include andacademicresearch,whichinthelongtermwillultimatelyhelp all eight divisions of GMf,itwas selected by approximately half maturethe missionary movement. Mission executives, however, ofthemissionexecutivesresponding.GMseffectivelyovercomes often seem to have little time to reflect on long-term goals. the recent stereotype that denominational agencies lack mis- on the question of which media areviewed as most sig- siological expertise. nificant for missionary work, mission executives identified the respondents identified the overseas Missionary fellow- internet (55.0 percent) and satellite broadcasting (27.5 percent). ship (oMf,9out of 51 responding), Wec international (8), and Both media arecurrently being used for missions by the Korean Wycliffe(WBt,7)asthemostexcellentandrespectedinternational church, but moreefforts areneeded to make the best use of them mission agencies, each of which has long been active in Korea. for missions in this ever-globalizing world. oMf has been in Korea for the longest time, both in receiving Missionexecutivesidentifiedseveralareastobestrengthened andinsendingmissionaries.Wec’srecentprogressisremarkable in missionary training. and can be attributed to the younger generation’s preference for overseas training opportunities and its global network. WBt as a Improvements needed in training Percent successfulmodelofglocalizationisknownthroughGBtinKorea; character building 43.5 although it is in thirdplace here, its ministry in Korea is widely community-life training 32.4 appreciatedthroughitsassociationwithGBt.theseinternational area research 20.4 agencies aregenerally well accepted among the Korean churches Missiological knowledge 3.7 because of their long history in asia and Korea. overall, personal and relational training is viewed as more Summary and Conclusions needed than theoretical or methodological training. thereare many Korean missionary training programs, but most of them the Korean church is now not only aleading force in the Majority focusoncognitive education for missiological knowledge. World mission movement but also an important part of the wider Missionexecutives, in contrast, consider personal stability globalmissionmovement.Koreanmissionariesarecomparatively and spiritual maturity to be moreimportant than knowledge, youngbut arerapidly accumulating cross-culturalministry experience, or managerial capability as important qualities of experience.inordertoglocalizetheglobalmissionarymovement, mission leadership. international agencies need to function like indigenous agencies, the executives had different estimates of how much Korean and indigenous agencies need to function like international missions would grow in the next twenty-five years. agencies. in the changing climate of missions, the Korean church

62 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 New and Noteworthy from Baker Academic

ENCOUNTERING MISSIONARYLIFE AND WORK TRANSFORMING WORLDVIEWS PREPARING FOR INTERCULTURAL MINISTRY AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING OF HOW PEOPLE CHANGE TomSteffen and Lois McKinney Douglas Paul G. Hiebert 9780801026591 •416 pp. •$24.99p 9780801027055 •400 pp. •$24.99p Available May 2008 Ageneration of students preparing for intercultural mission work has relied on the classic text Life and Work on the Mission Field Whatdoes conversion to Christ entail? Achange in behavior? by J. Herbert Kane, aguide to the practicalities of missionarylife. Achange in beliefs? These were the leading indicators for Encountering MissionaryLife and Work,anew volume in the award- missionaries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively, winning Encountering Mission series, seeks to build on Kane’swork thatconversion had occurred. But each of these on its ownis and provide practical guidance for anew generation of twenty-first- insufficient for agospel understanding of conversion. And even centurymissionaries. The authors are well qualified to write such when both are in evidence, it is possible thatthe result is merely amanual, each having served on the mission field for more than syncretistic Christo-paganism. Renowned missions anthropologist twenty years and each having taught missions at the seminarylevel. Paul Hiebert argues thatfor biblical mission in the twenty-first century, we must add athird element: achange in worldview,which “This book is awonderful introduction to missionarylife and work, underlies both behavior and belief. addressing most of the questions thataperson might ask about apossible career in Christian missions. Steffen and McKinney “This book is vintage Hiebert, pulling together in asingle volume his Douglas emphasize thatpreparation for missionaryeffectiveness seminal thinking on the cultural dynamics of Christian conversion. begins first and foremost in one’srelationship to God, and then in Drawing on alifetime of learning, thinking, and writing on the one’srelationships to God’speople. They also address most of the subject, this work augurs to be the standard text on worldview practical questions—support, agency, culture, language, family, for years to come. The book brims with insights into the cultural schooling—related to the daily life and work of amissionary. This and theological ‘what’ and ‘how’ of being ‘no longer conformed to is an excellent resource for introductorymissions classes in any this world, but transformed by the renewing of our minds.’ Written training context.”—Sherwood Lingenfelter,provost and senior vice with the clarity and originality of thought thatput Hiebert’swritings president, Fuller Theological Seminary at the forefront of twentieth-centurymissiological thought and practice, this volume is an apttribute to the life and work of its extraordinaryauthor,who went to his eternal home on March 11, 2007.”—Jonathan J. Bonk,executive director,Overseas Ministries StudyCenter; editor, International Bulletin of MissionaryResearch

Available at your local bookstore, www.bakeracademic.com, or by calling 1-800-877-2665 Subscribe to Baker Academic’selectronic newsletter (E-Notes) at www.bakeracademic.com needs to cooperate with missionary forces from other countries, need balance between them. expertise in diverse areas must be including the churches in the united states and china. developedtocontributetotheglobalmissionarymovementmore in conclusion, glocalization must be realized concretely meaningfully and strategically.the process of this growth may in many mission fields in order for the missionary movement include personal or institutional suffering. We must remember, as awhole to advance. Qualitative growth according to global though, that any such sufferings arenot worth comparing with standards that allow space for local creativity is needed, and we the glory that will ultimately be revealed in us (rom. 8:18). Notes 1. our operational definition of “missionary” does not include 4. andrew f. Walls argues that democratic political systems that independentmissionarieswhodonotbelongtoanyagencyorpastors encouragevoluntary organizations, unrestricted travel and flow of of diaspora churches who do not belong to mission agencies. People finance overseas in capitalist economic systems, and tax exemption who work with migrant workers in Korea arealso not included. for nonprofit organizations areimportant factors contributing to Korean missionaries sent by diaspora churches arenot included in the growth of the american missionary movement (The Missionary this number,although we know that thereare some. the number Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith 14,905 is thus conservative. for comparison, the number of roman [Maryknoll, n.y.: orbis Books, 2000], pp. 221–40). similarly,the catholicmissionariesfromKoreaattheendof2006was634according globalization of society has affected the globalization of the church to the catholic Bishops’ conference of Korea. in Korea. the question is how the church should use its own global 2. for the two-year period 1990–92 the growth rate was 56.6 percent, experience to contribute to the globalization of society. which decreased in subsequent two-year periods to 27.0 (1992–94), 5. see ibid. p. 160. 34.5 (1994–96), 35.1 (1996–98), 36.2 (1998–2000), 28.6 (2000–2002), 6. herepastors of diaspora churches areincluded in the total number 23.5 (2002–04), and 15.8 (2004–06). of missionaries if they belong to mission agencies with missionary 3. according to the most recent Mission Handbook,thereare 44,384 vision,althoughnotallofthemarecurrentlyinvolvedincross-cultural fully supported overseas missionaries from the united states ministry.the number of pastors involved in diaspora ministry is not (linda J. Weber and Dotsey Welliver,eds., Mission Handbook: U.S. large, however,because we do not include diaspora workers who and Canadian Protestant Ministries Overseas, 2007–2009 [Wheaton, arenot related to amission agency; and when diaspora workers ill.: evangelism and Missions information service, 2007], p. 13). form the majority of amission agency,wedonot count them as according to Operation World,thereare 41,064 indian missionaries, missionaries for the purposes of this survey. most of whom work cross-culturally within india. these countries 7. Diaspora churches areimportant as bases of member carefor cross- arefollowed by the united Kingdom (8,164 missionaries, including cultural missionaries and increasingly arebecoming involved in 5,666 overseas), canada (7,001, including 4,337 overseas), and cross-cultural missions. Brazil (5,801, including 1,912 overseas) (Patrick Johnstone, robyn 8. the concept of boundarylessness is useful for promoting an active Johnstone, and Jason Mandryk, Operation World: When We Pray God exchange and cooperation among mission agencies. the concept Works [carlisle, eng.: Paternoster lifestyle, 2001], pp. 895–901). in does not deny the existence of organizational boundaries but the 2005 survey,the attrition rate for Korean missionaries was 3.4 encourages and facilitates free movement and exchange across the percent (i.e., 34 missionaries out of every 1,000 return home sooner boundaries (see ron ashkenas, “the organization’s new clothes,” than expected). in 2004 the number of missionary early returnees in The Organization of the Future,ed. frances hesselbein, Marshall was 443. for the time period 1995–2004, atotal of 2,785 cases of Goldsmith,andrichardBeckhard[sanfrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1997], attrition werereported. important reasons for attrition, listed here p. 104). in the order of frequency,werechange of job, conflict with the home 9. these and the following statistics arebased on replies by 110(or,in office, health problems, retirement, death, conflict with colleagues, some cases, fewer) of the 174 mission executives surveyed. and marriage with nonmissionaries.

errata in the introduction to his review essay in the January 2008 in “Dissertation notices,” January 2008, page 54, the title issue of IBMR,page 44, John B. carman should have been given for Moses alela’s dissertation is incorrect. the correct identified as amember of the editorial boardofthe oxford title is “Good news to the Poor: aModel for holistic Ministry studies in World christianity,not as the author of one of the in Bunyore, Kenya.” volumes in the series. the editors regret the errors.

64 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 at the turn of the century: astudy of the china centenary Missionary conference of 1907 Kevin Xiyi Yao

he year 2007 marked the two-hundredth anniversary byterian Mission, in introducing the resolution draft on behalf of tof robert Morrison’s arrival in china.1 anumber of the committee on the chinese church, pointed out that William events wereheld in mainland china, hong Kong, Macau, and Milne, Morrison’s coworker,in1820 had written “retrospect taiwan to commemorate this historic event. it is worth noting of the first tenyears of the Protestant Mission to china.” in it that one hundred years ago Western missionaries in china also Milne predicted that at the current growth rate, the total number marked the day by holding acentenary missionary conference of chinese believers would reach one thousand, including their to celebrate the first century of Protestant missionary presence children, by 1907. “now at the end of the century,” Gibson said, and labor in that ancient land. “we count achurch of at least 180,000 communicants, which in the tradition of the great missionary conferences of 1877 implies achristian community of some 630,000 souls ...besides and 1890, the china centenary Missionary conference (hereafter some 120,000 children and young people. ...—this is the won- centenary conference) convened in shanghai from april 25 to derful fruit which one hundred years have left in our hands. ... May 8, 1907, and was attended by 1,170 missionary delegates, our first thoughts in this centenary conference may well be representatives of home boards, and visitors. among all the those of profound thankfulness to God for what he has done” attendees, fewer than ten chinese can be identified.2 twelve (pp. 1–2). overall, asense of pride, gratitude, and celebration is subjects wereselected for discussion, and twelve program com- evident throughout the conference reports. mittees wereformed to draft resolutions on these subjects. in addition, anumber of resolutions and open letters (memorials) Manifestation of Church Union wereeventually adopted by the conference and implemented by twenty-four committees after the conference ended.3 comparingthe 1907 conference with the china Missionary the centenary conference of 1907, alandmark event in the conference held seventeenyears earlier, in 1890, many par- history of Protestant missions in china, was “a celebration of the ticipants singled out harmony and cooperation as highlights of close of the first century of Protestant missionary work in china” the centenary gathering (p. 690). “comity and federation” was and the ushering in of the second century (p. ii; page numbers actually listed as one of the twelve conference subjects. confer- in text refer to Records, China Centenary Missionary Conference). ence participants seem to have been quite united on this issue. looked at today,the discussions and resolutions of the confer- Going beyond fostering aunified spirit, the conference began to ence yield insights into the issues the missionaries faced and take concrete measures towardalarger church union, adopting their mentality,permit evaluation of their decisions in the light resolutions that recommended formation of afederal union to be of later developments, and offer lessons pertinent to challenges titled the christian federation of china (pp. 719–20). the vision facing the Protestant movement as it enters its thirdcentury in embraced by the conference clearly foreshadowed the birth of the country.rather than examining each of the twelve conference the national christian council in the 1920s. subjects, ishall focus on five main themes shaping the conference aspirit of unity also permeated other resolutions and dis- agenda and discussions. cussions.acknowledging the divisions and confusion caused by Protestant denominationalism, conference participants through Retrospect of the First Century resolutions on the chinese church offered ajoint statement of faith that stressed the basic doctrinal consensus of the Protes- atthetimeofthecentenaryconferenceinshanghai,themission- tant china missionaries (pp. 437–38). consensus on the nature aries and church in china wereenjoying remarkable social favor. and tasks of mission was expressed as well in “Memorial to the in the wake of the disastrous Boxer rebellion, the Qing Dynasty home church.” Preaching or spreading the Gospel was clearly initiated aseries of economic, governmental, educational, and emphasized as the coreofmission, but christian social respon- military reforms. at the same time, chinese society showed un- sibility was also considered to be indispensable (p. 364; see also precedentedopennesstowardWesterninfluences.consequently, pp. 548, 550, 656–59). the fact that the conference delegates the intense hostility that the church had constantly faced in the wereable to reach consensus on fundamental doctrines and previous hundred years ebbed considerably,ifitdid not vanish missionary tasks is aclear indication of the continuing existence completely.insuchanenvironmentthechurchandthemissionary and influence of the so-called Protestant missionary consensus movement experienced rapid recovery and expansion. within the Protestant missionary community in china in the not surprisingly,the conference participants wereover- early twentieth century.4 whelmingly upbeat in their comments on past missionary work signs of the coming collapse of missionary unity,however, and the current situation. first, the considerable change of social began to emerge during the conference. therewereintense circumstance was amatter frequently noted. second, reports debates on chinese ancestor worship, the relationship between highlighted and praised the tremendous missionary progress preaching and social involvement, and the value and necessity made since Morrison’s days. John c. Gibson of the english Pres- of church union, among other subjects (pp. 486–88, 540, 614). inroads made by higher criticism in china werealready causing Kevin Xiyi Yao, associate Professor in Theological Studies, China Graduate concern in some sectors of the missionary community (p. 66). School of Theology,Hong Kong, is the author of the fundamentalist Move- Gradual intensification of these debates and concerns eventually ment among Protestant Missionaries in china, 1920–1937 (Univ.Press led to the demise of the consensus in the modernist-fundamen- of america, 2003). talist controversy in the 1920s and 1930s. the conference of 1907 april 2008 65 can thereforebeconsidered the last major manifestation of the the education committee, “our great ideal is the establishment Protestant missionary consensus in china.5 But in 1907 ideas of of the kingdom of God on earth. We aim at influencing all the unionandcooperationwerestillsodominantthatonemissionary strata of society.christianity is to save the world and to bring all couldpredictthat“‘together’isthetwentiethcenturywatchword” human relationship, political, social, commercial, and industrial (p. 597). ironically,within less than two decades the national into harmony with laws of God” (p. 68). akingdom-centered christian council that had been envisioned by the conference theology clearly exerted ashaping influence on the missionaries’ proved unable to unify missions and churches across the country thought and practice. in the manner that the conference of 1907 had done. the strong missionary emphasis on forming achristian civilization in china, in combination with the new openness to Gospel and Civilization christianity on the part of chinese society,led to agrowing call for providing futuregenerations of chinese church workers with the notion of christian civilization was very much taken for much moreadvanced skills and moresophisticated education. granted in the centenary conference. few of the missionaries the conference’s “Memorial to the home church” declared: “We would have doubted that the Gospel was the spiritual founda- want to train preachers who can appeal not only to the poor and tion and power source of modern Western civilization, the latter the illiterate, but to the thoughtful” (p. 380). in his report to the being the fruit of the former.their calling was to bring to the conference, Pott argued that “it is not sufficient to give those chinese people the Gospel of Jesus christ, as well as its fruit. as who aretobeemployed as pastors or evangelists, asuperficial aresult, spreading the Gospel, planting churches, and reforming theological education, but we must first give them an education society and culturealways went together in chinese missions of that is liberal in the true sense of the word” (p. 66). the nineteenth century. it is no surprise, then, that the 1907 conference called for in looking back at the first one hundred years, the mission- mission schools to be expanded and upgraded. the conference aries felt proud not just of the growth of the church but also of resolutions on education asked the home churches and mission their role in introducing modern civilization and stimulating boards to increase considerably their investment in education in china. they also appealed for better and moreprofession- ally trained missionaries, closer cooperation between different The overwhelming support missions in education, and establishment of aunion christian universityofferinginstructionofthehighestacademicstandards. for expansion of in addition to educational endeavors, the “Memorial to the educational and medical home church” urged great expansion of the missions’ medical work (p. 380). work exposed tensions theoverwhelmingsupportforexpansionofeducationaland between preaching and medical work exposed tensions between preaching and social services and between grassroots- and elite-oriented approaches. social services. in calling for moreresources for education, the “Memorial to the homechurch”carefullymaintainedabalancebetweeneducation and evangelism by emphasizing that “our insistence, as acon- social progress in china. in aspeech entitled “the influence of ference, on the pressing need of education is not as asubstitute christianMissionsonchinesenationallifeandsocialProgress,” for preaching”; rather,itsought to make the preaching more D. l.anderson of the Methodist episcopal Mission, south, made effective (p. 380). for missionaries such as Dixon edwardhoste painstakingeffortstoillustratethemissionaries’impactonchina’s of the china inland Mission, the need of native church workers political, educational, and medical development, and even their for ahigher educational level seemed overemphasized. he chal- roleasa“walkingadvertisement”ora“kindofsandwichman”in lenged proponents of the majority position not to assume “too promoting foreign trade and Western goods in the country.6 such readily that the man with intellectual cultureisnecessarily more words reveal much about many china missionaries’ self-identity effective for good, than one who, though but apoor scholar,has in the nineteenth century,namely,that they wereambassadors astronger and moreintense religious life” (p. 452). of Western civilization, as well as of the Gospel. nevertheless, the call for considerable expansion of the the same mind-set was dominant in missionary discus- educational, medical, and other social dimensions of mission sions of current needs and futuretasks of Protestant missions enterprises was dominant in the conference. not surprisingly, in china. the resolutions on the chinese ministry declared that the first three decades of the twentieth century witnessed asurge china’s ongoing reform “opens up beforethe christian church of educational and social work, acceleration of institutionaliza- aunique opportunity to inspirethe new civilization with its tion, and the rise of professionalism and elitism in china mission ethical truths and religious life” (p. 473). in line with this view, enterprises. the “Memorial to the home church” affirmed that the vision of in 1907 the missionary community seemed quite united china missionaries “is nothing less than that china may become about the possibility and necessity of blending the Gospel and achristian nation.” indeed, the memorial admitted, Western civilization, preaching and social services, and spirituality and civilization had its own flaws, but “after all thereisawide gulf education. unfortunately,this unity could not be maintained; between anation that acknowledges, even only outwardly and within twenty years the positions of liberals and fundamentalists imperfectly,the christian law,and one that deliberately repu- polarized. outside the church and missionary community,the diates the name, the commands and the worship of our lord” seemingly innocent ties between mission and modern Western (p. 382). in the conference abroad view of mission, understood civilization weresoon reinterpreted by chinese nationalists of all as integration of evangelism and social services, was repeatedly strains, and they turned from being agreat missionary achieve- emphasized. according to francis lister hawks Pott, of the ment into indisputable evidence that christian mission was the american Protestant episcopal church Mission and chair of tool of Western cultural imperialism.

66 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Debating the Treaty Protections should be limited strictly to cases of religious persecution, even though Mateer admitted that chinese believers wereoften per- the rapid spread of christianity in china followed imposition of secuted for reasons not directly related to their christian identity the so-called unequal treaties between china and the Western but for nonreligious causes (p. 340). in the end, on this issue of colonial powers, signed in the wake of several wars that china treaty protections, Mateer advised that lost to the West. the treaties guaranteed tolerance of christian- ity,provided extraterritorial privileges, and protected the right thetrueideal,bothforthemissionaryandhisconvert,istodowhat of christians to do mission work and plant churches through- will best subserve the cause of christ ...every man should live up out the empire. the advance of christianity in china, however, to the light he has. no general rule can be made or imposed. ... constantly encountered anti-christian riots and official hostility it is unfortunate that any appeal to atreaty or aconsul is ever or harassment in many forms, which the missionaries usually necessary.Bythe necessity of things, it turns the minds of native christians in the wrong direction. they areled to depend on an referred to as persecution. the notorious Boxer rebellion in 1900 arm of flesh, rather than on the power of God. ...Weshould pray was the culmination of the opposition. earnestly for the advent of the day when the necessity for such since in 1907 the missionaries’ memory of the Boxer rebel- things shall pass away,and the native church enjoy true religious lion was still fresh, the issue of the protections provided by the liberty based on aspontaneous chinese law.(p. 346) treaties quickly became one of the focal points of the conference. calvin Wilson Mateer of the american Presbyterian Mission, in sum, Mateer’s report regarding the treaty protections was north, who was appointed chair of an eleven-member commit- affirmative, circumspect, and conditional. tee on the missionary and “public questions,” was at the center the basic contentions set out in Mateer’s report wereall of the discussion. in the committee’s report to the conference, endorsed by the conference. the final resolutions adopted on Mateer did not deny that the Western powers had acted unjustly publicquestionsexhorted“allmissionariestourgeuponchinese for political and commercial purposes, but he tried to distance christians thedutyofpatienceand forbearanceunder persecu- christian mission from Western political and economic interests tion forchrist’ssake, andalsomakeevery possible effort to in china by arguing that the religious aspects of the treaties were settle mattersprivately,anappeal to the authorities being the last “a mereincident,” free of pressure(pp. 337–38). resort” (p. 743). that the missionaries chose their words on this Mateer then dealt with two controversial issues. the first sensitive issue with careafter thorough deliberation is beyond was whether the treaty protections should be maintained. ac- doubt. for most of them the treaty arrangement was anecessary knowledging growing sentiment for overcoming persecution by evil to be maintained only for the sake of the church’s survival patience and forbearance rather than through appeals to treaty in avery harsh environment. as the environment became more privileges, Mateer launched atwofold refutation (p. 339). first, favorable, appeal to the treaty provisions would, it was hoped, he argued that the treaties “can and do make the missionary and become obsolete. the convert at one with the law of the land.” Without the treaty the position adopted by the conference, however,did not protections, “the probability is that much blood would have been go without challenge. significantly,some of the strongest voices shed, and many hardships endured, and avery inconsiderable in opposition came from within the committee for public ques- success achieved.” Drawing upon church history,hedeclared, tions itself. c. Bolwig of the Danish lutheran Mission was one “Patient submission is by no means apanacea for persecution, of those who spoke in opposition. he pointed out that the treaty nor yet ahighway for the triumph of truth.” second, Mateer insisted that Jesus’ teachings of nonresistance “weredoubtless spoken of private and personal revenge, and werebynomeans Placing Chinese converts intended to nullify the function of civil government.” in fact, “Paul was not slow to resent his being struck contrary to the under treaty protections law” (pp. 338–40). had earned missionaries the second issue concerned the practice of placing chinese convertsundertreatyprotections.Doingsohadearnedmissionar- abad reputation for ies abad reputation for interfering in the chinese judicial system, interfering in the Chinese and it directly contributed to the phenomenon of so-called rice christians, persons who joined the church to gain an advantage judicial system. in legal cases or to enhance their status in local communities. to correct abuses, therewas an increasing demand that the treaty rights be confined strictly to the foreign missionaries (p. 338). protections were“ahated yoke laid upon the government” Mateer opposed this position mainly on the grounds that it vio- (p. 727). in his view,the protection granted to chinese converts lated “the demands of christian sympathy and brotherhood” was especially unjustifiable because “it is injurious to the church and ignored the rights entitled to chinese believers by chinese inasmuch as it strengthens the belief that we arepolitical agents, law (p. 341). and it fosters ‘rice’ christians and produces aspirit of weakness thereisnodoubt that Mateer’s stand on the treaty protec- in the converts. ...itplainly tells the chinese that they arenot tions reflected the general outlook of the missionary community masters in their own house, and will in the long runexcite much atthattime.J.c.GarrittofamericanPresbyterianMission,north, moreanimosity” (p. 728). amember of the drafting committee, spoke the mind of many criticizing Mateer’s argument on the basis of christian missionaries when he depicted the treaty privileges as simply brotherly love, Bolwig suggested that therewereother ways “the providence of God” (p. 726). By the end of the conference, to assist chinese christians in suffering, such as prayer and however,Mateer’s report emphasized that “great careand financial aid. furthermore, he believed that Mateer’s cautious circumspection should be used in taking up supposed cases of advice to exercise prudence and carefulness was misdirected and persecution” (p. 340). in other words, missionary intervention called for completely shutting the door to “the mighty.” citing april 2008 67 his own mission’s refusal to interfereinlawsuits or to appeal to the missionaries wereconfident that the new century would the foreign consul, he did not see that his mission’s work was definitely be much morepromising. hindered as aresult (pp. 729–31). the missionaries werenot unawareofchallenges ahead, Bolwig was echoed by Dixon edwardhoste, also amember which included the familiar difficulties of resistance from tra- of the drafting committee. he expressed great concern about the ditional cultureand hostility on the part of the class of scholar- danger of missionaries’ being “implicated in affairs which were officials. Moreinterestingly,however,some missionaries were not really persecutions.” Because of interference in the chinese beginning to feel that these old obstacles might be diminishing legal system, he warned, “the cause of christianity was being and that new challenges wereonthe horizon. secular and ma- hindered and the repute of the christian church was suffering terialistic aspects of modern Western civilization werebeing through it” (p. 733). Bolwig and hoste represented aminority introducedintothecountryandextendingtheirinfluenceamong voice in the conference. history has shown, however,that their young people, even as the native traditions wereweakening. position was morefarsighted and even prophetic. James Jackson of the american Protestant episcopal church from the nineteenth century to the present, the unequal Mission, chair of the committee on ancestral worship, sounded treaties and related tensions have been key factors in shaping the following alarm: “the great struggle of christianity in china the image of the christian community in chinese society.the in the coming days will not be with the superstitious practices of missionaries in 1907 no doubt took the issue seriously.But per- the masses, but with the materialism, godlessness and practical haps the most fateful and wishful thinking on their part was atheism of the educated. that is what we have to fear most of all” (p. 245). at least for some of the missionaries, asense of crisis and The missionaries were urgency became adriving force behind the numerous calls for strengthening mission schools and expanding evangelistic and confident that the new literary work. it even added anew dimension to the long-de- century would definitely bated issue of ancestor worship. although the majority opinion and final resolutions on ancestor worship failed to transcend be much more promising. the traditional approach that rejected the practice as idolatry, missionaries such as J. Jackson and J. c. Gibson began to see the significant role ancestor worship played in maintaining social that the whole issue would simply fade away as chinese society order and in strengthening belief in the supernatural. they urged was reformed. unfortunately,instead of passing away,the ties careful handling of the tradition in order not to “drive out one between the missionaries and the Western colonial powers have devil only to let in seven” (p. 620). been manipulated to such amagnitude that the chinese church in light of later historical developments, the prophetic in- has had to live under their shadow down to the present. from sights of some participants of the 1907 conference areamazing. the vantage point of 2007, we can ask some hardquestions: Did still, the pace, scope, and depth of social and cultural changes in the missionaries in 1907 see fully the importance of the issue china in the early twentieth century far surpassed their boldest and the harm it could cause to the church? could the result have estimation. in 1907 the missionary community’s awareness of been different had the majority of the missionary community the coming crisis and turmoil remained weak, and it could by embraced the outlook of Bolwig and hoste? thereare no easy no means counterbalance the overwhelming mood of optimism. answers to these questions. still, we cannot help but regret that for most of the missionaries, the coming opportunities seemed the missionaries did not act morereflectively and firmly on this clearly to outweigh the challenges ahead. issue at that time. Concluding Remarks Looking Ahead thechinacentenaryMissionaryconferenceof1907wasanevent seeking at the opening of the new century of Protestant mission of unity,triumph, and hope. it fully manifested the Protestant in china to peer into the future, the 1907 conference sounded missionary consensus of the previous century,ithighlighted the overwhelmingly hopeful and optimistic.all of the speeches fore- missionaries’ vision of transforming china into achristian na- casting the futureheralded the country’s ongoing cultural and tion or civilization, and it projected abright pictureofchristian social transformations as signs of the coming of the kingdom of advance in the new century.the thinking and policies embodied God in that ancient land. in the new century,itwas predicted, this in the conference resolutions and other documents werelargely trend would continue, and the christian missionary movement inherited from the missionary movement of the previous century wouldhavetremendousopportunities.thewordsofc.e.ewing and werestrongly colored by achristendom outlook and trium- of the american Boardofcommissioners for foreign Missions phalism. standing at the turn of the century,the missionaries ap- aretypical and telling: “the kingdom is coming in china. ...the parently did not see any need to make fundamental adjustments leaven is in, the fireislighted; the loaf is rising fast. anew vital or to reorient the missionary movement in china. force is within, and the uplift of china is sure. he who doubts is standing today at the turn of another century and looking deceived. ...our earnesthopeis this—thatthekingdom ofchrist back at the conference of 1907, we areperhaps most struck by the shall come in china. let therebenomorelooking back, no more sharp contrast between the missionaries’ expectations and the dull-eyed pessimism. the day of the croaker [complainer] is past; historicalrealityofthetwentiethcentury.inlessthanadecadethe the day of the worker is now....Weare heretosave, not merely Protestant missionary consensusthatfeaturedsoprominently in souls, but anation; not the church, but china; not to point the 1907washopelesslysmashedbyfundamentalist-liberaldivisions way for afew,but for all; not to make small demands, but claim withinthemissionarycommunity.outsidethechurchtherewere china for christ; to sow the seed of the kingdom broadcast over even moresurprises. Just four years later the Qing Dynasty,upon the land” (pp. 86–87). having weathered aturbulent century, which the missionaries laid so much hope, was overthrown, and

68 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Ourfull-time Mission and Evangelism facultymembers include: “I love the PhD program in Intercultural Studies. Richard R. Cook, PhD It combines global breadth, intellectual depth, Mission Historyand Global Christianity and apassion for effective missional thinking and Harold A. Netland, PhD Religion and Intercultural Studies practice. Ihave gained exposure and mentoring John W. Nyquist, PhD from outstanding professors, and Ihave learned Evangelism and Discipleship intellectual and research skills that Ineeded to Craig Ott, PhD take the next step of leadership in my field.” Church Planting and Contextualization James F. Plueddemann, PhD —Doctoral student Rick Richardson is an associate Leadership and Education RobertJ.Priest, PhD professor and director of the MA in evangelism Anthropology and Intercultural Studies program at Wheaton College. Tite Tiénou, PhD Theology of Mission and Ethnicity

Ask tough questions Expand your understanding Exploredifferent perspectives Experiencerelevant ministry

Is God leading you toward doctoralstudies? At Trinityweofferseveral degree options to help you deepen your theological understanding,cultural insights,and missionaryskills forcross-cultural ministryand theological leadership both globally and locally.Trinity’sfacultycombine international experiencewith quality scholarship to help youreflect, explore, and grow to achieve your educational and ministrygoals. Doctoral programs at Trinityinclude: PhD (Intercultural Studies) PhD (Educational Studies) PhD (Theological Studies) In addition to other funding,Trinityoffers three-year full-tuition scholarships in the PhD (Intercultural Studies) program, available to East African, Chinese, Indian, or Latin American students who will return to their home countries aftergraduation to teach at aseminaryorinstitution of higher education.

Contactour Admissions Office today: 800.583.6654 TrinityEvangelical DivinitySchool |2065 Half DayRoad,Deerfield,IL60015 |www.teds.edu thecountrychangedpermanentlybothsociallyandculturally.far surprising and totally unanticipated that the whole conference from witnessing the triumph of christ’s kingdom in china, the looks rather beside the point, if not tragic. new century brought the church even worse ordeals than those as we stand on the threshold of the thirdcentury of the experiencedinthenineteenthcentury.afterashort-livedharmony Protestant movement in china, it is not difficult for us to see betweenchurchandsocietyinthe1910s,thechristiancommunity similarities between the church in china then and now.the found itself under relentless attack from rationalism, scientism, church then recovered from the Boxer rebellion. after enduring and revolutionary ideologies. far from being forgotten as time tremendous hardships from the mid-1950s through the cultural passed, the unfortunate historical ties between christianity and revolution, the church miraculously “resurrected” in the 1980s Westerncolonialismbecameastigmaforthechinesechurch.the and has since experienced amazing growth both in number and culmination came during the cultural revolution of the 1960s, influence. if history can repeat, however,isitpossible for the when the church lost all right to exist and was suppressed. in tragedy of the 1907 conference’s misreading of its times and the the 1907 conference’s “Memorial to the home church,” thereis futuretorecur in our day as well? Guarding against misread- apregnant, almost fateful statement: “the judgment of history ings is not dependent solely on what the church itself does. has frequently reversed contemporary judgments as to what other agents and other factors arealso at work. in any case, if was failureand what was success” (p. 367). Based on what the we remain humble beforetwo decades of unprecedented church chinese church went through in the first half of the twentieth growth; if we courageously face existing problems and poten- century,wehave to acknowledge that history’s judgment has tial difficulties and make timely adjustments; and especially if long since been rendered on many aspects of the 1907 conference we reflect appropriately on the two major legacies of the 1907 and the whole movement it represented. yetthereisnoneed to conference—the mixing of the Gospel and civilization and the point our fingers in judgment or scorn at our predecessors of one ties between mission and colonialism—then thereisreason for hundredyearsago,forthepeopleofeverytimeandcircumstance, optimism that the tragedy of 1907 can be prevented from hap- including our own, have their own blind spots. nevertheless, the pening again. this is perhaps the best tribute we can pay to our courseofhistoricaldevelopmentfollowingtheconferencewasso predecessors of acentury ago. Notes 1. in recent years the traditional view that Morrison was the first (shanghai: Methodist Publishing house, 1907). also, the following Protestant missionary to china has been challenged by scholars volume, containing nationwide surveys of missions and churches, from mainland china. they argue that the Dutch Presbyterian was published beforethe conference: Donald MacGillivary,ed., missionaries who arrived in taiwan in the seventeenth century aCentury of Protestant Missions in China (1807–1907) (shanghai: should be considered the first ones to reach china. nevertheless, american Presbyterian Mission Press, 1907). these three volumes most scholars agree that Morrison’s arrival in 1807 marks the real arethe major sources for the study of the centenary conference. beginning of the Protestant movement that swept the entirecountry 4. see James alan Patterson, “the loss of aProtestant Missionary in the next two centuries. see yanKe-jia, “Malixun chuan Jiao shi consensus: foreign Missions and the fundamentalist-Modernist ye de hui Gu yu Ping Jia” (a retrospect and appraisal of robert conflict,”inEarthenVessels:americanEvangelicalsandForeignMissions, Morrison’s Mission Work), in Chuan Jiao Yundong yu Zhong Guo 1880–1980,ed.Joela.carpenterandWilbertr.shenk(Grandrapids: Jiao Hui (the Missionary Movement and the chinese church), ed. eerdmans, 1990), pp. 73–91. the missionary consensus provides a china christian council and national committee of the three-self caution against exaggeration of the differences between hudson PatrioticMovement (Beijing: Press of religious culture, 2007), taylor and timothy richard. they differed mostly on the focus of p. 67. mission rather than in overarching theological and missiological 2. allchinese participants were categorized as “visitors” and had no orientation and thus did not break the overall missionary consensus. right to vote. see “conference Directory” in Records, China Centenary see lauren f. Pfister,“rethinking Mission in china: James hudson Missionary Conference,ed. centenary conference committee taylor and timothy richard,” in The Imperial Horizons of British (shanghai: Methodist Publishing house, 1907), pp. 785–808. During Protestant Missions, 1880–1914,ed. andrew Porter (Grand rapids: the afternoon of april 27 agroup of chinese pastors was invited eerdmans, 2003), pp. 183–212. to the platform and was welcomed by the conference during the 5. see M. searle Bates, “the theology of american Missionaries in discussion of “chinese Ministry” (see Records,pp. xxiii, 470–71; china, 1900–1950,” in The Missionary Enterprise in China and america, hereafter,page references in the text aretoRecords). ed. John King fairbank (cambridge, Mass.: harvarduniv.Press, 3. Besides Records,avolume of speeches, discussions, and sermons 1974), p. 143. was compiled and published as addresses Public and devotional 6. addresses Public and devotional,pp. 52–53.

70 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 christian literature in nineteenth-century china Missions— aPriority? or an optional extra? John Tsz-pang Lai

ollowing the 1910 edinburgh World Missionary con- alexander Wylie (1815–87), from england, had ahigh regard fference, an international committee was appointed to for chinese catholic literatureand recommended that his fellow investigate the issue of christian literatureinthe missionary Protestantmissionarieslearnfromtheexperienceoftheircatholic enterprise. as ageneral principle, the printed page was not predecessors:“theearliestchristianworksextantinchinesedate intended as asubstitute for the living voice of missionaries, from the beginning of the 17th century.onthe arrival of the Jesuit but christian literatureadmittedly possessed some merits that missionaries, it soon became an object with them to employ the missionaries did not have. according to John h. ritson, “it can agency of the press in the dissemination of their views through be read and re-read and pondered over; it can reach avastly the empire. the books which they have left must ever prove an greater congregation than is to be found within the walls of the object of interest to the disciple of Jesus.”6 sanctuary; it can accompany the hospital patient to his home, and christian literatureindeed became prominent in the era of penetrate the most secluded harem and zenana; it can travel forth Protestantmissions,beginningwithrobertMorrison(1782–1834), as the pioneer wherethe climate is deadly,and the population the pioneering Protestant missionary to china in 1807. By the is sparse and conditions areunfriendly and hostile. the printed 1840s, missionaries lost any legal right to stay in mainland china page alone is the ubiquitous missionary.”1 and propagate christianity there. ahandful of pioneering mis- While the value of christian literaturewas recognized sionaries, including Morrison and William Milne (1785–1822), generally,its significance was even further emphasized in the dedicated themselves to the production of chinese christian china missions. John K. fairbank has suggested that missionary literatureinsoutheast asia (and secretly in china) to preparefor involvement in the written word“suited the original evangelical china’s eventual opening. Milne explicitly stated the importance belief in the efficacy of the printed scriptures. ...chinese condi- of tract operations: “such is the political state of this country at tions reinforced this literary predilection. the Protestant mission present, that we arenot permitted to enter it, and publish by the to the chinese became in larger part amatter of print.”2 living voice the glad tidings of salvation. tracts may,however, throughout the long span of chinese history,the class penetrate silently,even to the chamber of the emperor.they eas- of literati had emerged as rulers of the people. the dominant ily put on achinese coat, and may walk without fear through philosophical and religious systems in china rested on aliterary the breadth and length of the land. this we cannot do.”7 Brent foundation and on the people’s veneration for the writings of the Whitefield correctly points out that “the Protestant missionary sages. confucianism, which was largely built on the four Books effort in china, which was initiated by robert Morrison in 1807, and five classics, was for two millennia virtually synonymous was initially alargely literary phenomenon, with little mean- with literaturebecause of the implementation of the civil service ingful presence in mainland china prior to the first opium or examination in imperial china. furthermore, alarge corpus of anglo-chinese War.”8 Buddhist sutras werebrought from india and translated into the British defeat of china in the opium Warushered in a chinese from the second century onward. the significance of new era in the history of Protestant missions in the Middle King- tracts in converting china to Buddhism was also mentioned dom. With the signing of the treaty of nanking in 1842,9 hong by some missionaries, and it was proposed that Protestant mis- Kong island was ceded as acolony to the British, and five coastal sionaries follow this precedent of evangelizing china by means treatyportswereopened—canton,amoy,foochow,ningpo,and of religious tracts.3 china also had along tradition of distribut- shanghai—wheremissionaries were, for the first time, allowed ing morality tracts among the common people with aview to to reside, build churches, and preach the Gospel. alongside the inculcating moral and religious virtues.4 some christian tracts establishmentofmissionstationsandlocalchurches,missionaries weremodeled on the style and terminology of these chinese fullyrealizedthattheprovisionofchristianliteraturewasamore morality tracts. china’s age-old reverence for the printed word efficient and effective means of propagating the christian faith thereforeboth constituted challenges and offered opportunities to awider audience. the number of missionaries was, after all, to the literary efforts of christian missionaries. negligible10 when compared with the vast population of china.11 the interior provinces wereinaccessible to Westerners until the Perspectives of Missionaries signing of the treaty of tientsin (1858) and the Peking conven- tion (1860), which followed in the wake of the anglo-french against this background it is impossible to exaggerate the expedition to Peking. Before1860 the distribution of christian importance of literatureasameans of converting the chinese publications was almost the only way of conveying areligious to christianity,something that was grasped by the early Jesuit message in the hinterland of china. missionaries during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. under these historical circumstances, quite afew Protestant Matteo ricci (1552–1610), an italian, arrived in Peking in 1601, missionaries to china made painstaking efforts to acquirethe and by 1631 the Jesuit missionaries, together with their chinese language and create christian literatureinchinese, either by converts, had published no less than 340 treatises on religion, translating existing Western religious works or by writing their philosophy,mathematics, and natural sciences.5 own. for them, the formation of abody of chinese christian literatureserved several purposes: first, as an instrument of conversion; second, as apreparation for futureevangelism; John Tsz-pang Lai is assistant Professor of Translation at Hong Kong Baptist third, as language-study guides for newly arrived missionaries; University. and fourth, as away for missionaries to fit into their social niche april 2008 71 as recognized scholars or teachers in the chinese community, fedonthem. theschools aretrained by them.the churches are thereby facilitating their missionary work.12 foundedanddisciplinedbythem.thereligiousworkofhospitals Protestant missionaries to china repeatedly stressed the anddispensariesisconducted through them. and the general importance of christian literatureintheir missionary endeav- enlightenment of the people, and the undermining of idolatry, ors. tract production and distribution went hand in hand with arepromoted by the same agency.”17 oral preaching in the propagation of christianity.samuel Wells While missionaries in the field placed emphasis on christian Williams (1812–84) remarked that “the voice explains the book literature, the literary mission could not have been accomplished and the book recalls the ideas and teachings of the preacher.”13 through missionary enthusiasm or literary talents alone. the it was also generally believed that missionaries, “until they have whole enterprise of publishing and distributing christian litera- mastered the language, can do nothing without tracts; and even turerequiredextensivefinancialresources,inwhichinstitutional when they can preach with fluency and power,they regardtracts patronageplayedanindispensablerole.Missionarysocietiesseem as important subsidiaries to impress the truth on the awakened to have been the natural source of financial support. hearer.”14 religious tracts usually prepared the way for oral preachingbyfamiliarizingthepeoplewithchristiantermsandthe Policies of Missionary Societies christian message. thomas h. hudson (1800–1876) maintained that christian tracts would “give much knowledge of gospel While most missionary societies tended to channel substantial truth, make the people acquainted with terms and phrases used resources into missionaries’ salaries, the building of churches, inchristianbooks,andthuspreparethemtohearandunderstand and the upkeep of mission schools and hospitals, the home com- the instruction of the christian missionary.”15 mittees differed considerably in their attitude towardchristian the most important function of the tracts was to inculcate literature. some societies did contribute quite afew prominent christian faith by introducing the doctrines of sin, atonement, writers and translators of chinese christian literature,18 and oth- and salvation. every effort was made to adapt the tracts for ers earmarked special funds towardthe cost of publishing books evangelisticpurposesinordertoreachtheunconverted.timothy (chiefly denominational) that their missionaries needed. it was richard(1845–1919) highlightedthe valueofchristian literature nonetheless the exception rather than the rule for missionary by arguing that “salvation of the multitudes in each of the tribes, societies to make generous grants for publication, or to set aside and kindreds, and tongues must be through saving knowledge, missionariesexclusivelytooffertheirliterarytalents.asoverseas in whose conveyance christian literatureisthe main agency.”16 missions underwentenormousexpansion in thelatenineteenth inthe1877shanghaiMissionaryconference,stephenl.Baldwin century,mostsocietiespreferredtoconcentratetheirresourceson (1835–1902)summarizedtheprogressofchristianliteratureover church planting anddevelopment,delegatingthe task of literary theprevioussevendecadesasfollows:“ourconvertsarebrought production to theleading tractand literature societies. By way in by thetruth of thebooks.the native christians arespiritually of illustration, we consider herethe policies of the society for noteworthy

Announcing movement. Samuel Kobia,aMethodist pastor from Kenya, athree-year project commenced in May 2006 by the Pontifical is Wcc general secretary.for details, visit www.oikoumene. council for interreligious Dialogue and the World council of org/en/news/news-management/eng/a/browse/10/ churches’ program on interreligious dialogue and coopera- article/1722/world-mission-and-evangel.html. tionnowincludesevangelicalandPentecostalrepresentatives. some 240 leaders of abroad range of churches, confes- the dialogue, called An Interreligious Reflection on Conver- sions, and interchurch organizations from morethan seventy sion: From Controversy to aShared Code of Conduct,was countries agreed to advance what they called the Global advanced august 8–12, 2007, when some thirty catholic, Christian Forum.the agreement for encounter and dialogue orthodox,Protestant,Pentecostal,andevangelicaltheologians has agoal to “foster mutual respect, exploreand address and church leaders from europe, asia, africa, and the united common challenges.” Participants endorsed the final draft states gathered at the institute of science and theology of of a“Message from the Global christian forum to Brothers religions, toulouse, france, to outline the content of the code and sisters in christ throughout the World” at ameeting of conduct, which is expected to be finalized by 2010. november 6–9, 2007, in limuru, near nairobi, Kenya. Visit aglobal conference on christian mission has been pro- www.globalchristianforum.orgtoread the statement. posed for late 2011bythe Commission on World Mission the Endangered Archives Program at the British library and Evangelism of the World Council of Churches.the has funded nearly seventy projects in thirty-seven countries commission includes delegates from member churches of the since its establishment three years ago. the program, with councilaswellasfromtheromancatholicchurchandseveral support fromarcadia, formerly the lisbet rausing charitable otherchristian bodies notinfullmembershipofthe Wcc. fund, focuses on the preservation and copying of important theconferencewillcontinueaseriesofrepresentative gather- butvulnerable archives throughout the world, according ings that began with the edinburgh Missionary conference of to aBritish libraryreport. for details, visit www.bl.uk/ 1910. the Wcc’s most recent world mission conference met endangeredarchives. near athens in 2005. Many historians of christianity consider the decision at edinburgh to form acontinuation committee, Personalia which eventually led to the formation of the international Mis- on January 1, 2008, John R. Watters,who has done linguistic sionarycouncil,asthestarting-pointofthemodernecumenical fieldwork and consultation in cameroon, nigeria, and chad

72 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 PromotingchristianKnowledge(sPcK),thelondonMissionary the title-page of every book published or issued under this society (lMs), the church Missionary society (cMs), and the rule shall state, as far as possible, the character of the version london and new york tract societies. contained in it.”20 throughout the nineteenth century,the sPcK published SocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.foundedbythomasBray prayer and service books, catechisms, and hymnals in alarge (1656–1730) and four laymen in 1698, the sPcK (london) is now numberoflanguages.21 itwasthesociety’saim,firstandforemost, the oldest denominational publisher,with the goal of promoting to meet the vernacular needs of the missionaries. after extend- christian knowledge both at home and overseas through educa- ing its operations into china in 1843,22 the sPcK patronized the tion and the distribution of Bibles and tracts. though the sPcK publicationofchinesechristianliteratureinvariousvernaculars, had aclose connection with the church of england in terms of including the dialects of Mandarin, foochow,hangchow,hok- its ethos and constitution, it was established as avoluntary and kien, and ningpo.23 therewereafew theological and devotional independent institution. from the outset, one of its major aims works and some tracts in the society’s catalogue, but the majority and achievements was to provide christian literaturefor the mis- of the publications wereprayer books, most notably the Book of sions of the anglican church. the sPcK placed moreemphasis Common Prayer.24 the scope of sPcK sponsorship was therefore on introducing anglican doctrine and worship to christians extremely limited, fundamentally confined to the publication of overseas than on producing evangelical literature. anglican works. one of the sPcK’s most important tasks was translating the standard1662 version of the Book of Common Prayer,which London Missionary Society.the pioneering society in sending mis- was overseen by its foreign translation committee. it carried sionaries to china, the london Missionary society,apart from out translation and publication work to support missionary contributing distinguished missionary authors, established a societies, especially the cMs. in actuality,most of the literary coupleofinfluentialmissionpressesinchina,notablythelondon work was done by cMs missionaries, while the sPcK funded Mission Press, shanghai, and the anglo-chinese college, hong and published what they had prepared.19 the translation com- Kong.25 During the early decades of its china missions, the lMs mittee formulated its own principles and rules of translation as allocated sufficient funds for its own publishing and the running follows: “the foreign translation committee shall have power of its presses, but afundamental change of its publication policy to publish, at their discretion, complete versions of the Book of occurred in 1848, when the home committee passed aresolution CommonPrayer,andalsoversionsofanyintegralportionsthereof. declaring that the cost of publishing tracts and the Bible would But they shall not publish any work purporting to be amodified thereafter no longer be borne by the society; instead, application or adapted version, or aversion intentionally altered, whether for funds should be made to the religious tract society (rts) in text or in rubrics, from the original, without having obtained and the British and foreign Bible society (BfBs). the sanction of the archbishop of canterbury to such issue. ... towardthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,manuscripts

and has taught linguistics at the university of california at of missionary photographyincreatingstereotypes ofafrica in los angeles and the university of yaoundé (cameroon), europe and particularly in scotland. the university’s school completed his maximum term of service as executive direc- of divinity is seeking anew director. tor of SIL International and Wycliffe International and the Died. Ralph Wiltgen, S.V.D., author of two volumes on position was divided in two. Watters will continue to serve catholic missionary beginnings in the Pacific, December 6, the sil-Wycliffe Bible translation cause. Fredrick A. Boswell, 2007, in techny,illinois. Born in chicago in 1921 and ordained sil vice president for academic affairs, was named executive apriest in 1950, Wiltgen received adoctorate in missiology director of silinternational. Boswell worked as afield linguist at the Gregorian university in 1953. in 1959 he was assigned and translation advisor to the cheke holo language group in the task of writing the history of the society of Divine Word thesolomonislandsoncentralsantaisabelisland.inaddition (s.V.D.) missions in Papua new Guinea, which began in 1896. to that field assignment in thesolomon islands, he haslived to lay the groundwork for the s.V.D. history,however,he andworkedinPeruand Papua new Guinea. Kirk Franklin, decided to go back to the origins of missions in the Pacific in acitizen of australia and the united states who has spent 1825. his first volume is The Founding of the Roman Catholic most of his life in the Pacific region, was selected as the next Church in Oceania, 1825–1850 (1979), and the second volume executive director of Wycliffe international. he has served is The Founding of the Roman Catholic Church in Melanesia and with Wycliffe since 1980, most recently as executive director Micronesia, 1850–1875 (2008). of Wycliffe australia. he previously served in various media, Died.HeribertBettscheider,S.V.D.,directoroftheDivine communications, and leadership roles. franklin, fluent in the Word Missionaries Missiological institute at sankt augustin, tokPisin language of Papua new Guinea, spent twenty-five near Bonn, December 11,2007, in Germany.Born in 1938, years in that country. Bettscheider entered the society of the Divine Word in 1959 T. Jack Thompson, who spent thirteen years working in and was ordained in 1964. he held numerous academic and education in Malawi, will retireinseptember 2008 as director administrative posts in the s.V.D. and was named director of the centrefor the study of christianity in the non-Western of the Missiological institute in 1995. in recent years he had World and senior lecturer in the history of world christianity dedicated much energy to the missiological implications of attheUniversityofEdinburgh.hespecializesinthehistoryof migrationandtoquestionsofconsideringeuropeasacontinent christianity in centraland southern africa andonthe impact in need of missionary efforts.

april 2008 73 in foreign languages wereoften handed over to tract societies for lished itself as the archetype and parent institution, on whose funding. lMs funds werenot meant to be spent even on their aims and constitution other tract societies modeled themselves. ownprintingdepartment,thelondonMissionPressinshanghai. under the financial patronage of the rts, scores of its canonical their missionaries werenot authorized to draw on the funds tracts—evangelical and interdenominational in character—were without the sanction of the home board. William charles Milne translated into hundreds of languages by Protestant missionary (1815–63) reported, “Wehave been in the habit of drawing on agents. the major non-Western fields included africa, india, the funds of our own institution for deficiencies in the printing and china.31 department; but after your letter of february last, we cannot con- in 1913 John Darroch (1865–1941), an rtsagent in china, tinue to do so without your previous sanction.”26 he then made conducted ageneral analysis of the accounts of the local tract an application to the lMs for an annual grant for publication: societies. he revealed that, apart from the receipts from sales, “hence the necessity of being allowed to print occasionally & the rtsprovided 72 percent of their total income, with asum of to alimited extent at the cost of our own society.taking these £1,500 to £2,000 per annum. the american tract society,incon- matters into consideration, we recommend that the sum of one trast, provided only 10 percent of their income, with about £300 or twohundred Pounds annually be placed at the disposal of annually,while local donations and subscriptions accounted for this local committee, for the purpose of keeping the press at 18percent.32 thissurveytestifiedtotheoverwhelmingimportance work in case of failureofsupplies from other sources.”27 Milne’s of the rtsasapatron from 1814 until the turn of the century. application was declined, and no separate grant was made for the purpose of publication from the lMs. these expenses were Conclusion to be defrayed by the Bible and tract societies, and henceforth the lMs presses served as tools of these societies. in other words, a in nineteenth-century china missions, the production and distri- large proportion of lMs publications wereissued for,and paid butionofchristianliteraturewasgivenhighprioritybyProtestant by,these societies. missionaries in the field. from the perspective of missionary societies, however,itwas generally regarded as an optional Church Missionary Society.asimilar situation can be illustrated extra, not as the primary duty of missionaries.33 the scope of in the evolution of the cMs publication policy between 1849 and evangelistic activity,not to mention the fostering of the church, 1861: “in early days, Publications wereregarded as an important was limited in the early days of the china missions. as acorol- part of the missionary work abroad in which the society was to lary,missionariescoulddevotemoretimeandenergytolanguage engage. ...this work, of course, is still as important as ever it study and literary work, which resulted in the development of was; but the society itself does not take alarge shareinit. so far, some outstanding linguists and translators in the mission field. that is, as the expense is concerned; for as regards the writers towardthe end of the nineteenth century,the growing chinese and translators, they areofnecessity supplied from among the church gradually absorbed the time and strength of most mis- missionaries. But the arrangements arefor the most part made, sionaries in administrative duties, at the expense of their literary endeavors.34 it was estimated that 19.8 percent of the missionary body engaged in some sort of literary work prior to 1869. at the Production and distribution turn of the century,however,only 11.4 percent wereinvolved.35 Deploring the neglect of christian literature, especially on the of Christian literature was part of missionary societies, timothy richardwrote, “only five given high priority by per one thousand of our missionaries arewholly devoted to liter- Protestant missionaries in ary work there, one cannot help blushing with very shame that the value of the press should be so far ignored.”36 the field. as far as worldwide Bible translation was concerned, the nineteenth century could be called the Bible society era. Bible societies became the most vital links between translators (usu- and the funds supplied, by the Bible society,the s.P.c.K., and ally Protestant missionaries), printing presses, and the target the r.t.s., and the christian literaturesociety for india.”28 the audience. translators often had their manuscripts sent to a particular responsibility of publishing was henceforth taken up Bible society,which then had the translations printed and sent by the sPcK and Bible and tract societies, each of which had a back to the mission fields. Bible societies heavily subsidized rather distinctive scope of operations. the major Bible societies, the cost of production to make the price low and affordable such as the BfBs and the national Bible society of scotland, for readers.37 wereconfined to the publication of the scriptures without note forthepublicationofdenominationalworks,suchasthe Book or comment,29 while the scope of sPcK publication was denomi- of Common Prayer,missionaries had no choice but to resort to the nationally limited, as noted above. the chief responsibility for financialsupportoftherespectivedenominationalsocieties,such sponsoringtheproductionandpublicationofchristianliterature as the sPcK. nevertheless, the scope of operations and the funds was thus undertaken by the leading tract societies. for publication remained limited on the part of denominational societies.responsibilityforpublishingandfinancingevangelical Religious Tract Society and american Tract Society.throughout the and interdenominational works was shifted principally onto the nineteenth century,the religious tract society (london) and the shoulders of the leading tract societies. the nineteenth century american tract society (new york) emerged as the predominant could thereforealso be considered the tract society era, with missionary institutions in sponsoring the global production and reference to the global enterprise of the production, publication, publication of christian literature.30 the rtshad firmly estab- and circulation of christian tracts.

74 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 NEW from william carey library

TheCertainty Trap CanChristians and Muslims Afford Missions in Contexts the LuxuryofFundamentalism? of Violence(EMS 15) Bill Musk ISBN 978-0-87808-519-4 Keith E. Eitel,ed. 2008 WCL |257 pages |retail $17.99 ISBN 978-0-87808-389-3 Our price...... $14.39 2007 WCL |415 pages |retail $14.99 3ormore...... $9.89 Ourprice...... $11.99 3ormore...... $8.24 A“certaintytrap”has sprung up within both Islam and Christianity, resulting in aworld strugglingwith the This volume deals with the contexts of violence.Inanage fallout from extremist and violent interpretations of what of increasing concern for this type of missionarywork, “the word of God”might mean. In The CertaintyTrap, the missions communityneeds to hear from those that Musk looks at the phenomenon of fundamentalism havereflected on the multifaceted elements involvedin in Christianityand its contributions towardthe messy understanding the phenomenon of martyrdom-persecution state of international affairs in which many—especially violence as it relates to telling the age-old Gospel story. Muslims—find themselvestoday.Byscrutinizing “sacred The place to begin is with Biblical and theological analyses book interpretation”inboth the Islamic and Christian followed by the grounding provided by constructing heritages, The CertaintyTrap challenges contemporary consequent lifestyles, strategies and practices in physically religious fundamentalism and is atimely risky settings. Finally, insights from the livesettings of contribution to Muslim-Christian relations. violence arewarranted.

TheKingdom of Character Releasing the Workers of TheStudent Volunteer Movement the EleventhHour forForeignMissions,1886-1926 TheGlobal South and the Task Remaining Michael Parker ISBN 978-0-87808-518-7 Ben Naja ISBN 978-0-87808-521-7 2006 WCL |328 pages |retail $24.99 Ourprice...... $19.99 2007 WCL |117 pages |retail $9.99 3ormore...... $13.74 Ourprice...... $7.99 The Kingdom of Character provides athorough history 3ormore...... $5.49 of the Student Volunteer Movement, exposing both Thousands of fields areripe for harvest and God is its strengths and weaknesses. Parker highlights how doing something newinthe historyofmissions: he has these student leaders addressed issues such as gender prepared newworkers in the Global South (primarily roles, the social impact of WorldWar I, and various Africa and Asia) to bring in his worldwide harvest. internal controversies, while emphasizing an American They havealready begun working in the harvest field, middle-class worldviewthat stressed the Victorian but arenow ready to be unleashed in multitudes.This idea of “character”intheir hope to spread the gospel bookexamines what these end-time workers look like, around the world. The Kingdom of Character is agreat proposes strategies for their effectiveness and suggests read for those interested in the creationofthe modern how other harvesters canpartner with them. missionarymovement.

1-800-MISSION •WWW.MISSIONBOOKS.ORG Notes 1. John h. ritson, Christian Literatureinthe Mission Field: aSurvey of the (1826–1907), robert henry cobbold (1816–93), Joseph c. hoare PresentSituation,MadeunderthedirectionoftheContinuationCommittee (1851–1906), George evans Moule (1828–1912), and arthur evans of the World Missionary Conference, 1910 (edinburgh: continuation Moule (1836–1918); and from the american Presbyterian Mission, committee, 1910), p. 3. W. a. P. Martin (1827–1916), John livingston nevius (1829–93), 2. John K. fairbank, “introduction: the Place of Protestant Writings in calvin Wilson Mateer (1836–1908), Divie Bethune Mccartee (1820– china’s cultural history,” in Christianity in China: Early Protestant 1900), and andrew Patton happer (1818–94). Missionary Writings,ed. suzanne Wilson Barnett and John King 19. Church Missionary Intelligencer,september 1885, p. 687. fairbank (cambridge, Mass.: harvarduniv.Press, 1985), p. 6. 20. W. o. B.allen and edmund Mcclure, TwoHundred Years: The History 3. see the letter from W. h. Medhurst on august 28, 1856, quoted in of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1698–1898 (london: The Fifty-eighth annual Report of the Religious Tract Society (london: sPcK, 1898), p. 209. religious tract society,1857), pp. 48–49. 21. for the list of foreign publications from 1836 to 1897, see ibid., 4. W. scarborough, “the Popular religious literatureofthe chinese,” pp. 210–23. ChineseRecorder13(1882):301–7,337–55;W. a.P. Martin,“thenative 22. for the beginning and development of its china operations, see tract literatureofchina,” Chinese Recorder 18 (1887): 329–34, 369–74; ibid., pp. 303–4, 380, 451, 526; and W. K. lowther clarke, aHistory Joseph edkins, “the Books of the Modern religious sects in north of the S.P.C.K. (london: sPcK, 1959), pp. 127–29. china,” Chinese Recorder 19 (1888): 261–68, 302–10. 23. allen and Mcclure, TwoHundred Years,p.208. 5. see Records, China Centenary Missionary Conference, Held at Shanghai, 24. for the titles of its chinese publications, see ibid., pp. 212, 213, 214, april 25 to May 8, 1907 (shanghai: centenary conference committee, 220, 221. 1907), p. 193; Xu Zongze, Ming Qing jian Yesu huishi yizhu tiyao (Précis 25. for the history of the major mission presses in china, see Gilbert of the translations by Jesuit Missionaries in the Ming and Qing Mcintosh, The Mission Press in China: Being aJubilee Retrospect of the Dynasties) (taipei: Zhonghua shuju, 1958). american Presbyterian Mission Press; with Sketches of Other Mission 6. alexander Wylie, Notes on Chinese Literature (shanghai: american Presses in China, as well as accounts of the Bible and Tract Societies at Presbyterian Mission Press, 1867), p. 172. WorkinChina(shanghai:americanPresbyterianMissionPress,1895); 7. Proceedings of the First Twenty Years of the Religious Tract Society (lon- and Gilbert Mcintosh, Septuagenary of the Presbyterian Mission Press don: religious tract society,1820), p. 268. (shanghai: american Presbyterian Mission Press, 1914). 8. D. B. Whitefield, “the christian literaturesociety for china: the 26. William c. Milne to lMs, shanghai, october 13, 1848, council for role of its Publications, Personalities, and theology in late-Qing WorldMission,centralchina,incomingcorrespondence,1.2.a.41), reform Movements” (Ph.D. diss., univ.ofcambridge, 2001), p. 6. cWM archives, deposited in the school of oriental and african 9. for the twelve main articles contained in the treaty,see Jonathan D. studies library,university of london. spence, The Search for Modern China,2ded. (newyork: W. W. norton, 27. ibid. 1999), pp. 160–62. 28. eugene stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society,4vols. 10. During the period from 1807 to 1843, atotal of 64 missionaries were (london: church Missionary society,1899–1916), 2:49–50. toward on record. for the full list of missionaries, see Donald MacGillivray, the end of the century,therewas agradual change of attitude on the ed., aCentury of Protestant Missions in China (1807–1907), Being part of the cMs in acknowledging the value of christian literature. the Centenary Conference Historical Volume (shanghai: american see Minutes of the committee of correspondence of the cMs, Presbyterian Mission Press, 1907), appendix 2. an influx of newly september 26, 1899, quoted in Ecumenical Missionary Conference, New appointed missionaries arrived in china after the opium War. in York, 1900,pp. 78–79. 1859 William Dean listed 214 male missionaries from twenty-four 29. see Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society (london: British and societies (The China Mission [london: sheldon &trubner,1859], pp. foreign Bible society,1815), p. xvi, and annual Report of the National 161–66). Bible Society of Scotland (edinburgh: national Bible society of scot- 11.Between1779and1850thechinesepopulationreachedanestimated land, 1862), p. 3. 430 million. comparethe estimate in John King fairbank and Merle 30. for the history of the rtsand the ats, see an account of the Origin Goldman, China: aNew History,enlarged ed. (cambridge, Mass.: and Progress of the London Religious Tract Society (london: a. Paris, harvarduniv.Press,BelknapPress,1998),pp.167–69,andthatinBob 1803); William Jones, The Jubilee Memorial of the Religious Tract Society: Whyte, Unfinished Encounter: China and Christianity (london: fount Containing aRecord of Its Origin, Proceedings, and Results, a.d.1799 to Paperbacks, 1988), p. 93. the population of the eighteen provinces a.d.1849 (london: religious tract society,1850); samuel G. Green, according to the 1812 census amounted to 360,279,897; see s. Wells The Story of the Religious Tract Society for One Hundred Years (london: Williams, aSyllabic dictionary of the Chinese Language (shanghai: religious tract society,1899); Proceedings of the First TenYears of the american Presbyterian Mission Press, 1874), p. 743. american Tract Society,Instituted at Boston, 1814 (Boston: american 12. fairbank, “introduction,” p. 13. tract society,1824); and aBrief History of the american Tract Society 13. s. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom,vol. 2(london: W. h. allen, (Boston: t. r. Marvin, 1857). 1883), p. 332. 31. for adetailed discussion of the role of the tract societies in china, see 14. The Sixtieth annual Report of the Religious Tract Society (london: John tsz-pang lai, “institutional Patronage: the ideological control religious tract society,1859), pp. 87–88. of tract societies,” in “the enterprise of translating christian tracts 15. The Forty-eighth annual Report of the Religious Tract Society (london: by Protestant Missionaries in nineteenth-century china” (D.Phil. religious tract society,1847), p. 6. thesis, univ.ofoxford, 2005), pp. 72–109. 16. Ecumenical Missionary Conference, New York, 1900. Report of the 32. ritson, Christian Literatureinthe Mission Field,p.41. Ecumenical Conference on Foreign Missions, Held in Carnegie Hall and 33. see John Murdoch’s article in Ecumenical Missionary Conference, New Neighboring Churches, april 21 to May 1,vol. 2(london: religious York, 1900,pp. 76–81. tract society,1900), pp. 75–76. 34. ritson, Christian Literatureinthe Mission Field,p.7. 17. s. l. Baldwin, “christian literature: What has Been Done and 35. Records, China Centenary Missionary Conference,p.591. What is needed,” in Records of the General Conference of the Protestant 36. timothy richard, “christian literature,” Chinese Recorder 31 (1900): Missionaries of China, Held at Shanghai, May 10–24, 1877 (shanghai: 599. Presbyterian Mission Press, 1878), pp. 208–9. 37. William a. smalley, Translation as Mission: Bible Translation in the 18. Writers and translatorsincluded, from the london Missionary Modern Missionary Movement (Macon, Ga.: Mercer univ.Press, society,robert Morrison, William Milne, Walter henry Medhurst 1991), pp. 27–28; eugene a. nida, ed., The Book of aThousand Tongues (1796–1857), William Muirhead (1822–1900), and Griffith John (london: united Bible societies, 1972), p. ix. (1831–1912);fromthechurchMissionarysociety,JohnshawBurdon

76 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Guidelines for Doing theologies in asia association for Theological Education in South East asia

Established in 1957 with sixteen member schools, the association for Theological Education in South East asia (aTESEa), now with 104 member institutions in sixteen countries, celebrated its Golden Jubilee in November 2007 at Trinity Theological College in Singapore. In 1966 the South East asia Graduate School of Theology (SEaGST) was established by aTESEa as aconsortium for advanced theological studies leading to the Master of Theology (M.Theol.) and doctor of Theology (d.Theol.) degrees. Twenty-six schools in seven geographic areas now constitute the academic coreofthe Graduate School. Sientje Merentek-abram is currently executive director of aTESEa and dean of SEaGST,with offices in Quezon City,Philippines; Po-Ho Huang is associate dean of SEaGST. In 1972 aTESEaand SEaGST adopted the Critical asian Principle (CaP) as aframework for theological construction and education in the region. While recognizing the significant contribution of CaP over the last thirty-five years toward enhancing the construction of asian contextual theologies and theological education, the occasion of the Jubilee was an opportunity to develop new guidelines for a new era. after wide-ranging consultation and feedback from member schools, the new guidelines wereapproved by the executive commit- tee of aTESEa and adopted by the SEaGST senate (see comments at www.atesea.org/guidelines.htm wherethe document that follows is available online). Po-Ho Huang, who gave leadership in the review and drafting process, presented the guidelines to the assembled representatives at the Golden Jubilee.—Editor

Preamble 1. help asian churches develop atheology of their own and be fully liberated from the Western framework; he critical asian Principle (caP) has ahistory,purpose 2. help churches evolve an attitude which would seek to tand direction. since its formulation and implementation think asian and act asian in order to create ascope for about thirty years ago, we believe it has achieved its purpose living theology; reasonably well in assisting the process of doing theology and 3. help redress the situation whereby asian christianity teaching theology in asia. however,intoday’s context, given its continues to remain Western and the religion of the peculiarities and changing needs, we realize thereisaneed to colonial masters.2 review the caP in order to intensify asian theological reflection andtheologicaltraining.hencetheneedtorevisitandrethinkthe Why Revisit and Rethink CAP caPwas suggested at the taipei 2004 meeting by the atesea executive committee. Member schools, colleges and seminaries as mentioned in the preamble, the need to revisit and rethink wererequested to facilitate and participate in the re-assessment caP has been made necessary by the constantly evolving asian process. the process was to focus on relevancy,sufficiency and context. Many things have changed and requiredifferent ap- adequacy of caP for today’s asia. proaches and modus operandi in theologizing and teaching of the criticalasian Principle has been the framework applied theology in asia. the revisiting and rethinking should rightly by atesea and seaGst in theological education. in 1972 at the raise critical questions in relation to the adequacy,relevancy and senatemeetinginBangkok,thecaPformulationwasintroduced sufficiency of caP in current asian situations. the following by emerito P. nacpil and officially adopted to provide the basis comments arefindings compiled through the various regional for theological construction and education in asia. the primary discussions. concerns behind the implementation of the caP weretwofold: 1. the four principles of caP aretoo general and do not 1. to promoteanasianorientationintheologicaleducation specifically address modern-day challenges. in the southeast asian region; 2. the usage of the term “critical” in the context of caP 2. to seek and identify what is “distinctly asian and use does not seem critical enough, as the four expressed such distinctiveness as acritical principle of judgment principles arecommon basic hermeneutic principles. on matters dealing with the life and mission of the chris- 3. the caP merely offers ageneral framework, without tian community,theology,and theological education in saying anything specific about the principles or applica- asia.”1 tion methodology.hence it is seen to be descriptive and lacking in aclear theological perspective. hence the caP took into account the common spiritual and 4. since the principles aregeneral in nature, the caP lacks socio-economic context of southeastasian countries as the point clear direction for doing theology and teaching theology of reference for biblical reflection and theologizing. four broadly in asia. described principles werethus proposed: 5. the original caP is inadequate to provide interaction with contemporary issues such as globalization, global 1. the situational principle empirebuilding, ecological concerns and gender justice 2. the hermeneutical principle issues. 3. the missiological principle 6. alack is also noted in the areas of pastoral, ministerial 4. the educational principle and spiritual formation.

each of these principles had general objectives to meet, namely to:

april 2008 77 From Bangkok to Singapore—a Long Journey of erate disposal of non-biodegradable waste, and human beings’ Changes many other ecocidal acts due to negligence, ignorance or greed destroy the ecosystem. as noted in the keynote paper “covenant with the churches in asia” presented at the atesea General assembly 2005, “the Globalization and global empirebuilding.Much of asia has moved asian world has changed rapidly in all aspects of economic, from colonial contexts to avariety of post-colonial and neo- political and social development. christian churches in asia colonial situations wherethe global empireand the neo-liberal continue to struggle to witness the message of the gospel and the economic scheme of globalization play symbiotic relationships. promise of the reign of God to be actualized among the people thegreedoftheempireandtheneo-liberalglobalizationthreaten of asia.”3 since the “changing context” is the key factor which and destroy all life, especially the poor and marginalized people induced the reassessment of the effectiveness, functionality and and Mother earth. thus, economic globalization and the rise of suitability of the caP,weneed to identify what features color aglobal empireisaserious concern for asia today.such “new the changed context of today’sasia and what paradigm shift has realities within the asian contexts areposing new challenges to taken place between Bangkok (then) and singapore(now). the our theologizing today.”5 following aresome propositions: Colonization.Most asian countries have acolonial experience. Religious fundamentalism.the escalation of tensions between the asia’spost-colonialrealitiesandemergingneo-colonialattitudes Muslim world and the West, as well as terrorist activities spon- arematters that should be givenarenewed emphasis in com- soredbyreligioussectariangroupsinasia,continuestochallenge bating abuse, imperialism and exploitation. “neo-colonialism us in the way we think and act as christians in asia. the revival is now disguised in the form of economic domination.”6 neo- of many sects with afundamentalist tendency within the living colonialism also employs cultural hegemony in both subtle and religions of asia stands witness to rising religious fundamental- glaring ways. the principle of “decolonization” must be imple- ism.livinginapluralisticcommunityleaveslimitedalternatives mented in making people “awareofthe colonizing command for asians: either we build bridges or walls. and dominance that is around us and in us. We need to engage consciously and continuously in decolonizing all alienating and Gender justice issues.the rising cases of violence against women imposing influences.”7 and children, as well as issues aimed directly at marginalizing women from mainstream activities, the evident gender deficit in Spirituality.With the increasing influence and impact of materi- organizationsandinstitutions,andthecircumventionofwomen’s alism, secularism and liberalism in the post-modern era, asian quest for equal rights and opportunities have become agrowing countries continue to experience challenges and stagnation concern in asia. often times the oppression of women in asia is in spirituality.these include loss of focus in discipleship and reinforced by asian cultures and religions. Gender justice issues spiritual formation, loss of indigenous wisdom, character and compel us to accept the truth that women arehuman beings cre- values, and infiltration of Western cultureand ideology through ated in God’s image. the neo-Pentecostal and new religious movements influences.

Ecologicalproblems,diseaseanddisasters.theseecologicalandhealth Identity and power struggle.Most communities in asian countries problemshavebecomecommoninasiatoday. therecenttsunami, have experienced identity crisis through history.inthe process of flash floods and earthquakes have taken away thousands of lives the post-colonial impact, some experienced a“hybrid” identity.8 and left the living devastated. the outbreak of avian flu and the similar to this is the question of “what kind of world order is resurgence of diseases like tuberculosis, dengue and malaria, theology going to project that is consistent with its hope for the once thought to have been eradicated in southeast asia, have kingdom of God, as the people of asia rise to claim their basic once again resurfaced in epidemic proportions. hiV and aiDs rights and rightful place in the world?”9

People movements and ecumenism.inachristian minority and multi-denominational context, enhancing ecumenical unity and The purpose of these cooperationisvital.inseekingtofulfiltheGreatcommissionand guidelines is to allow theGreat commandment, theasian churches need to transcend denominationalboundariesandconstantlyseektopromotewider aredefinition and a cooperation. some asians see denominationalism as alegacy of retargeting of the role of Western mission agencies that promotes aparticular brand of christianity.learning from past history,ecumenism must not be theological education and just seen in functional terms but as adynamic unity (“that they its methodology in Asia. may be one”).10 ecumenism is about avision of God’s household wherethe members seek to listen to the variety of asian theo- logical voices and to practice intrafaith and interfaith dialogue in order to promote peace, healing and reconciliation. areaffecting families, communities and nations and challenge us to re-examine our ministerial formation program. furthermore, Information and technological change and challenges.“Globalized uncontrolled and one-sided exploitative economic develop- capitalized economic activities act not only to widen the gap ment projects have brought with them various ecological crises. between the rich and the poor,but also weaken the sovereignty “ecological concerns have often been neglected or conveniently of individual nation states by interruption of capital power.its sidelined.”4 the rape of Mother earth manifest in uncontrolled operation is backed by the information technology and military logging, indiscriminate use of chemicals in agriculture, inconsid- power,and has led to the decline of the weaker cultures, discrimi-

78 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 New

TheWay of the Sea TheChanging Shape of Mission in the Seafaring World

Roald Kverndal ISBN 978-0-87808-366-4 2006 WCL |456 pages |retail $24.99 Our price...... $19.24 3ormore...... $13.74

The sea has been both asource of bountyand abridge of communicationthrough the ages. The Wayofthe Sea explores the unique role of seafarers in promoting the revealed plan of the Creator and Redeemer of both land and sea. As afollow-up to Seamen’s Missions,Kverndal’s comprehensivesurveyofmaritime mission presents both historical and current perspectives. While The Wayofthe Sea provides amuch-needed tool for the developing field of maritime missiology, people from all walks of life will learn from the rich historyand cultureofkingdom-minded seafarers.

Also Available:

Seamen’s Missions Their Origin and Early Growth

Roald Kverndal ISBN: 978-0-87808-440-1 1986 WCL |902 pages |retail $14.99 Ourprice...... $11.99 3ormore...... $8.24

1-800-MISSION •WWW.MISSIONBOOKS.ORG nation against minorities such as aborigines, and exploitation of women, indigenous people, children, differently abled women and children.”11 people and migrant workers 4. restoring the inter-connectedness of the whole cre- Social challenges.the expression of sin in terms of greed for ation power and wealth experienced by the peoples of asia has had 5. interfaith dialogue as well as intrafaith communion and atremendous effect on the community,especially the poor and communication for the fullness of life and the well-being marginalized. ethical problems such as corruption, abuse of of society power,and prostitution; poverty realities such as indentured 6. enhancing capacity building in order to serve people child labour and population explosion; communal problems experiencing disaster,conflict and disease, as well as such as ethnic conflicts, racial tensions and breakdown of family those people who suffer physical, emotional and mental structures and continued marginalization of women, children, disabilities and persons with disabilities continue to rise. 7. Prophetic resistance against the powers of economic imperialism Reclaiming indigenous identity and minority rights.loss of identity, 8. equipping christians for witnessing and spreading the loss of dignity,and loss of good cultural values have resulted gospel of Jesus with loving careand service to fulfil the from lack of dialogue with indigenous peoples. Dialogue with christian mission of evangelism. them has been hindered by our prejudices and stereotyped views about them that wereinfluenced by Western theology Implication and Implementation and culture. the indigenous has often been equated with being “backward,”“primitive”and“irrational.”forthesereasons,local the following suggestions aremade in order to allow for effec- cultures and their wisdom have been systematically suppressed tive implementation of the guidelines: and marginalized. however,indigenous wisdom has avaluable character that needs to be rediscovered. 1. atesea accreditation criteria should be revised to in- corporate the above requirements. Guidelines for Theologizing and Theological 2. ateseamember schools and seaGst should reflect the Education in Asia—Time for Another Paradigm spirit of the above guidelines in their curriculum, ways Shift of teaching and training programs. 3. ateseamember schools should adopt an inter-discipli- the purpose of these guidelines is to allow aredefinition and nary approach and avoid the departmental approach in aretargeting of the role of theological education and its meth- teaching of theology. odology in asia by addressing the actual situation of alocal 4. ongoing faculty development should be given due con- community and at the same time ensuring that it is “biblically sideration in developing expertise in the areas of concern based,missiologicallyoriented,educationallyshaped,pastorally mentioned in the guidelines. advocated and spiritually empowered.”12 theologies in asia 5. atesea member schools should ensurethat proper must be authentically asian in content, shape and processes. resourcing is done in libraries to enable meaningful thus we propose the following guidelines. theological educa- academic research, reflection and articulation on current tion should promote: and relevant issues. 6. aJt/ateseapublicationsshouldbeencouragedtotake 1. responsive engagement with the diverse asian con- the above guidelines into consideration and to reflect the texts spirit of the guidelines in their publications.13 2. critical engagement with indigenous cultures and wis- 7. efficient efforts must be undertaken so that atesea dom for the preservation and sustenance of life member schools and asian theologians take the ideas of 3. reflective engagement with the sufferings of the asian the guidelines seriously in theological education, reflec- people in order to provide hope for the marginalized, tion and construction.

Notes 1. “reportonrethinkingthecriticalasianPrinciple”(ateseaMember 7. “taiwan area’s critical response to the critical asian Principle.” schools, Myanmar,2005/2006). 8. simon s. M. Kwan, “a hong Kong reflection on the critical asian 2. “revisitingthecriticalasianPrinciple”(Philippineareacommittee Principle” (caP continual Discussion Group report, 2006). a report, Philippines). “meeting place identity” is used to describe this floating natureof 3. huang Po ho, “covenant with the churches in asia—retargeting identity. theologicaleducationinrespondingtothelifeandDeathstruggles 9. “revisitingthecriticalasianPrinciple”(Philippineareacommittee of the People of asia” (ateseaGeneral assembly Meeting, chiang report). Mai, thailand, 2005). 10. samuel, “review of the critical asian Principle.” 4. WilfredJ.samuel,“reviewofthecriticalasianPrinciple”(Malaysia, 11.huang, “covenant with the churches in asia.” thailand and singaporeregion, 2006). 12. “rethinking the critical asian Principle, eastern indonesia area.” 5. “taiwan area’s critical response to the critical asian Principle” 13. “aJt” is the abbreviation for the asian Journal of Theology. (atesea/seaGst,taiwan, 2006). 6. emanuel G. singgih, “critical asian Principle: acontextual theological evaluation” (indonesia, 2005).

80 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 the Gift of Being number two: a“Buzz aldrin” Perspective on Pioneer Missions Notto R. Thelle

he history of christian missions is usually told from less desperately afraid of being useless. “the point is not that tthe perspective of the pioneers, the daring explorers, idon’t want to leave traces after me,” he says, “but somehow the “number ones.” these werethe eloquent preachers and they don’t have to be so visible for the entireworld. idon’t need evangelists, doctors and social workers, powerful organizers my handprint in the cement. idon’t have to be interviewed for and leaders, and scholars who pioneered the study of foreign what ido. ...someone has to choose to be number two ...that’s culturesandlanguages.Mostofthem what makes the world go around” wereintelligent, dedicated men who (pp. 424–25). sacrificed their lives for what they ihonor the memory of the num- believed was adirect call from God. ber twos in christian missions in they werefeatured in reports and china by reviewing the experience werewriters themselves, fascinating of my father,notto normann thelle people at home with their accounts (1901–90), amissionary Buzz aldrin and appeals. they wereboth cel- in the scandinavian exploration of ebrated and respected.1 Buddhism. in 1922 he arrived in Myintentionhereisnottodimin- chinawithanothernorwegian,Karl ish the role of the number ones—in ludvigreichelt,tobeginanewwork most cases their fame is deserved. among Buddhist monks. let us call But idowant to call attention to the him n. n. thelle or,asareminder number twos and threes, those who of this perspective, just n.n. (as in walked in the footsteps of the pio- nomen nescitur,name unknown). neers, carrying their burdens, taking reichelt was amissionary neil careofthe daily duties, yet allowing armstrong who deserves fame for others to be the protagonists; they his pioneer work, though he was not themselves worked in the wings or the first to step into the unknown werejust walk-ons in the shadows. territory of Buddhism in china.3 he What about the Buzz aldrins of had studied Buddhism for almost christian missions? twenty years when he began his My perspective is inspired by christian Mission to Buddhists in aremarkable norwegian novel by 1922.thisnewinitiativewasaunique Johan harstad, Buzz aldrin: Hvor ble anddaringexploration,andreichelt det av deg ialt mylderet? (Buzzaldrin: wasthe undisputable strategist and What happened to youinall the explorer.4 Butn.n.wasthere fromthe confusion?)2 Buzz aldrin was the beginning too. he worked faithfully secondmanonthemoon,asymbolof with reichelt during his lifetime and the many number twos in the world continued to serve the mission for who tend to be forgotten because almost forty years after reichelt’s number one gets all the attention. death in 1952. they weresometimes neil armstrong, the number one, is mentioned together as pioneers, but Reichelt and Thelle outside the Brother Home remembered and celebrated for tak- reichelt predominates in the great in Nanjing (1926) ing the first steps on the moon and story of the mission. saying the now-famous words, “one small step for man, one ibecameawareofn.n.’sprominentroleinthemissionwhen giant leap for mankind.” But Buzz aldrin was theretoo, taking an american researcher in hong Kong approached me to learn photos, collecting rock samples, and awed by the magnificent moreabout the details of my father’s life.5 this researcher had desolation of the moonscape. Michael collins was also there. studied the records and diaries of the mission in hong Kong and he was in charge of the spaceship and saw the dark side of the discoveredthatn.n.alwaysseemedtobepresent.Whilereichelt moon, waiting for the two to return. the venturecould never was often absent, attending meetings and conferences, making have happened without the entireteam. pilgrimages, and visiting Buddhist monasteries, n.n. was on harstad develops his theme in abeautiful and touching duty at the mission, organizing, taking careofthe daily routines, story of ayoung man who essentially wants to be anumber two, teaching, preaching, receiving guests, and attending to the care satisfied with his anonymity in the world, but who is neverthe- of students and visiting monks. the researcher’s impression was that n.n. was the hub around which the entireinstitution Notto R. Thelle, Professor of Ecumenics and Missiology at the University of revolved. ihad always taken it for granted that n.n.’s name was Oslo, served for many years as associate director of the NCC Center for the Study seldom mentioned, and he himself seemed perfectly satisfied of Japanese Religions, Kyoto, Japan. He is the author of numerous books and with that level of anonymity.But the observation struck me as articles dealing with interfaith dialogue, spirituality,and missions, including correct in many ways: the mission could never have succeeded seeking God’s face (Paulist Press, 2008). without n.n. and some other number twos.6 april 2008 81 History of the Christian Mission to Buddhists God had sown the seeds in the religious systems of the east, and the time was ripe for harvesting, if one could only meet them the official history of the christian Mission to Buddhists is with insight and sympathy,showing them that the inner aspira- described in numerous books and articles, and it shall not be tions of their faith werefulfilled in christianity.the timing was revisited here. it is almost identical to the story of Karl ludvig perfect: n.n. was waiting for acalling from God, and reichelt reichelt, at least for the first three decades until his death in wassearchingforyoungpeoplewhocouldassisthiminhiswork. 1952. it is afascinating attempt to promote christian mission n.n. reflected, “how wonderful that God would use me, of all amongchineseBuddhistsandreligiousdevoteesbyestablishing people, in this work. What agrace!”9 institutions formission anddialogue. allreligious seekers were this encounter led to adeep, lifelong friendship and mutual welcomed as “brothers” and “friends in the Way/Dao” (daoyou), trust, in spite of the generation gap and their radically different positions. theremust have been tensions and conflicts between the two, but ihave never found any recordofn.n. saying or He was reared in awarm writing one negative wordabout reichelt. fromreichelt’sperspectiven.n.musthavebeenanextraor- and affectionate dinary resource in nanjing. his professional background made community with strong him aperfect secretary almost from the beginning, enabling reichelt to “plunge into the real work as soon as possible.”10 in commitments to missions, addition to his own language studies, n.n. took careofeveryday evangelism, puritan values, dutiessuchasmanagingfinances,accounts,andcorrespondence, editing reichelt’s writings, conducting morning and evening and otherworldliness. worship, and teaching in the small school. since reichelt was often out traveling, n.n. was increasingly put in charge of even preaching and worship. to some extent he also accompanied andtheinstitutionswerehenceoftencalledBrotherhomes.they reichelt on visits to local Buddhist monasteries. weremodeled after Buddhist monastic institutions, with adaily Whenreicheltwasaskedtoreturntonorwayinthesummer rhythm of worship, meditation, work, and study,and with ample of1925inordertonegotiatewiththenorwegianMissionarysoci- opportunity for dialogue. ety about the futureofthe mission, n.n. was given responsibility the official story,with reichelt as the “soul” of the mission, for the entirework of the Brother home. for one whole year,with is also n.n.’s story,which he loved to tell. Probably no one else, onlytwoandahalfyearsofexperienceinchina,andwithlimited including even reichelt himself, has contributed morethan n.n. education and no theological training, he was responsible for to keep this story alive.7 the entirecommunity.inatime of escalating political unrest and anti-Western agitation, this was aheavy burden. no wonder he The Pioneer and His Assistant was relieved when reichelt returned after one year and resumed his position as the undisputed master and leader. Karl ludvig reichelt was already in his mid-forties and an ex- reading letters and diaries, both private and public, one is perienced missionary to china when he returned with his new struck by the relationship between the two. it was arespectful assistant in 1922. he had served as amissionary evangelist in relationship in which aconsiderate boss was initiating aconsci- changsha(hunan)andlaterasprofessorofthenewtestamentat entious and capable apprentice to his futurework. the relation- the lutheran seminary in shekou (hubei). he had been involved ship was affectionate, nurtured by deep spiritual fellowship and in revisions of liturgical books and hymnals, and not least, he had mutual friendship. already gained some fame for his research on chinese religions, notably Buddhism. Agonies of Loneliness and Romance his young assistant, n.n., was only twenty-one years old, an inexperienced man from Kristiansand, aprovincial port city other aspects of the relationship between this number one and in southern norway.after middle school and acommercial number two areeasily forgotten. hereweconsider some of the course n.n. served as aclerk in aship-broker company.he agonies and challenges. n.n.’s private diary,written during his was reared in the evangelical tradition of lutheran pietism, a first years in nanjing, was his confidential dialogue partner.it warm and affectionate community with strong commitments affirms the mutual friendship and confidence described above to missions, evangelism, puritan values, and otherworldliness, but also reveals hidden hardships. the first sentence in the diary and with arather harsh stance against anything that smacked sets the tone: “i am herealone.” it was new year’s Day 1923, of liberal theology. and three months had passed since they arrived. reichelt was n.n. was ahappy and trusted member of that community, in shanghai, and the young n.n. had time to think and to feel. appreciated by the christian establishment as an up-and-coming he was desperately lonely and was longing for his family,for leader.Photos from those early years show ahandsome young friends, and for somebody to confide in, someone with whom man who was quiet and serious. But he seems to have been he could sharehis “many thoughts and struggles.” he wrote, somewhat depressed, or was he just pensive? his own letters “now iunderstand to some extent what aprecious gift from and notes reveal that he had two “most serious questions in life”: the lordagood friendship is. ihave no one. iamalone. ihave the feeling that he had been “called to something else” and the entered the new year alone.” desperate need for awoman to love.8 the heavy work schedule probably dulled the pain. the first his situation changed drastically in 1921 when he met Karl year was too busy to leave room for much emotion or private ludvig reichelt, who was on home leave and was sharing his reflection. the next entry in the diary was made morethan half a vision about work among Buddhists. the Buddhists in china year later,during summer vacation, and then afew entries were seemed prepared to receive the christian Gospel, he proclaimed. made in the fall of 1923. n.n. was so busy that he did not even

82 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 have time to answer personal letters.11 But he was still haunted by also felt the pressure, especially his mother,who was an ardent loneliness. he tried to convince himself that he was not longing follower of the conservatives and hence feared that he would for something else—how could he do that when he knew that end in hell.18 Most of his friends withdrew their support, and God had led him to serve in china? But he had to be honest: there some even regarded him as an apostate.19 he later mentioned was no one with whom he could sharehis emotions.12 that during this period only one of his friends still supported n.n.’s encounter with reichelt had to some extent solved him in his continued involvement in the mission. his first agony—the call to “something else” as his life work. for the rest of his life n.n. identified himself with the liberat- But the question was still burning. he was in china serving as ing vision, but to some extent it continued to be aburden, even amissionary,acalling that was admired in his home community though that burden was not his own but reichelt’s. as the highest possible. Why was he still uneasy? had not God fulfilled his longings? yes, he was grateful for the opportunity Humility,Inferiority,and Dignity to serve, and he was ready to commit everything to his calling. But he was not surethat his work was good enough. n.n. was basically happy to be anumber two. he grew up in a athomehiswork hadalwaysbeen appreciated, butin china piety that nurtured aspirit of humble service, voluntary work, it seemed almost impossible to do anything to please people. and commitment to evangelism. sometimes, however,italso Washeofany use at all? therewas no gratitude, no response, nurtured such negative elements as feelings of inferiority and everything was so ...hecould not even find the right words. even self-contempt. things just slipped by.Would it ever be possible to communi- hisprivatediaryispackedwithreflectionsonhumbleservice cate his thoughts in chinese?13 Would he ever be able to preach andwithsincereprayersforstrengthtoforgethimselfandcommit christ with aliberated tongue?14 had he ever meant anything himself to God. at the same time, however,hewas struggling to anyone in china? “the feeling of loneliness, the terrible feel- withthetensionbetweenhumilityanddreamsofrecognition.he ing of not being able to mean anything to anybody was about wantedtobehiddenbehindchristso“healonecanshinethrough to overpower me.”15 me,” to suffer with him “in unforgettable sacrificial love,” but he this feeling of loneliness probably would not have been so was depressed by “this damnable striving for human glory.”20 awfulifhehadhadsomeresolutiontohissecondagony:awoman he simply wanted to be seen; he needed recognition and was to love. he thought that he perhaps had agirlfriend in norway desperately afraid of being of no use to anyone.21 when he left, but therewas no place for open proclamation in one of n.n.’s problems was his lack of academic training. that culture, and he could not really expect aseventeen-year-old he came as an assistant but could not help asking why the lord high school student to commit herself to aman who would be had sent him to china without an education. other missionary gone for such along time. his private agonies shall not be de- students, even the women, had at least finished college. Why scribed here, but the young man’s ups and downs in this matter shouldhebeanexception?“ithoughtGodcouldmakesomething arequite moving.16 out of what is small in the eyes of the learned,” he commented, hoping that God in this way might educate him through his The Burdens of aLiberating Vision spirit. “But how often it is painful and preys upon the flesh that ishould be inferior to the others.”22 it was atremendous privilege for n.n. to assist reichelt in the With such abackground, one may easily understand his initialphaseofauniquepioneerworkamongBuddhistmonks.he delight whenever his contributions wereappreciated, which had been pulled out of acommunity with clearly defined cultural happened quite often. early in his language studies at nanjing andreligiouscodesandplacedinanentirelynewworld.reichelt’s approach to Buddhism was the obvious model, one in which it was studied with sympathy and fascination but essentially with This feeling of loneliness the intention of preparing for growth towardchristian faith. n.n. accepted reichelt’s ideas as aliberating vision. it opened probably would not have his awareness that God was not confined to the narrow world been so awful if he had of churches and pietistic communities; it even introduced him to the totally unknown world of Buddhism, which hitherto had had some resolution to figured only as part of the world of dark paganism christianity his second agony: awoman was to conquer. therewas, however,adifference between the two men. to love. reichelt had made along journey in which his new relationship to people of another faith was the result of his own exploration, research, and direct contacts. for n.n., in contrast, his was abor- university,hewas first in his class. reichelt and his chinese rowed position, at least initially,based only on trust in reichelt. coworkers described him as “unique and outstanding.”23 But he he was thereforemuch morevulnerable to criticism from con- still was not surethat he was good enough. servative circles in norway,especially when negotiations with Withn.n.’sintellectandenergyhemighteasilyhavebecome the norwegian Missionary society forced reichelt to leave the anumber one in his field, given the right circumstances. But the societyandestablishhisownorganizationin1926.itwasaperiod situation was not favorable for such adevelopment. the mission of harshtheological struggle in norway.reichelt was severely alreadyhaditspioneer.Wemightwonderwhetherthestoryofthe attacked by conservative christians for mixing Buddhism and mission would have been different if n.n. and other coworkers christianityandforpreachingan“amputated”Gospelthatcould had been given the opportunity to be moreindependent in their save neither the chinese nor the norwegians.17 n.n. received work.thereare goodreasonstobelievethatsuchascenariomight warnings and admonitions from his friends, who expected him havebeenproblematic.reicheltcertainlyhadsomefundamental to leave the mission as soon as he returned to norway.his family beliefsaboutequalityandcollegiality.hereceivedthesamesalary april 2008 83 as his coworkers, in spite of the difference in age and education, sonal invalidation.” Knowing from experience the somewhat and he apparently trusted them with agreat deal of freedom. the heavy air created by disagreement, Prip-Møller continued, the relationship between reichelt and n.n. is abeautiful example result was often that one preferred to “give in for the sake of of mutual friendship and trust. reichelt, however,did not seem domestic peace.”25 to be interested in allowing n.n. and other coworkers to pursue reichelt needed committed people who would support his their own independent studies, or even to exploreBuddhism and work, participate in the daily activities as preachers and litur- chinese religions in moredepth. gists, engage in dialogues with visiting monks, and teach the reichelt did not seem to want independent spirits who novices and students at taofong shan. But he was the master, engaged in creative dialogue about strategies and theological the respected pioneer,the undisputable number one. positions.n.n.commentedthatindiscussionsreicheltassumed thatallagreedwithhispositionandcouldbeirritatedifsomeone The Gift of Being Number Two dared to criticize him. he never checked the opinions of new staff, but he nonetheless expected them to sharehis views.24 My sketches of the beginning of the christian Mission to Bud- amuch harsher comment was made by amoreindependent dhists in nanjing in the 1920s from the perspective of anumber two missionary do not detract anything from the well-known story,but they add some nuances that areseldom expressed. N.N. was among those n.n. is arepresentative for the countless other number twos, and he was basically happy in this role. his mental chemistry,his with the gift of being home and childhood, and the religious cultureofhis community number two, amissionary had prepared him for such arole, and he filled it with commit- personality without whom ment and gratitude. irealize that therehave also been many number twos (and threes and fours) in christian missions who no pioneer could succeed. wereunhappy with their roles, people with abilities and dreams that werenever realized, among them many women. But n.n. was among those with the gift of being number two, amissionary spirit, Johannes Prip-Møller,the Danish architect who designed personality without whom no pioneer could succeed.26 the taofong shan christian centreinhong Kong. Prip-Møller alluding to harstad’s above-mentioned novel, one might felt that reichelt’s tendency to micromanage was an oppressive say that n.n. did not want to be visible to the entireworld—he deprivation of freedom. he commented that reichelt’s excep- did not need his handprint in the cement—but he did want to tional vision and empathy with others were“limited exclusively be seen, and he struggled with the overpowering fear of being to the sphereofreligion.” in all other areas therewas no room useless. in harstad’s words, someone has to choose to be number for real discussion, for reichelt regarded disagreement as “per- two—that’s what makes the world go around. Notes 1. this article is an abbreviated version of adetailed analysis to 5. carl i. smith’s detailed analysis, based on the available reports and be included in acollection of articles dealing with norwegian diaries at taofong shan christian centre, is available at the center’s contributions to mission in china that is to be published in 2008 reichelt library. under the title “a Passion for china.” 6. among other number twos in the early phases wereaxel hamre 2. Johan harstad, Buzz aldrin: Hvor ble det av deg ialt mylderet? (Buzz (the engineer who supervised the building of taofong shan), stig aldrin: What happened to youinall the confusion?) (oslo: hannerz, Gerhardreichelt (son of the pioneer), and some important Gyldendal, 2005). chinese coworkers. their wives wereprobably regarded somewhat 3. for reference to early missionary pioneers of Buddhist studies in as number threes, especially in acommunity wheremany visitors china, see my article “changed by the east: notes on Missionary weremonks. communication and transformation,” International Bulletin of 7. n.n. described reichelt as the “soul” of the work. see his account de Missionary Research 30, no. 3(July 2006): 115–21. første ti år (the first tenyears) (oslo: Den Kristne Buddhistmisjons 4. for morecomprehensive analyses of reichelt, see notto r. thelle, forlag, 1932), p. 19. n. n. thelle’s other books about the mission are, “Karl ludvig reichelt, 1877–1952: christian Pilgrim of taofong in addition to the above-mentioned biography, Fra begynnelsen til nu shan,” in Mission Legacies: Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern (fromtheBeginninguntilnow)(oslo:DenKristneBuddhistmisjons MissionaryMovement,ed.Geraldh.andersonetal.(Maryknoll,n.y.: forlag,1939)andEnbuddhistmunksveitilKristus(aBuddhistMonk’s orbisBooks,1994),pp. 216–24,and my articles,“‘the conversion Waytochrist) (copenhagen: Gads forlag, 1939). after returning of theMissionary’:changes in Buddhist-christian relationsinthe from hong Kong in 1949, n.n. served as general secretary of the earlytwentieth century,” Ching Feng,n.s., 4, no. 2(2003): 1–25; mission from 1951 to 1972 and continued to serve the mission as a “a christian Monastery for Buddhist Monks, pt. 1, Karl ludvig retired volunteer and speaker,keeping the memory of the pioneer reichelt’s sacred Mountains,” Ching Feng,n.s., 6, no. 1(2005): 1–35; period alive for new generations of supporters. and “a christian Monastery for Buddhist Monks, pt. 2, Buddhist 8. aletter written December 21, 1920, but never sent, to Kjeld stub, rhetoric in Karl ludvig reichelt’s christian liturgies,” Ching Feng, leader of the norwegian christian youth association, n. n. thelle’s n.s., 6, no. 2(2005): 131–77. private archives, presently in the possession of the author. amongmajorstudiesofreichelt,seehåkaneilert,Boundlessness 9. reichelt-thelle correspondence (hereafter rtc), December 26, 1921, (aarhus: forlagetaros, 1974); filip riisager, Forventning og opfyldelse n. n. thelle’s private archives. (expectation and fulfillment) (aarhus: forlaget aros, 1973), and 10. reicheltinChinaMissionYearbook,1924(shanghai:christianliterature Lotusblomsten og korset (the lotus and the cross) (copenhagen: society for china, 1924), p. 76. Gads forlag, 1998); eric J. sharpe, Karl Ludvig Reichelt: Missionary, 11.n.n.thelle’s diary from nanjing, 1922–27 (hereafter tD), october Scholar,and Pilgrim (hong Kong: taofong shan ecumenical centre, 14, 1923, n. n. thelle’s private archives. 1984); and notto n. thelle, Karl Ludvig Reichelt—en kristen banebryter 12. tD, october 1, 1923. iØst-asia (Karl ludvig reichelt: achristian Pioneer in east asia) 13. tD, april 10, 1924. (oslo: Buddhistmisjonens forlag, 1954). 14. tD, June 7, 1924.

84 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 come. learn. serve. www.asburyseminary.edu

Nowoffering three Ph.D. Programs:

Intercultural Studies Evangelization Studies Biblical Studies

Asbury’s Fall 2009 application deadline is Dec. 1, 2008.

Dr.Lalsangkima Pachuau AssociateProfessor of Historyand TheologyofMission, AsburyTheological Seminary come.Notlong after Ibegan teaching in Bangalore(South India), someone asked, “Which institution do yourecommend for aPh.D. in Mission Studies?” My answer was“Asbury Theological Seminary.” Adecade later, as afaculty member at Asbury,Irealize howright Iwas!Whatanexperience it hasbeen to join the team Isoadmired whereawell-balanced emphasis on both spiritual life and high academic standards distinguishesthe qualityofthis scholarlycommunity. learn.Even in the midst of school activities, Iamlearning to see that the love of God is the reason facultymembersare here. At Asbury thereisaspiritual life experience and an atmospherewhich brings the best out of me in my work. It is simplyajoy to work here! My wife and Iare growing spirituallyhereand we areso Foracomplete listing of impressed with the openness of the doctoral students. our degree programs, visit www.asburyseminary.edu serve.Icertainlybelieve Iamcalled to aposition thatexpectsmeto be an academician at the doctoral studieslevel. Ifind Iservebestwhen Ichallenge or call studentstodig deeper,todevelop alevelofanalytical and reflectivethinking. Iserve 1.800.2ASBURY at aseminary committed to academic excellence and to missions and evangelism.

asburytheological seminary, 204north lexington avenue, wilmore, ky 40390 15. tD, april 27, 1924. copies at the reichelt library at taofong shan, hong Kong, and at 16. Whenn.n.returnedtonorwayafterfiveyearsinchina,heproposed the areopagos office, oslo. to the young woman, rannfrid Danielsen, and five years later,when 24. n. n. thelle, Karl Ludvig Reichelt,p.103. he had completed high school and theological training, they finally 25. Prip-Møller,quoted in hans helge Madsen, Prip-Møllers Kina (Prip- married. she joined him when he returned to china in 1933, this Møller’s china) (copenhagen: arkitektens forlag, 2003), p. 158. time in hong Kong. 26. since the present essay is primarily an analysis of the pioneer 17. the most prominent attack came from the conservative theologian period of the christian Mission to Buddhists from the perspective ole hallesby; for adetailed analysis of the struggle, see riisager, of reichelt’s assistant, many aspects of n.n.’s biography have been Forventning og opfyldelse,pp. 23–44. omitted. But one relevant observation might be added: With his 18. rtc, february 23 and 28, 1926. appointment to the position of general secretary of the mission in 19. tD, July 29, 1926. 1951, one year beforereichelt’s death, n.n. not only became the 20. tD, october 1, 1923. unchallenged leader of the mission but was also reichelt’s official 21. see notably tD, January 1, 1925. biographer and the authoritative interpreter of his legacy.reichelt 22. tD, December 3, 1923. to some extent became n. n. thelle’s reichelt. from that point of 23. the official nanjing Diary of the Mission to Buddhists, March 13, view thelle, the number two, ultimately became apowerful number 1927. the original diary is located in the national archives, oslo; one in the missionary establishment.

What Ihave learned about Missions from Writing The British Missionary Enterprise Since 1700 Jeffrey Cox

riting abroad survey is daunting. one must transgress century.inthe 1790s evangelicals perfected this institution in a Wboth geographic and chronological boundaries and way that led to the creation of anew ecclesiastical profession, enter fields whereothers know much more. My past publications that of the modern missionary. werebasedonextensivearchivalresearchaboutparticularplaces.1 When iwas writing The British Missionary Enterprise Since 1700,2 Thereisawide gap between the defamatory literaturepublished by therewas no time to linger on acareful archival reconstruction missionary societies in the nineteenth century for home consump- in order to provide the reader with asense of place. tion and the practices of missionaries in their respective fields.early arriving at conclusions on areas beyond one’s field of exper- nineteenth-century British missions generated alarge body of tise comes with the territory,though, and ilearned agreat deal. publications about foreign cultures that is now rightly seen as With due deference to those who know more, ifound myself severely defamatory,inthat it took the most shocking aspects of surprised by some of the received wisdom about missionaries in foreign cultures from aWestern point of view (sat., cannibalism, various fields of scholarship and differing, at least in matters of etc.)andtreatedthemasemblematicoftheentireculture.thiswas emphasis, with some widely read missiologists and historians. aphase in mission history,though, that is often misunderstood. What follows is asimplified list of some of those conclusions. the defamatory tropes of foreign mission rhetoric wereprimar- ily designed for home consumption and published in the face Interest in missions in eighteenth-century Great Britain was linked of massive domestic skepticism about the appropriate natureof to imperial expansion.andrew Walls once referred to the modern foreign missions. in the mission fields themselves, defamatory missionary movement as “an autumnal child of the evangelical rhetoric was often abandoned as not useful to missionaries in revival,”3 and thereisasense in which that is true enough. What the practice of missionary institution-building. drove missionary enthusiasm in eighteenth-century Britain, though, was not theology but imperialism. church men and david Livingstone was not atypical missionary.the image of the women from avariety of theological points of view turned to missionary as David livingstone, the itinerant preacher in apith missions as aresult of Britain’s imperial expansion, especially helmet holding forth under apalm tree, is the most durable and as it related to african-americans, native americans, and south misleading of all assumptions about the natureofmissions, one asians. throughout history,the relationship between missions that remains deeply entrenched in the popular mind today.the and imperialism has been unstable and often dialectical, but single most important thing to know about missionaries is that, neither can be understood without close attention to the other. unlike livingstone, they werefirst and foremost institution- builders, regardless of differences in matters of theology and The distinctive contribution of evangelicals in Britain was organiza- social background. tional rather than ideological or theological.evangelicals did not invent the characteristic institution of modern Protestant mis- amajority of missionaries werewomen.specialists in the field know sions, that is, the nongovernmental (or quasi-governmental) this, but istill find audiences that aresurprised to hear it, largely voluntary society.Pietists, anglicans, Moravians, and scottish because the image of the missionary is almost entirely male. the Presbyterians experimented with such aform in the eighteenth problem in mission historiography is to establish the role of the wives of male missionaries as missionaries in their own right, Jeffrey Cox is Professor of History at the University of Iowa, wherehehas taught which they werefromthe very first days of overseas missionary British and imperial history since 1978. effort. thereisahidden clause, however,inmost generalizations

86 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 about nineteenth-century missions: “not counting the wives.” Victorian age, but not the twentieth century.throughout the that unspoken exclusion makes it difficult to count the true twentieth century,though, Britain remained the second largest number of women missionaries, but it is not impossible to make sendingnationforProtestantmissions.thehighpointofoverseas plausible estimates. British mission activity was not the late nineteenth century but theinterwarperiod.eveninthelatetwentiethcentury,therewere Civilizing the uncivilized was not the goal of missions.the second more BritishProtestantmissionaries abroad(depending onone’s mostpervasiveimageofthemissionary,afterthatoflivingstone, definition of amissionary) than in the late nineteenth century. is taken from the novels of James Michener,wheremissionaries force Western clothing on Pacific islanders. Mission historians Missionaries areimportant figuresinnon-Western Christianity. will not be surprised to be told that the natureofthe relation- Why should this be asurprise? it is because of the influence of ship between christianity and Western civilization was highly the church-growth school of missions and the great emphasis contested in the world of missions, but influential historians and placed by missiologists such as Donald McGavran and lamin anthropologists, such as Jean and John comaroff, still assume sanneh on the indigenous natureofnon-Western christianity. that missionaries arebest understood as civilizing representa- in the postimperial age, historians and missiologists have at- tives of Western values.4 tempted to divorce non-Western christianity from the taint of its imperial associations by defining it as entirely non-Western, Between 1790 and 1950 the characteristic form of mission activity with missionaries reduced to roles of “detonators” or translators was institution-building.regardless of their theological point of of aGospel that was then taken up and entirely transformed by view,missionaries built institutions when they arrived overseas: non-Western christians. yetthirdWorld christian churches elementary schools for boys and girls, high schools, universities, areneither independent of Western influences nor purely in- theological training schools, vocational training schools, clinics, digenous; in historical terms, they arehybrid, the results of a and hospitals, among others. this strategy has been misunder- dialectical relationship between missionaries and non-Western stood because it was heavily criticized from the first. Victorian christians. even those churches fully independent of mission critics such as henry Venn denounced mission institutions for origins adopt many Western christian forms. David livingstone creating dependency,and in the 1950s Donald McGavran treated may be reviled in the West as amissionary imperialist, but he is the entireperiod of institution-building as amissiological mis- revered among many african christians for his role in bringing take.5 in order to understand mission history,itisnecessary to the Gospel to africa. understand why missionaries built institutions even when they claimed to be doing something else (as in the case of faith mis- in conclusion, iencourage debate about these conclusions. sions), why institution-building was an effective mechanism Postcolonial missions have not escaped the dilemmas of his- for spreading christianity,and why the religious faith of the tory.the tension between missionary institution-building and “dependent” christians associated with mission institutions the need to build up indigenous, independent churches has not should not be denigrated. been transcended. Vast mission bureaucracies arededicated to Bible translation, and the training of indigenous agents is still Missions wereimportant in twentieth-century Britain.inthe early conducted by Western men and women with superior educa- twentieth century the united states surpassed Great Britain as tion, superior credentials, and superior wealth. attacks on mis- the largest sending nation in Protestant missions. as the British sionaries as cultural imperialists, especially in their relationship churches declined slowly after 1900, religion dropped out of the to “unreached peoples,” areasferocious now as they werein historiography of twentieth-century Britain. Missionaries, along the days of communist and nationalist ascendancy in the mid- with religion generally,werethought to be characteristic of the twentieth century.

Notes 1. Jeffrey cox, Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in ed.Marka.noll,DavidW. Bebbington,andGeorgea.rawlyk(new India, 1818–1940 (stanford, calif.: stanforduniv.Press, 2002) and york: oxforduniv.Press, 1994), p. 310. The English Churches in aSecular Society: Lambeth, 1870–1930 (new 4. Jean comaroffand John comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: york: oxforduniv.Press, 1982). Christianity,Colonialism, and Consciousness in South africa,2vols. 2. Jeffrey cox, The British Missionary Enterprise Since 1700 (new york: (chicago: univ.ofchicago Press, 1991). routledge, 2008). 5. Donald anderson McGavran, How Churches Grow: The New Frontiers 3. andrewWalls,“theevangelicalrevival,theMissionaryMovement, of Mission (london: World Dominion Press, 1959) and The Bridges of and africa,” in Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular God: aStudy in the Strategy of Missions (london: World Dominion Protestantism in North america, the British Isles, and Beyond, 1700–1990, Press, 1955).

april 2008 87 My Pilgrimage in Mission James M. Phillips

odescribe my pilgrimage in mission, iwish to avoid a matter.fromthe war stories that iread in our Pittsburgh news- tstrictly chronological discussion, thinking instead of a papers, icould hardly believe that they werehuman. (i often house with four rooms. let me move from one room to another thought about this judgment during our later years in Japan.) at and make adjustments in the time flow as we proceed. the close of the war in europe, therehad been the awful revela- tions of the death ovens at Buchenwald and auschwitz. and the Preparing in America for Mission war was ended in asia with america’s using atomic weapons at hiroshima and nagasaki, incinerating thousands of people. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is the first room in my house, for iwas thereweresomany things to think about as iheaded offtocol- born thereinMarch 1929, the youngest of three sons of harry and lege at Princeton in 1945. ruth Phillips. this proved to be atime when most americans Withscholarshiphelpandvariousjobsiwasabletoworkmy realized that what had seemed to be the solid certainties of the way through Princeton, and what awider world iencountered nineteenth century werecoming to an end, for the stock market there! the world of Western civilization was broadened for me crashed in september 1929, and the Great Depression ensued. through university courses in history and politics. iwent on to My dad lost his job then, and although it must have been incred- major in the Woodrow Wilson school of Public and international ibly difficult for my parents to keep putting meals on the table affairs, for it was my intention to go into some form of govern- for three growing boys, they managed to do so, and we never ment service, possibly the foreign service. My generation was thought of ourselves as deprived. not just our family,but the later described as one that had alove affair with government, whole of american society came to recognize that the period of for we believed that although our society faced anumber of very “inevitable progress,” which had lasted up through World War serious problems, they could doubtless be set right by energetic i, with major bumps such as the american civil War, had come action at the government level, just as President roosevelt had to an end, and we wereinfor some hardtimes. done after the Great Depression. as “depression babies” my brothers and isoon realized My college years made me awareofsome of the continu- that in order to get along in the world, we had to have agood ing tensions in the society in which ihad been brought up. one education. our mother was aregistered nurse, but our dad, who was the tension between faith and knowledge, which became couldhavegonetocollegelikehistwoolderbrothers,hadchosen very real for me because some of my close friends had no faith instead to get ajob and earn some money.speaking out of their whatever and thought of my faith as some kind of vestigial depression experiences our parents often told us, “Get agood superstition. During this time iwent through many periods of education! they can take away everything else you’ve got, but serious doubt about my faith; on several occasions iexamined it they can never take your education from you!” critically and sometimes thought of tossing it away altogether,as the public schools of Pittsburgh werethen good places to some of my friends and professors had. yetiwas greatly inspired start one’s education. My oldest brother,Bob, went on to become by the teaching and example of e. harris harbison, afirst-rate aphysician, and my next older brother,harry,became apastor. historian of the renaissance and reformation, who was also an our family was active in the east liberty Presbyterian church, active christian and church elder.somehow iconcluded that if alarge cathedral-like Gothic edifice that had been built with he was able to hold faith and knowledge together,then perhaps funds from the Mellon family,who had been Pittsburgh bank- icould too. ers and industrialists. through the ministry of our pastor,Dr. after college iknew that iwould have to find ajob. one day, stuart nye hutchison, my brothers and ibecame thoroughly without too much forethought, itelephoned the Presbyterian Boardofforeign Missions to see if they might have ashort-term teaching assignment somewhereoverseas. they did, which led Iwas ordained by the to my taking on athree-year term in Korea, which idiscuss in the next section. But hereineed to say that after my time in Pittsburgh Presbytery as Korea idecided to head for the ministry and chose to enroll in “a missionary to distant yale Divinity school. My time in seminary,1952–55, was during the period that and heathen parts.” roland Bainton was teaching church history,robert calhoun was giving his masterful history of christian doctrine, Kenneth scott latourette was just entering retirement but continuing his imbued with our Presbyterian/reformed heritage, which fitted research and writing on mission, and h. richardniebuhr was in neatly with our family heritage—scotch-irish, with abit of engagedinhislifelongdialogueaboutchristianethics.Withsuch German thrown in. teachers as my mentors, ieagerly looked forwardtoworking in My high school years werethose of america’s entry into the ministry and was ordained by the Pittsburgh Presbytery as “a World Wariiafter the Japanese attack on Pearl harbor.Weknew missionary to distant and heathen parts.” since ihad decided to from our parents, schoolteachers, and German relatives that the continue my studies, that description had to apply to Princeton Germans werenot all bad; the Japanese, though, wereanother university,towhich ireturned to do graduate work in christian ethics under Paul ramsey. James M. Phillips, acontributing editor,served as aPresbyterian Church (USa) Graduate work at Princeton, from 1955 to 1959, took me mission worker in Korea and Japan (1949–52, 1959–75) and associate director into the entiregamut of theological disciplines, which igreatly of the Overseas Ministries Study Center (1983–97). enjoyed. My dissertation was on the ethics of richardBaxter,a

88 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Puritan pastor and theologian who lived through the harrow- such degraded ways. the veneer of civilization is very thin in- ing experiences of seventeenth-century england, facing many deed, and war often destroys it completely.the cold war later issues not dissimilar to those of our own times. Baxter’s greatest brought us close to the brink of nuclear confrontation on several creativity came in the midst of chaos, and it seemed to me that occasions, but somehow—God be thanked!—we wereable to we wereheaded into moreofitinour era as well. avoid stepping over the brink. During my first summer session in graduate school, ijoined the Korean Waralso showed that for Korean christians, as the ministers-in-industry program at Mccormick seminary in their world seemed to be falling apart, their faith in christ grew chicago, directed by Marshal scott. one sunday iwent to the stronger.their eschatological approach to christian faith was fourth Presbyterian church, whereimet agirl named ruth hen- ning. to make along story short, we weremarried the following summer.Wemovedintograduatestudents’housingatPrinceton, The Korean war showed whereour first daughter,cathy,was born ayear later.Because therewerenoaunts or grandmothers to help out, ruth and i that for Korean Christians, swam the new waters of parenthood together.our church home as their world seemed to be in Princeton was Witherspoon Presbyterian church, which had falling apart, their faith in started out as ablack church but came to have about 10 percent white members as well, including now ruth and me. at the end Christ grew stronger. of graduate school, various teaching posts wereavailable in the united states, but ruth and iaccepted aPresbyterian mission boardopening in church history at tokyo union seminary.and quite different from the way in which my faith had developed so we wereoff to Japan, akind of return for me, but for ruth, fromboyhoodtimesinPittsburgh.to besure,thefundamentalism quite anew and different experience. of many Korean christians and of several missionary colleagues was not for me. Serving in Northeast Asia after atrip in the summer of 1952 with two student-friends through asia, the Middle east, and europe, iheaded back to the northeast asia is the second room in my house. Beforeconsid- united states for further education. ering my family’s move to Japan, imust say something about my bachelor years in Korea, for it was in Korea that istarted my Japan, 1959–75.following seminary and graduate school, ruth mission career right after college. and i, with baby cathy,went to Japan in 1959. We found the country in the throes of reexamining its postwar ties with the Korea (and Japan), 1949–52.iwas to teach history,politics, and united states. to understand the serious anti-american demon- english Bible in what is now yonsei university in seoul. ayear’s strations that weretaking place then, we must recall (in greatly teaching went by,and then—on June 25, 1950—the Korean War simplified fashion) that Japan was not like several other nations broke out. our Presbyterian mission was holding its annual that weredivided in two after World Warii, including Korea, conference at abeach resort on the west coast of Korea when Germany,austria, and Vietnam. each of these divided countries we got wordthat war had begun. Because the city of seoul had had acommunist-dominated section and aWestern-dominated already fallen to north Korean troops, we could not return there part. Postwar Japan was under asingle occupation, even though but instead headed overland to taegu and Pusan, from where the ussr had at first sought to occupy the northern island of most of us wereevacuated to Japan. hokkaido. the occupation of Japan was allied in theory but from Japan that summer we followed the worsening course american-led in practice. hence the east-West split, which tore ofthewarandthenwerecheeredbyDouglasMacarthur’sinchon other nations into two parts, was internalized in Japanese society. landing, which suddenly seemed to presage an allied victory. the Japanese government, with the support of many in the busi- although ienjoyed getting to know something of Japan while i ness and farming communities, was officially oriented toward was working therethrough the fall, my heart was really in Korea. america and capitalist economics. But many in the academic so iwas very glad to return to Korea at the end of 1950, wherei and labor communities favored amoreneutral or even Marxist helped in mission programs for the churches and for the count- stance.theMarxist/capitalisteconomicandideologicaltensions less refugees who began to pour down the Korean peninsula to that hadplagued europe since the nineteenth century werenow escape from the communist regime in the north. polarizing twentieth-century Japan. the Korean Wardid several things to my consciousness. for after the struggles over the 1960 u.s.-Japan security treaty, one thing, herewas asociety seemingly coming apart under the Japan’s ruling liberal Democratic Party turned its attention to repeated blows of war.some christian leaders ihad met were growth of the Japanese economy,and the “Japanese economic killed or vanished on death marches, while many others suf- miracle” ensued. from our missionary apartment in downtown fered untold hardships from the hostilities. ialso came to have tokyo we could see the city growing around us; at one time, we adeep distrust of the Marxist promises of anew society,which could look out on five buildings that wereunder construction had seemed in college to be an alternative lifestyle for many.in near us. the protests of leftist groups weregenerally drowned halting Korean italked with scores of very poor people who had out by the sounds of the nation’s growing prosperity. fled from north Korean communism because of their terrible our second daughter,Marjorie, was born in tokyo, and she experiences with that regime. andcathy—bothblondes—wereaninstantmeansofintroduction ialso found that bestial conduct was not the monopoly of to people as we traveled around the country.Mywork at tokyo one side. therewereatrocities by both north and south Korean union seminary,which iundertook after Japanese language troops, and even some by american soldiers. this revelation study,brought me into daily contact with some of the most in- caused me to ponder how some of these fellow-americans—and teresting students and faculty colleagues that one could possibly imight easily have been one of them—had come to behave in wish for.iamgrateful that it was necessary for me to do my work april 2008 89 in the Japanese language, which enabled me to enter morefully had done before, itried to present the story of the church as part into the daily issues and life situations that both students and of the unfolding task of christian mission. i’ll always recall talk- faculty werefacing. ing with astudent who had just finished my class in christian the story of the “time of troubles” that swept over Japanese mission. When iasked him what he thought of the course, he society and its christian institutions from 1968 to 1970 is too replied, “frankly,ididn’t like it, for you kept referring to all complicated to describe hereindetail. the crisis was related the mistakes that missionaries have made.” he was absolutely specifically to efforts by “progressives” to end the u.s.-Japan right, but iexplained that as amissionary myself, iwanted him security treaty and to efforts by that treaty’s supporters to to hear about the mistakes of mission from me, and not from an continue it. During this period over two-thirds of the nation’s outside critic. schoolswerethrownintoturmoil,includingourseminary,which the time in sananselmo and Berkeley furthered my convic- was barricaded by striking students for almost six months. i tion that christian theology would increasingly be forged in the started achronicle of the seminary’s problems to sharewith a so-called two-thirds World countries of asia, africa, and latin wider public in Japan and overseas regarding what seemed to america, rather than in Western europe and north america, as many Westerners assumed. these experiences also confirmed for me that Western countries had themselves become very My conviction grew that difficult mission fields, as Bishop lesslie newbigin maintained after his missionary service in india and subsequent retirement Christian theology would in Birmingham, england. the 1960s era of student radicalism increasingly be forged in had been followed in the 1970s by atime of new age spiritu- ality,which maintained (along with many good affirmations) the so-called Two-Thirds that, since ours was atime of apluralistic culture, all convictions World countries of Asia, and standards must be relative, with no basis in truth but only in preference. robert Bellah, an astute Berkeley observer,had Africa, and Latin America. begun by studying Japan’s religious establishment in Tokugawa Religion (1957), then moved to analyzing u.s. civil religion in The Broken Covenant (1975) and then postmodern relativism in be the major societal and theological issues that weresurfacing. Habits of the Heart (1985). this was an intellectual journey that in time, this work became abook that sketched the history of somewhat paralleled my own, and which ithen felt (and still Japan’s christian community from 1945 to 1975, published as feel) may begin to set the agenda for many of us in our own From the Rising of the Sun: Christians and Society in Contemporary era as well. Japan (orbis Books, 1981). although our time in the san francisco area was stimulat- While seminary teaching was my major assignment, ialso ing and enjoyable, it was also for me aperiod of great difficulty. served as pastor of the West tokyo union church and traveled from our last years in Japan, ruth had begun to experience some to Korea and other east asian countries on periodic visits in difficulties in coping with the Japanese scene, along with some connection with my work with the northeast asia association health problems, and iimagined that our return to the states of theological schools. iwrote articles for various journals in would be better for her.how wrong iwas! it became clear that Japan and was associate editor of the Northeast asia Journal of ruth was suffering from paranoia, which made things very dif- Theology.Wewerealso able to travel as afamily through south- ficult for our friends and colleagues, for our daughters, and for east asia during the 1974 christmas season. By the summer of me. igot the help of apastor and apsychiatrist, but ruth denied 1975 it was time for us to return for what we thought would be that anything was wrong with her and wove those who tried to ayear’s furlough in the united states. help her into an imagined plot against her.

Serving in Education in the United States OMSC, 1983–97.What was itodo? ruth’s condition made our return to Japan impossible, so idecided to apply for academic the thirdroom in my house is that of serving as amission edu- posts in the united states and sent out copies of my dossier by cator,which occurred first on the u.s. West coast and then on the dozen. the replies came back stating that iwas “overquali- the east coast. fied” for the post that was available, or that they wereseeking someone “not so far along on his or her intellectual journey” (i.e., SFTS/GTU, 1975–83.returning from Japan, we headed for san not so old!). But instead of my reaching out and finding ajob, a francisco theological seminary (sfts) in san anselmo, where job offer came to me—to become associate director of the over- ibecame avisiting professor of church history and apart of seas Ministries study center (oMsc) in Ventnor,new Jersey,to the Graduate theological union (Gtu) in Berkeley.our older workwithitsprogramsofcontinuingeducationforcross-cultural daughter,cathy,was starting at oberlin college, and from there mission personnel. iwas delighted to accept, and so we headed in due time she went on to study medicine at the university of across the country from california to new Jersey. california Medical school in san francisco. after our younger oMsc was aknown quantity to us, for our family had spent daughter,Marjorie, finished high school in california, she went partsofthreesummerfurloughsinVentnor,andthedirectorofthe on to carleton college in Minnesota and from thereinto the u.s. center was our good friend Gerald (Jerry) h. anderson. another foreign service. cathy married steve erban, and two wonderful staffmember was Bob coote, who also became my fast friend. grandsons have come from that union; Marjorie married steve this new location also brought us into daily contact with mission carrig, and they arethe parents of our “above average” grand- and church leaders from all over the world. oMsc was then in daughter. the midst of aself-study,for we realized that although the nearby My own work at sfts and the Gtu involved me in teaching beach area made Ventnor very popular in the summer,itlacked church history.asKenneth scott latourette and stephen neill the academic environment necessary for astudy center such as

90 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 International Health Insurance for Missionaries

With morethan 30 years of overseas missionaryservice and options offered by 8major international and 5major domestic health insurancecarriers,Good Neighbor Insurancecan meet your health insuranceneeds.

>Career &Short-TermHealth Plans forIndividuals &Families >Large &Small Group Coverage

480.813.9100 www.gninsurance.com [email protected] Call todayfor aFREE quote 866-636-9100 (toll free)

In addition, we provide plans forinternationals visiting,studying and working in the U.S., and fornon-Americans serving in and outside of their home country. ours. hence, after extensive research, oMsc in 1987 moved to from around the world resident at oMsc. ihave been able to new haven, connecticut, to alocation very near yale Divinity lead oMsc residents on anumber of tours of Jonathan edwards school andalbertus Magnus college.as aPresbyterian minister, sitesinconnecticutandinnearbyMassachusetts.thepurposeof ibecame amember of the Presbytery of southern new england these tours has been to show how edwards, as one of america’s and attended most presbytery meetings. leading philosophers and theologians, sought to cope with mis- in new haven iparticipated in aplan to establish aspan- sion issues in his day,with suggestions about how these efforts ish-speaking Presbyterian church in the community.But in spite may affect our own times as well. of support from the national church and the local Presbyterian it is also my great fortune to be able to participate in meet- pastors, the struggling hispanic congregation was not able to ings dealing with missiology or mission studies and to seek to survive.Waschristianworshipandcongregationallifeinspanish relate current thinking in these areas to my past experiences. handled better by roman catholics and Pentecostals? What ajoy it has been to go with oMsc participants to the Bob coote and iedited abook in honor of Jerry anderson joint meetings of the eastern region of the american society of that introduced mission to church and academic audiences: Missiology and the eastern fellowship of Professors of Mission Toward the Twenty-first Century in Christian Mission (eerdmans, at Maryknoll Mission institute in new york to keep abreast of 1993). soon it came time to retirefromoMsc, and the center current scholarship. planned asurprise farewell dinner,towhich daughter cathy therehave also been opportunities for foreign travel and and her husband came, and even Marjorie showed up from her service. Previously,ihad traveled as atourist to many countries assignment in slovakia! in all corners of the globe. ihad also done volunteer service in Japan, hungary,croatia, and south Korea. then in 2005, after Retirement taking acourse in pastoral counseling, iserved as avolunteer hospital chaplain for three months at the christian Medical retirement has been the fourth room in my house. ruth and hospital in Vellore, india. through experiences thereand with a ihad picked out our home in hamden, connecticut, with the christian-Muslim dialogue group in hartford, connecticut (and intention of retiring there. But as her paranoia turned somehow benefiting from previous courses in islam at hartfordseminary), intoalzheimer’sdiseaseandhercarebecameatwenty-four-hour ihave come to know Muslims better.tragic errors such as the job for me, it was necessary to move her to the new london re- u.s. invasion of iraq should not deter us from reaching out to habilitation and carecenter,whereiwas able to visit her often. develop closer relations with Muslims. she passed away therein1999. ihave also attended the meetings of the southern new eng- it seemed best to me to close up our hamden home and land Presbytery and now serve on the presbytery’s immigration move into an apartment, and then into Whitney center,aretire- task force. though control of this country’s borders is necessary, ment home. here, in the midst of apluralistic yet supportive thereshould also be continuing welcome to newcomers and a community,ihave begun to hone my thoughts on issues related path open for them leading to full citizenship. to mission. MylifetimebeganwiththeGreatDepression,whichbrought fortunately,myretirement apartment at Whitney center to an end u.s. dreams of inevitable progress. My mission journey is rather near oMsc, wherethe staffhas invited me to various has taken many twists and turns since then, but the drama is not meetings, lectures, and other events. in this way ihave been over yet. May God give us the courage and the vision to see it able to keep in touch with overseas mission and church leaders through in our time!

Indexes and abstracts of the InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research

forthebenefitofstudentsandresearchers,thearticlesandbook • International Bibliography of Book Reviews reviews of the international Bulletin of Missionary research • Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur (in- areindexed and abstracted in the following publications. ternational Bibliography of Periodical literature) • Missionalia • Bibliografia Missionaria • Religion Index One: Periodicals • Book Review Index • Religious and Theological Abstracts • Christian Periodical Index • Guide to People in Periodical Literature or,goonline to www.internationalbulletin.org, click on • Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical “Previous issues,” then select ayear under “annual index.” Literature

92 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 the legacy of elizabeth russell Karen K. Seat

lizabeth russell, missionary to Japan from 1879 to 1919, of amovement to steer the stream of sailors entering nagasaki’s elived along and complex life that in microcosm reflected port away from the temptations of “worldly pleasures” during social and political transformations in both the united states and their stay in the city.When she retired in 1919, she was decorated Japan, particularly as these transformations affected ideologies with the Japanese emperor’s blue ribbon medal in recognition and practices concerning women’s roles in society.1 russell’s life of her educational and social-welfarecontributions during her (october 9, 1836, to september 6, 1928) was shaped by important years in Japan. nineteenth-century women’s movements, including the devel- opment of women’s higher education and the women’s foreign Russell’sEarly Years mission movement. throughout her long life, russell inhabited arange of identities available to women of her generation: she elizabeth russell was born in cadiz, ohio, the second of six chil- graduated from an all-female academy and became aschool- dren born to John and Juliaann russell. her father,amillwright, teacher as ayoung adult, then found herself cast as aspinster moved the family several times beforesettling in Wheeling, and an invalid in her thirties; she ultimately became acareer Virginia (later West Virginia), in 1844, when elizabeth was eight missionary and the mother of an adopted daughter.she became a years old.3 although not of privileged origins, she obtained a missionary at the age of forty-two through the Woman’s foreign high-level education for awoman of her day through her intel- Missionary society of the Methodist episco- ligence, ambition, and good fortune. palchurch,andshespentthefollowingforty attheageofnineteen,elizabethrussell years of her life involved in the movement wasdiscoveredbysarah foster hanna, the to promote higher education for Japanese principalofWashington female seminary, women. her most important and enduring an academically advanced school of higher work as amissionary was the establishment education for women in Washington, Penn- of Kwassui Gakuin in nagasaki, an educa- sylvania. hanna, serving as the substitute tional institution for girls and women that principal of russell’s modest school in flourishes to this day.2 Wheeling during the 1855–56 school year, russell founded Kwassui Gakuin upon noticedrussell’sexceptionalacademictalent her arrival in Japan in 1879, atime when and arranged for her to become aboarding mission schools for girls and women were student at Washington seminary.elizabeth becoming apopular outreach strategy russell’s mother had died in 1855, and the among missionaries, particularly as the young elizabeth became quite attached to number of unmarried missionary women Mrs.hanna;theboardingschoolcommunity was increasing through the rise of women’s becamehernewfamily.itwasatWashington foreign mission societies. russell’s Kwassui seminary that russell developed her high Gakuinrepresentsoneofthemostsuccessful ideals for women’s education. she also re- mission school endeavors of its time. While ceived her first missionary impulse while at nineteenth-centurymissionrhetoricusually theseminarywhenamissionaryfromegypt courtesy of Kwassui Gakuin framedthepurposeoffemalemissionschools came to speak to the student body.4 in terms of training futurechristian wives Elizabeth Russell at age eighty, russell graduated from Washington and mothers, russell radically expanded 1916 seminary in 1859 as the valedictorian of her school’s curriculum to educate students her class.5 the following years werenot for work beyond this purpose. Kwassui rose to prominence easy.she struggled to find satisfactory living and working ar- as it opened industrial departments to train women to enter rangements, while the raging civil Wardivided her home state developing industries, offered subjects not usually offered in of Virginia. Moving back after graduation to her family home, other schools for girls and women (such as advanced math and whereher father lived with anew wife, russell found work as a science), and added increasingly higher levels of post-primary photograph painter and also worked as agoverness. in 1863 her education, establishing one of the first college-level programs for only sister,Julia, married, after which russell lived at her sister’s women in the country.founding afemale school during atime house and became aschoolteacher.she worked as ateacher for when formal educational institutions for girls and women were some ten years while living with her sister’s family.then, at the ararity in Japan, russell was apioneer in developing women’s age of thirty-six, she experienced aprofound turn of events that primary and higher education during Japan’s early years as a changed the course of her life. that year she had, in her own newly forming nation-state. words, a“complete nervous breakdown,”6 an experience that russell’s work in Japan was not limited to Kwassui Gakuin. she recorded at length in her journal later in life. her physician she also founded Kwassui Girls’ home in response to the needs told her that she would have to give up teaching to preserve her of orphaned children and established aseaman’s home as part health. russell states in her journal that during this low point in her life, she believed she would never work again. in later years, KarenK.SeatisassociateProfessorintheReligiousStudiesProgramattheUni- as she looked back over her life, she marveled that it was just versity of arizona. Her book “Providence has freed our hands”: Women’s when she had come to expect afutureofidleness and decay that Missions and the american encounter with Japan (Syracuse Univ.Press, she was called to the most important work of her life: aforty-year 2008) prominently features the life and work of Elizabeth Russell. missionary career in Japan. april 2008 93 seeking to recover from her nervous breakdown and de- in Japan in which the tokugawa shogunate was overthrown, and pressed state, russell attended aMethodist revival camp led by the new Meiji government was established in 1868. its leaders, John s. inskip in Moundsville, West Virginia.7 this camp meet- using Western rhetoric, declared that the new Japan—Meiji ing proved to be adramatic turning point in her life. although Japan—would pursue “civilization and enlightenment” by she had converted to Methodism as ateenager,itwas not until appropriating from the West those things that made Western her thirties, through attending this camp meeting in 1873, that countries so powerful, thereby achieving equal footing with russell was converted to alife of “sanctification and holiness,” imperialist Western nations. the Meiji government undertook becoming part of the holiness movement of nineteenth-century extremely ambitious projects in restructuring Japan’s political, Methodism. after this conversion and sanctification experience, economic, and social systems.11 russell writes, she “went home well in soul and body,” believing arrivingasamissionaryelevenyearsaftertheMeijirestora- that therehad been “a divine touch to my healing.” Within afew tion of 1868, russell witnessed firsthand the transformation of weeks of her return she secured anew high school teaching job Japanfromastrugglingagrariansocietytoapowerfulnation-state. and entered the classroom again.8 By the time russell retired in 1919, she had seen the establish- after her recovery,the interest she had felt in missions years ment of Japan’s constitutional monarchy,had lived through the earlier was rekindled. this renewed interest coincided with the sino-Japanese War, the russo-Japanese War, and World Wari, dawn of the women’s mission movement. in north america and had experienced the effects of Japanese officials’ frequently changing policies on how to “modernize” the country.Most important, according to russell’s ideological commitments, she Despite her patriotism, was thereduring atime when many werereexamining the place of women in the “new Japan.” Russell developed acritical Manychristianmissionaries,especiallythoseassociatedwith and rather sophisticated women’sforeignmissionsocieties,believedthatconvertingJapa- understanding of global nese women was one of the most important ways to turn Japan into achristian, “civilized” nation. they saw mission schools and local events. for girls and women as an important tool for creating christian wives and mothers who would influence futuregenerations. for example, the monthly journal of the WfMs, Woman’sMissionary some forty denominational women’s foreign mission societies Friend (titled Heathen Woman’sFriend from 1869 to 1896), printed wereformed between 1868 and 1900, with over three million an article in 1900 stating that true progress in Japan would be women on the membership rosters by 1915.9 russell enthusiasti- attained “not by modern parliaments, nor electric-car routes, cally joined this movement, participating in local chapters of the foreign food or foreign dress, but by the creation of christian Woman’s foreign Missionary society of the Methodist episcopal mothers through the christian schools.”12 such viewpoints church (hereafter the WfMs). she soon became the secretary of fueled the rapid growth of the american women’s foreign mis- the WfMs West Virginia conference, in addition to her regular sion movement. although russell was influenced by prevailing teaching work. at first she assumed that, at her age, she would Victorian gender ideologies and mission strategy,she ultimately have no further involvement in foreign missions. after several revealed amorecomplex vision for female mission schools than years of leadership in the WfMs, however,russell, now in her thatwhichwasexpressedintheearlyrhetoricofwomen’sforeign forties,cametothedecisionthatsheshouldofferherlifeinservice missionsocieties. to the WfMs by personally entering the mission field. like many otheramericans at thetime, russellpatriotically the WfMs initially granted russell’s request to be assigned supportedthe West’s intervention in Japan, as she linked these to india, but two weeks beforeher scheduled departureshe events with the promise of converting Japan into achristian was suddenly reassigned to Japan. the WfMs had received a nation. she was particularly enthusiastic about the introduction letter from aMethodist missionary in nagasaki requesting two of american-style educational institutions, as she was certain women missionaries to establish agirls’ school there. russell that “the school is the hope of the church in Japan.”13 she wrote was appointed to this task, along with ayounger teacher,Jennie that when Japan was opened to the West, “america was there Gheer.soonoctober 25, 1879, russell and her companion sailed with blackboardand chalk arranging asystem of education ... for Japan, acountry she “knew nothing of ...save that it was a Primary,high schools, and colleges and universities after the little spot on the map near asia.”10 pattern of our own. iamvery proud of the part my country had in starting offthe new Japan.”14 Mission Work in Meiji Japan Despite her patriotism, russell developed acritical perspec- tive and rather sophisticated understanding of global and local elizabethrussellarrivedinJapanduringtheMeijiera(1868–1912), events that informed her mission to women during her years of atime of sweeping change in the country.reversing aclosed- work in Japan. russell felt it was urgent that women both in the borders policy that had kept Japan relatively secluded for nearly united states and in Japan struggle to securethe best possible two and ahalf centuries under the rule of the tokugawa family, position for “womanhood” while they had their chance during Japan’s new Meiji leaders weredetermined to make the country timesofsocialandpoliticalferment.inherwritingsshepraisedthe amajor player on the world stage. in the 1850s the u.s. navy’s americanwomenwhohadparticipatedinthefamous1848seneca commodoreMatthew Perry and his fleet had compelled the falls convention, which had sought to establish awomen’s rights tokugawa rulers to sign treaties with the united states and other movementfocusingon,asrusselldescribedit,“highereducation Western powers. these treaties, called the “unequal treaties” in for women, equal privileges in the trades and professions with Japan, opened Japan to the Western world and placed Western men, and the abolition of slavery and franchise for women.”15 powers at an economic and political advantage in their dealings unlike many other missionaries, who saw schools primarily as with the country.the signing of the treaties sparked acivil war ameans of proselytization, russell saw women’s education as

94 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 having the potential to radically change women’s political, eco- tense between missionaries and those who had come to develop nomic, and social status—particularly in acountry like Japan, Western business and political interests in Meiji Japan. Many which was undergoing such dramatic transformations. secularWesternersviewedmissionariesasself-righteousintruders who wereunnecessarily meddling in Japanese culture, and who Russell’sVision and Leadership Strategy fancied themselves to be morally superior to Westerners who wereinvolved in the “crass” material restructuring of Japanese elizabeth russell and Jennie Gheer arrived in nagasaki on society.russell’sschoolbuildingprojectprovidedaperfecttarget november 23, 1879. the two missionaries set up housekeeping for the secular Western community to vent its frustration toward together and supported each other in their new life. russell missionary enterprises. to them, russell’s school represented all was euphoric upon her initial arrival to Japan, writing that she that was useless and misspent in mission work, for it seemed “had never seen anything so charming. ...everything was so such amisallocation of resources, energy,and time. novel.”16 in arelatively unstructured environment, away from russell was able to avenge herself when she discovered that the constraints of her own society,russell was invigorated by the celebrated american writer and lecturer Joseph cook would the opportunity to reach her full potential as aleader. be on an english liner passing through the nagasaki harbor in Determined to fulfill their mission, aweek after their arrival Mayof1882,justasthenewschoolbuildingwasbeingcompleted. innagasakirussellandGheeropeneda“school,”withonepupil. she requested that he come to speak at the dedication ceremony this pupil, awoman named ono san (Miss ono), ended up be- celebrating the opening of Kwassui’s new building. cook agreed ing moreofateacher for russell and Gheer than they werefor and gave aspeech in which he argued for the value of women’s her.Missionaries in nagasaki at this time had difficulty finding education, commended russell for her efforts towardthat goal, Japanese people who werewilling to teach them the language, and chastised the Western community for their opposition to and russell found herself turning to her student for assistance her work. in Japanese.17 Despite the Meiji government’s proclamations, in russell’s vision in building the school did pay off. as she the decade after the Meiji restoration many Japanese werestill perhaps had been counting on, the grand building and location relatively hostile towardWesternization and christianity.Most impressed aristocratic Japanese families, and the number of girls families,moreover,preferredtousetheirresourcestoeducatesons enrolled in the school increased dramatically.forty-three girls rather than daughters. russell and Gheer thus had adaunting enrolled when the new building opened on June 8, 1882, and task ahead of them. russell was startled by the difficult environ- by the end of the year sixty girls wereenrolled.18 the numbers ment she encountered as she struggled to develop her school. “i steadily increased over the years. in 1884 christians in nearby had expected acordial reception from the Japanese but had not fukuoka city requested that someone from Kwassui come to had it,” she wrote when reminiscing over her discouragement start asimilar girls’ school in their city.Jennie Gheer answered during her initial months in Japan. this call, and in 1885 ei Wa Jo Gakko (later fukuoka Jo Gakko, or after amonth of working with their one student, russell fukuokafemaleschool)openedwithseventy-fivestudents.19 this and Gheer,inwhat one can assume was purely an act of faith, riseinpopularityalsocorrespondstobroadertrendsineducation decided to formally name the school. aJapanese man who was studying theology suggested that they name the school “Kwatsu sui,” meaning “fountain of living waters.” they shortened the As construction of the phrase to Kwassui, and the official name of the school became “Kwassui Jo Gakko,” or Kwassui female school. elaborateschoolbuilding russell was arisk taker,and she often had visions of success began, both Western and beforeothers could shareher optimism. only ahandful of stu- dents enrolled in the school during its first two years. yetupon Japanese onlookers felt that ending the school year in 1881 with only eighteen pupils—after a it was achallenge to the near collapse of the school the fall before—russell convinced the WfMs to grant her $8,000 to construct anew school building for existing social order. Kwassui. not only did she begin to make arrangements to erect a largeandexpensiveschoolbuildingforJapanesegirlsandwomen, but she also managed to obtain aprime piece of real estate on during the 1880s, as the status of Western education in general which the British had planned to build their consulate. she states was peaking in Japan. five years after the new Kwassui school in her journal that it was “the most beautiful site iknow of for building was opened, the school was so crowded that another aschool.” it was asite evoking power and prestige, aproperty wing had to be built onto the original building. By 1894 alarge at the top of alarge hill, not only overlooking nagasaki city and dining room and kitchen with rooms for boarders above were the shipyards below,but also towering above the settlement of added, as well as an additional building with an auditorium, foreigners, which was itself elevated above the city. moreclassrooms, and moredormitory rooms.20 as construction on the rather elaborate school building russell and the other teachers at Kwassui organized arigor- began on this magnificent property,both Western and Japanese ous educational program for their students during the 1880s and onlookers felt that its presence was achallenge to the existing initiated Kwassui’s college program by the end of the decade.21 social order.the Western community was particularly outraged the college included ascience department, largely because of by this development, and russell’s missionary community was russell’s ability to raise enough interest among missionary sup- uncomfortable and embarrassed by her undertaking. fellow porters to provide the school with “a liberal lot of physical and missionaries warned her that she was going to “have agreat chemicalapparatussufficienttoperformtheleadingexperiments; big house and nobody in it.” Missionaries wereparticularly also aplanetarium and aset of anatomical charts.”22 as aresult concerned about the reaction of the larger Western community of the founding of this department, some of the earliest female to her project, and with good reason. relations had always been physicians in Japan weregraduates of Kwassui. the school also april 2008 95 maintained abiblical department, which graduated Japanese and women’s higher education in general throughout the rest womenwhoworkedashomemissionariesinJapanandasforeign of her career. missionaries.russellandherfacultyalsodevelopedanindustrial During the 1890s and early 1900s, the Japanese government department, in which young women could learn readily market- increased its efforts to establish apublic educational system that able skills, such as sewing, weaving, and embroidering. would be in line with Japanese patriotism and political agendas. in addition to living and working as the principal and as a soon after promulgating the Meiji civil code in 1898, which ex- teacher at Kwassui, russell at age forty-eight adopted an infant plicitly placed Japanese women under the control of male house- Japanese girl in January of 1885. she named the baby ellen May hold heads and denied them many legal rights, the government russell and called her May.When May was eleven years old, began to expand rapidly the number of public schools for girls russell sent her to the united states to live with her sister Julia. and women, promoting acurriculum focusing on filial piety and on an earlier furlough russell had helped her recently widowed domestic sciences.25 the expansion of all-female public schools sister move to Delaware, ohio, whereJulia’s children attended was thus part of the Japanese government’s systematic efforts ohio Wesleyan university; and now russell wanted May to live to ensurethat modern Japan would remain apatriarchal society, and study in the united states in preparation for entering ohio even as many other elements of the nation werechanging. Wesleyan herself. When May graduated from ohio Wesleyan While Japanese feminists created their own avenues of pro- in 1910, she returned to Japan to work at Kwassui. May and test,26 russell, for her part, published articles and gave speeches elizabeth russell wereclose companions until May’s death from inwhichsheurgedchristiansinJapantoresistlimitsonwomen’s tuberculosis at the age of thirty-nine, four years beforerussell’s education, whetherinprivate christianschools or in public death at age ninety-one. schools. sheurged herJapaneseand Western colleagues to work towardaneducational system that would diminish the educa- Legacy as aProponent of Women’sEducation tional gulf between men and women, for,she argued, “whatever leads out the mental powers of man, leads out the mental powers russell was an important participant in the late-nineteenth-cen- of women, as thereisnosex in mind.” russell linked women’s tury christian movement to provide educational institutions for workineducationtowomen’semancipation,statingthat“before women.23 Dozens of mission schools for girls and women were woman in any land rises, she must herself take the initiative, she founded in Japan before1900, and private schools founded by must show some appreciation of her condition and seek to rise. either Japanese christians or Western missionaries became quite ...until asufficient number of any class show adisposition to popular in the 1880s and 1890s. although scholars differ on ex- rise, they will not rise. read history in every land; the rich, the actly how many of these schools provided “higher” education great, the powerful, have never voluntarily reached down to lift for Japanese women (therewas no uniformity in the curricula), up the poor,the weak, the lowly.”27 it is widely recognized that by the turn of the century,Japanese anumberofprivateschoolscollapsedbecausetheylosttheir women with the highest levels of formal education usually had competitiveedgeaspublicschoolsbecamewidelyaccessible,but attended private christian schools, for as late as 1894 only eight Kwassui continued to flourish under the leadership of russell public high schools for young women had been established in and her colleagues. ultimately,the desires of Japanese families, Japan.24 christian schools in Japan would continue to provide and Japanese women themselves, determined the success of some of the highest levels of education for women into the private schools for women. asignificant number of Japanese twentieth century.Kwassui was one of the most outstanding resisted the government’s agenda for women by enrolling their schools of this period, as russell and her colleagues offered not daughters and/or themselves in high-level mission schools like only postprimary courses of study but also one of the few col- russell’s rather than cooperating with the government’s new lege-level programs for women in the country. program for female education. russell pointed out that “the at the turn of the century,however,christian schools went increasingly large number of girls that crowd the halls of the throughaperiodofcrisis,asthegovernmentbeganmoreactively few schools already opened for higher education” was evidence to develop public high schools for girls, which drew potential that women in Japan had “recognized the heavenly impulse” to students away from private schools. While russell had been at work for their liberation from subservient roles.28 By the early twentiethcentury,numerous missionaries involved in women’s education in Japan embraced strategies Russell urged Christians similar to russell’s and openly advocated women’s higher edu- cation as away to compete with Japanese schools in attracting in Japan to resist limits students. as aresult of the influence of progressive educators on women’seducation, like russell, mission schools, along with some notable private whether in Christian or Japanese schools, came to function as some of the few spaces wherewomen in Japan could find “intellectual challenges and public schools. ahumanistic view of women.”29 By the time russell retired in 1919, she not only was held in high regardamong Japanese, as evidenced by her decoration the forefront of the movement to build mission schools during by the emperor,but also had been accepted by the foreign settle- the first twenty years of her missionary career,atthe turn of the ment in nagasaki. the farewell she received from the residents century she found herself involved once again in efforts to keep of nagasaki revealed the high statureshe and her school had mission schools for girls and women alive. although she turned attained since she had established Kwassui forty years earlier. over the executive responsibilities of Kwassui’s principalship the May 28, 1919, issue of the english-language Nagasaki Express to WfMs missionary Mariana young in 1897 in order to devote newspaper honored russell’s work as the founder of Kwassui, moretime to the establishment of the Kwassui Girls’ home, stating that “for some years progress was slow,but success was russell remained very active in promoting Kwassui Jo Gakko achieved and to day [sic]Kwassui Jo Gakko has four hundred

96 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 &.-''# '( *,)$+.!#)!+"# &)!%*$&

!%(+' )*%&,#"%-$

&) 3() %*4,#/1#-(65)1-#' &) 230) 3#-*(+ -* -)""' !14 -2) .*("4 /# "/#-)1/1$'

:9+? 8AHF# 6&DC/" 7/FBB +DE/ 59# 4+A&3DJH +/BB 9+ AJ +?/ " %9ABD ?D# @//J +&D9J9J6 #+-H/J+# +A +DE/ 8AHF# #+A&3+A+?/ /JH# A, +?/ /D&+?I

:/ A,,/& ;I(I$&A6&D<# 9J 9J+/&C-B+-&DB #+-H9/#" 1.42)" DJH D$$B9/HB9J6-9#+9C#" DHAC+A&D+/ 9J <9##9ABA63" DJH D=?I0I 9J 9J+/&C-B+-&DB /H-CD+9AJI

3'-+1*+ /,'"1)#2*0''" '. !-+&%*5"+5%1" 2+54,&# +'41($

***%!+(#-%'./ 0%1$$%,)"%&,)" students andacademy,high school, college, industrial, Kinder- and her failing sister until their deaths afew years later.russell garten, normal, Bible Women training, and Music Departments, continued living at her sister’s house until her own death in 1928. with astrong staffofamerican and Japanese teachers. ...the she was buried near her loved ones in Delaware, ohio. Kwassui buildings,whichincludedormitoriesforboarders,aresplendidly alumnae arranged for aprominent tombstone to be placed on situated and appear to be well-equipped. Kwassui Jo Gakko is a her grave, which read, at russell’s request, “if you could see it, magnificent demonstration of the work of christian women and you would find the girlhood of Japan written upon my heart.” particularly of the founder’s faith and zeal.”30 Meeting her final rest the decade beforeglobal events culminated russell’s educational institution provided unprecedented in World Warii, russell never could have imagined the extent opportunities for Japanese women during the early years of of the enmity that would come between the two countries she modern Japan. Women who graduated from Kwassui Jo Gakko called home, or the horrific destruction her beloved Japan would during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were face, especially in nagasaki. involved in expanding women’s roles in society and wereamong after the war,the Japanese educational system, including its the small but influential class of women who began to change top universities, became coeducational, atransition that usurped popular perceptions of womanhood as Japan entered the twen- privatechristianschools’predominanceinthearenaofwomen’s tieth century. higher education in Japan.31 nevertheless, Kwassui has contin- ued to be an active christian educational institution for girls Epilogue and women and now offers junior high school through college programs. russell’s original school buildings werereplaced in after retiring in 1919 at the age of eighty-two, elizabeth russell 1926. although badly damaged in the 1945 atomic bombing of and her ailing daughter,May,moved back to Julia’s home in nagasaki, the 1926 buildings survived and arepart of the school ohio, whererussell found herself nursing both her daughter complex today.

Notes 1. funding for research leading to this article was provided by the univ.Press, 1985); and Kenneth B. Pyle, The Making of Modern Japan, research enablement Program, agrant program for scholarship 2d ed. (lexington, Mass.: D. c. heath, 1996). supported by the Pew charitable trusts, Philadelphia, and 12. louise Manning hodgkins, “round the Planet with the editor,” administered by the overseas Ministries study center,new haven, Woman’sMissionary Friend 31, no. 12 (June 1900): 433. connecticut. iwould like to thank the faculty and staffatKwassui 13. elizabeth russell, “how to reach Japanese Women,” Minutes of Gakuin for their generosity in opening Kwassui’s resources to me the Fourth Session of the Woman’sannual Conference of the Methodist during my months of research in Japan. Kwassui teacher Patricia Episcopal Church in South Japan (1902), p. 5. Mccreary (now retired) was especially helpful as she shared her 14. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 10. knowledge and passion regarding the history of Kwassui and the 15. elizabeth russell, “higher education of Women,” Minutes of the Fifth life of elizabeth russell. Session of the Woman’sannual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal 2. the original name of the school was Kwassui Jo Gakko (Kwassui Church in South Japan (1903), p. 17. female school). current information on Kwassui Gakuin including 16. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 6. pictures of the grounds can be found at www.kwassui.ac.jp. 17. ibid., p. 7. 3. Patricia Mccreary,“realms of Glory,” 1992, russell collection, 18. elizabethrussell,PioneerdaysinMyBelovedJapan (Boston:Woman’s Kwassui Gakuin, nagasaki. Mccreary collected important docu- foreign Missionary society,n.d.), p. 5. ments on elizabeth russell’s life for Kwassui’s elizabeth russell 19. Kwassui Jo Gakko, 1879–1929 (nagasaki: Kwassui Jo Gakko, 1929), collection, for which her article serves as an introduction. p. 10. 4. elizabeth russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 3, russell 20. ibid., p. 4. collection. the journal, written during her later years, consists 21. norikoKawamuraishiihassuggestedthatbefore1900,Kwassuiwas primarily of memoirs of her youth and her early years in Japan. one of five mission schools in Japan offering programs of education 5. Quarter-Centennial Re-Union of the Graduates of the Washington Female forwomencomparabletocollege-levelprogramsintheunitedstates Seminary,1866 (Pittsburgh: errett &anderson, 1866), p. 20. at the time. see ishii, american Women Missionaries at Kobe College, 6. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 3. 1873–1909: New dimensions in Gender (new york: routledge, 2004), 7. the reverend John s. inskip (1816–84) was afamous Methodist pp. 12–13. episcopal preacher and aleader of the holiness movement. as the 22. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 28. first president of the national camp Meeting association for the 23. for adetailed account of Protestant christian work in Meiji Japan, Promotionofholiness,hewasinstrumentalinorganizingnumerous including christian work in education, see otis cary, aHistory of camp meetingeventsafter thecivil War. see W. McDonald and John Christianity in Japan,vol. 2, Protestant Missions (surrey,eng.: curzon, e. searles, The Life of Rev.John S. Inskip (Boston: McDonald &Gill, 1993; reprint of the 1909 ed.). 1885; repr., new york: Garland, 1985). 24. for english-language discussions on women’s education during the 8. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 4. Meiji Period, see sharon l. sievers, Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings 9. seehelenBarrettMontgomery,WesternWomeninEasternLands(new of Feminist Consciousness in Modern Japan (stanford, calif.: stanford york: Macmillan, 1910), appendix; and Patricia r. hill, The World univ.Press, 1983); Kimi hara, “challenges to education for Girls Their Household: The american Woman’sForeign Mission Movement and and Women in Modern Japan: Past and Present,” in Japanese Women: Cultural Transformation, 1870–1920 (ann arbor: univ.ofMichigan New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future,ed. Kumiko Press, 1984), p. 3. fujimura-fanselow andatsuko Kameda (new york: feminist Press 10. russell, personal journal (typescripts), p. 5. at cuny,1995), pp. 93–106; and Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be 11.thereare anumber of informative english-language sources on the Modern: Japanese Political discourse on Education (Boulder,colo.: transformative period of Japan’s Meiji era (1868–1912), including Westview Press, 1994). shigenobu okuba, Fifty Years of aNew Japan (london: smith, elder, 25. after 1899, for example, all prefectures wererequired to establish 1909); Donald shively,ed., Tradition and Modernization in Japanese four-year high schools for young women. Culture (Princeton: Princeton univ.Press, 1971); carol Gluck, Japan’s 26. for moreonJapanese feminists in the Meiji era, see sievers, Flowers Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton: Princeton in Salt,and Mioko fujieda, “Japan’s first Phase of feminism,” in

98 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Japanese Women,ed. fujimura-fanselow and Kameda, pp. 323–42. 31. for moreonthe challenges faced by mission schools in postwar 27. russell, “higher education of Women,” pp. 11,16–17. Japan, see Karen seat, “Mission schools and education for Women,” 28. ibid., p. 17. in Handbook of Christianity in Japan,ed. Mark r. Mullins (leiden: Brill, 29. sievers, Flowers in Salt,p.104. 2003), pp. 321–42. 30. Nagasaki Express,May 28, 1919, p. 2.

Bibliographic Materials elizabethrussellcontributedextensivelytoMethodistepiscopalperiodi- collection houses russell’soriginaljournal (and atypescript),copies cals. articles and letters written by russell can be found in the Minutes andtypescripts of herletters,russell’s personal library, census records, of the Methodist Episcopal Women’sConference in Japan (yokohama: Japan travel documents, and photographs, among other materials pertaining Publishingagency; fukuin Printing company; various publishers) and, to her life and work. the collection also holds an unpublished article by after 1898, in the Minutes of the Woman’sannual Conference of the Methodist retired Kwassui teacher Patricia Mccreary,“realms of Glory: the life Episcopal Church in South Japan (n.p.); in Tidings from Japan (tokyo: David of elizabeth russell” (1992), which was informed by interviews with s. spencer,1898–1906); and in Heathen Woman’sFriend (Boston: Woman’s the descendants of russell’s nieces and nephews. the nagasaki city foreign Missionary society,Methodist episcopal church, vols. 1–27, library houses bound volumes of the english-language newspaper of May 1869–December 1895), after 1896 titled Woman’sMissionary Friend russell’s day,the Rising Sun and Nagasaki Express,later named simply (January 1896–December 1940). Nagasaki Express. Minutes of the Methodist Episcopal Women’sConference in Japan and finally,some pamphlets wereprinted by the Methodist episcopal Tidings from Japan arelocated in the aoyama Gakuin university ar- Women’s foreign Missionary society pertaining to the life of elizabeth chives in tokyo, Japan; the Minutes of the Woman’sannual Conference russell. these include elizabeth russell, Pioneer days in My Beloved Japan of the Methodist Episcopal Church in South Japan in Kwassui Gakuin’s (Boston: Woman’s foreign Missionary society,n.d.); Mrs. f. i. Johnson, elizabeth russell collection in nagasaki, Japan; and Heathen Woman’s The One Who Went and the One She Found (Boston: Woman’s foreign Mis- Friend, Woman’sMissionary Friend,and Tidings from Japan in the united sionary society,1929); Bessie f. Merrill, adventures in Faith: Elizabeth MethodistarchivesatDrewuniversityinMadison,n.J. HeathenWoman’s Russell (Boston: Woman’s foreign Missionary society,n.d.); and helen Friend and Woman’sMissionary Friend can also be found in microform at couch, Elizabeth Russell: Pioneer of Higher Education for Japanese Women the library of congress in Washington, D.c. (cincinnati, ohio: Methodist church, BoardofMissions and church sources directly relating to elizabeth russell’s life can be found in extension, Woman’s Division of christian service, n.d. [published therussellcollectionatKwassuiGakuininnagasaki,Japan.therussell after 1945]).

andrew f. Walls centre for the study of african and asian christianity

liverpool hope university,liverpool, england, recently es- center; the akrofi-christaller institute of theology,Mission, tablished the andrew f. Walls centrefor the study of african and culture, akropong-akuapem, Ghana; and numerous andasianchristianitytopromoteresearchanddocumentation other institutions and conferences around the world each year. in african and asian christian studies. he served as amissionary in sierra leone and Vice-chancellor Gerald Pillay announced nigeria and was founding director of the centre thattheuniversityishostingtwoone-dayconfer- for the study of christianity in the non-Western ences to inaugurate the center.onMay 23, 2008, World, university of edinburgh. his writings the theme will be “needs, opportunities, and includeTheMissionaryMovementinChristianHis- cooperationinafricanandasianchristianstud- tory:StudiesintheTransmissionofFaith(1996),The ies,” and on May 24 the theme will be “african Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (2002), and asian Dimensions of christianity.” and The Cultural History of Christian Conversion the speakers will include lamin sanneh, (forthcoming). professor of missions and world christianity the liverpool center is already home to a at yale Divinity school and professor of history small number of research students, and plans at yale university and director of the oxford arenow advanced to expand the work by estab- studiesinWorldchristianitypublishingproject; lishing an annual lecture, the sponsorship of a Michael nai chiu Poon, director of the centre regular seminar and colloquium series, and the Andrew F. Walls for the study of christianity in asia, trinity publication of papers from those events. theological college, singapore; Daniel Jeyaraj, professor of liverpool hope university is also able to offer avisiting world christianity at andover newton theological school, fellowship in african studies and has ascholar-in-residence newton centre, Massachusetts; and andrew f. Walls. Jeyaraj, program. theandrew f. Walls centre’s library and collections sanneh, and Walls areinternational Bulletin of Missionary will be opened during the May conferences. Details of both research contributing editors. conferences may be obtained from sue harwood, harwoos@ Walls lectures regularly at the overseas Ministries study hope.ac.uk.

april 2008 99 Book reviews

The Holy Spirit in the World: AGlobal Conversation.

By Kirsteen Kim. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2007. Pp. xiv,210. Paperback $25.

Whathappenedintermsofpneumatology the holy spirit or spirit of christ, and that the last chapter,“theology of the between the seventh assembly of the their presence and activities need to be holy spirit in aPlural World,” brings World council of churches (canberra, taken into account in pneumatology. together insights from all the theologies 1991)—wherethe Korean theologian thenextfourchaptersgivealucidand discussed to suggest apneumatology that chung hyun Kyung shocked the partici- informative summary of contemporary is responsive to contemporary cultural pants with her appearance on stage as a theologies of the spirit. in “the spirit of and religious pluralism and to the urgent shaman and invocation of the Han-ridden Mission,” Kim discusses the theologies need of discerning between the holy spirits—and the thirteenth conference of the spirit of the lausanne covenant; spirit and spirits. Kim draws out the on World Mission and evangelism of of roland allen, harry Boer,lesslie implicationsofthiskindofpneumatology the World council of churches (athens, newbigin, John V. taylor,and John Paul for christian mission in terms of healing 2005)? The Holy Spirit in the World offers a ii; and especially of Karl Barth, Paul and reconciliation, the theme of the detailedaccountofthedevelopmentofthe tillich, and Karl rahner.in“the Mission thirteenth conference on World Mission theology of the holy spirit between these of the spirit,” Kim discusses orthodox and evangelism in athens in 2005. two events, with afocus on mission. pneumatology,with special attention to The HolySpiritintheWorldis amaster- after abrief introduction on the aram Keshishian and John Zizioulas, fulstudyofcontemporarypneumatology. pneumatological implications of the emphasizing the distinct role of the spirit Wellresearched,clearlywritten,ecumeni- seventh assembly’s theme, “come, in creation and re-creation as the “spirit cal, intercultural, and interreligious, it holy spirit, renew the Whole creation,” of life.” Kim also highlights the orthodox offersexactlywhatitssubtitleannounces:a the first chapter summarizes catholic, concerns expressed at canberra and their globalconversation.forWesterners,itsstudy Protestant,andorthodoxpneumatologies impact on the next general assembly of of indian and Korean pneumatologies is with their responses to the question of the Wcc at salvador,Brazil (1996). this particularly useful. the insights it gathers wherethe spirit is present: in the church, chapter ends with alengthy disquisition for apneumatological missiology and a in the human heart, and everywhere, on Jürgen Moltmann’s pneumatology.in missiologicalpneumatologyareatreasure respectively.itisfollowed by asurvey of “Missioninthespirit,”Kimpresentsindian trove. inominate it as the best theology new testament data on the spirit, which theologies, especially those of stanley book of 2007. is organized under the three aspects samartha, Vandana Mataji, and samuel —Peter c. Phan highlighted by Pentecostals (with the ryan. in “Mission among the spirits,” emphasis on Pentecost), catholics (with Kim presents Korean pneumatology, Peter C. Phan, the Ignacio Ellacuría Chair of theemphasisonthespiritasgiftoftherisen focusing on revival movements led by Catholic Social Thought at Georgetown University, christ), and orthodox (with the emphasis Kil sŏn-chu and lee yong-do, suh nam- Washington, d.C., is the authorofseveral on the presence of the spirit throughout dong’s minjung theology,yonggi cho’s books in missiology,including Being religious creation). Kim points out that the Bible Pentecostaltheology,andruytong-shik’s interreligiously:asianPerspectivesoninterfaith also speaks of “spirits” as distinct from p’ungnyu theology. Dialogue (Orbis Books, 2004).

On Missionary Roads. tomko often provides his personal reflection and evaluation of mission By Jozef Cardinal Tomko. San Francisco: realities. for example, he comments on Ignatius Press, 2006. Pp. xii, 390. Paperback the massacres when speaking of Burundi $24.95. and rwanda (pp. 56–64), the “blasphemy laws” in Pakistan (p. 195), and his meeting Jozef cardinal tomko served as prefect of photographs);itreflectstomko’spersonal with evangelist Billy Graham (p. 259) and the congregation for the evangelization journey in mission. as tomko records the taizé founder roger schutz (p. 297). he of Peoples (the Vatican’s“Mission details of his visits to various countries, he also includes mundane matters of lost Department”) from 1985 to 2001. in this provides adelightful potpourri of history, luggage (p. 70) and spicy food (p. 297). in capacity he had a“privileged observation geography,statistics, and information on numerous, diverse ways, the book reveals post” (p. xi), allowing him to experience earlyevangelizers,currentpersonnel,and the deep faith of countless evangelizers thevastfieldofmissionaryactivity.During missionary challenges facing the local and the fundamentally missionary nature this time he undertook over 100 pastoral churches. of the church. journeystomissionterritories;inaddition, the book is divided into five unequal thisvolumeishandsomelyproduced, he was fortunate to accompany Pope John parts, reflecting the number of visits to well translated from the 2003 slovak Paul ii on all his missionary visits. various continents. succinctly stated, the original, and carefully edited. yetatleast these experiences and personal five sections, with the percentages of their one surprising error crept into the book. encounters form the background of this space allotment, areafrica (50 percent), Korean stephen cardinal Kim supposed- enjoyable book. it is much morethan a asia (20), the americas (20), oceania (5), ly “went to his deserved rest in 1998” travelogue(completewithnumerouscolor and europe (5). (p. 261)—but Kim remains alive in 2007.

100 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 On Missionary Roads will appeal to fifteen outstanding Books of 2007 for abroad spectrum of evangelizers, as well as to academics. it captures how Mission studies mission “travels in all directions” (p. 386), demonstrating that “mission is today in consultation with fifty distinguished scholars from around the world, the editors younger than ever” (p. 388). of the international Bulletin of Missionary research have selected fifteen books —James h. Kroeger,M.M. published in 2007 for special recognition of their contribution to mission studies. We commendtheauthors,editors,andpublishersrepresentedherefortheircontribution James H. Kroeger,M.M., is Professor of Mission to the advancement of scholarship in studies of the christian mission and world Theology and Islamics at Loyola School of Theol- ogy in Manila. He recently published once upon christianity.formerly in the January issue, this list will now runinapril to ensure atime in asia (Orbis Books, 2006). that outstanding books published late in the year can be acknowledged. anderson, allan. Spreading Fires: The Missionary Nature of Early Pentecostalism. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $35. austin, alvyn. The Forgotten Ways: Reactivating China’sMillions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society,1832–1905. the Missional Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Paperback $45. Bonk, Jonathan J., ed. By alan Hirsch. Grand Rapids: Baker,Brazos Encyclopedia of Mission and Missionaries. Press, 2007. Pp. 288. Paperback $19.99. New York: Routledge. $190. alan hirsch, building on the contribution Corrie, John, ed. Samuel Escobar and Wilbert Shenk, consulting editors. to the emerging-church discussion that he Dictionary of Mission Theology: Evangelical Foundations. made with coauthor Michael frost in The downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press. $32. Shaping of Things to Come: Innovation and Jenkins, Philip. Mission for the Twenty-first-Century Church (hendrickson, 2003), presents thisbookas God’sContinent: Christianity,Islam, and Europe’sReligious Crisis. “an attempt to exploreapostolic Genius New York: Oxford Univ.Press. $28. and try to assist the western church to re- Jeyaraj, daniel, Robert W. Pazmiño, and Rodney L. Petersen, eds. coverandimplementit”(p.275).examining Antioch Agenda: Essays on the Restorative Church in Honor of Orlando E. his own engagement in innovative forms Costas. of emerging church, and stimulated by delhi: ISPCK. Paperback Rs 400 /$24. the dynamism of the early church and of the contemporary chinese church, he Kalu, Ogbu U., ed. postulates that thereisa“unique energy African Christianity: An African Story. and force that imbues phenomenal Jesus Trenton, N.J.: africa World Press. Paperback $34.95. movementsinhistory”(p.274).“Missional Miller,donald E., and Tetsunao Yamamori. Dna” constitutes that genius, which he Global Pentecostalism: The New Face of Christian Social Engagement. parses with expositions of characteristics Berkeley: Univ.ofCalifornia Press. $60 /£35; paperback $24.95 /£14.95. rangingfromthe“missional-incarnational impulse” to communitas (Victor turner). Sanneh, Lamin. along the way,hesurveys the vast Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christianity. varietyofexperimentsthatconstitute“the New York: Oxford Univ.Press. Paperback $19.95. emergent Missionalchurch(eMc),” and he provides both fascinatinginsightsand Smith, Susan E. useful tools(relevant Websites and blogs) Women in Mission: From the New Testament to Today. to explorethem further.commendable is Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $25. his commitment to theological priorities: Steenbrink, Karel a. christ-centeredness with particular Catholics in Indonesia, 1808–1942: ADocumented History. Vol2:The Spectacular emphasis upon discipleship, radical Growth of aSelf-Confident Minority,1903–1942. suspicion of cultural captivity,relevant Leiden: KITLV. €47.50 /$57. critiqueofinstitutionalism,andconcernfor theintegrityofchristianpraxis.ephesians Stone, Bryan. 4:11ff. supplies the theology of leadership Evangelism After Christendom: The Theology and Practice of Christian Witness. that is needed to activate “mDna.” Grand Rapids: Baker,Brazos Press. Paperback $27.99. theimportantdiscussionheprovokes Swartley,Willard M. will need to examine further the radical role of scriptureinthe formation of Send Forth Your Light: AVision for Peace, Mission, and Worship. the eMc—his interpretation of the Scottdale, Pa., and Waterloo, Ont.: Herald Press. Paperback $18.99 /Ca$19.99. ephesians leadership model ignores the Tennent, Timothy C. fundamental insight that “apostles, Theology in the Context of World Christianity: How the Global Church Is prophets,evangelists,pastor-teachers”are Influencing the WayWeThink About and Discuss Theology. allministersoftheWord,andthatrigorous Grand Rapids: Zondervan. $24.99. Word ministry equips the saints (Markus Barth). his rigorous theological inquiry Wickeri, Philip L. is sometimes confused by major forays Reconstructing Christianity in China: K. H. Ting and the Chinese Church. into various organizational theorists. one Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $50. april 2008 101 wonders wherethe holy spirit works in Spreading Fires: The Missionary relation to mDna. the book has many Nature of Early Pentecostalism. diagrams and acronyms, an extensive glossary,ahelpful bibliography,and allan anderson. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis an index; it would be strengthened by Books, 2007. Pp. 312. Paperback $35. judicious cutting and editing. —Darrell l. Guder allan anderson, director of the Graduate is based on the extensive use of available institute for theology and religion and periodical literatureand other primary darrell L. Guder,acontributing editor,isPrinceton professor of Global Pentecostal studies sources. Spreading Fires—the title chosen Theological Seminary’sdean of academic affairs at the university of Birmingham in to highlight the fervent revivalist spirit and the Henry Winters Luce Professor of Missional england, has provided the first major of Pentecostalism—is divided into three and Ecumenical Theology. historical survey of early Pentecostal parts:contextsandtheologicaldistinctives, missions. no small accomplishment, it expansion in the first two decades of the twentieth century,and theories and practices. anderson bills his analysis as a“cor- rective” to the flawed work of historians The of Pentecostalism who “have often inter- preted this history from apredominantly whiteamerican perspective, adding their own particular biases of denomination, Missional ideology,race and gender” (p. 5). he thereforeendeavors to include the con- tributions of Majority World christians Church to the growth of the movement as much as possible, though the bulk of the book centers on the activities of north atlantic in Context missionaries. rather than functioning as a corrective, however,itprimarily increases Helping Congregations our knowledge of Pentecostal missions, since the historiography of the enterprise Develop Contextual Ministry is just now moving beyond its infancy. readerswillbenefitfromanderson’s study of the missionaries who left north Craig Van Gelder, editor america and europe for the regions beyond, the activities of their converts in evangelism, as well as his discussion “Here is amother lode of theology, biblical of the problems they faced, the cultural insight, and practical application for pas- attitudes they took with them, and their Contributors tors and congregations who want ‘missional’ failuresandachievements.hesuccessfully to be more than cliché. By giving the con- demonstrates that from the beginning of Mark Lau Branson cept ecclesial traction, these essays help the Pentecostal movement, mission has characterized its ethos. the book ends on James Tzu-Kao Chai God’s people move beyond good intentions astronglytriumphalnoteabouttheimpact Mary Sue Dehmlow Dreier to good practice. Van Gelder and company of Pentecostalism on world christianity, point the way to alife-giving and hopeful despite anderson’s initial hesitation to Terri Martinson Elton future for the church in North America.” embrace David Barrett’s statistics on the size of the movement. can it accurately Scott Frederickson —J.Nelson Kraybill be said that Pentecostal missionaries Joon Ho Lee exhibited “unprecedented missionary “The Missional Church in Context takes amajor vigour”? or that the movement became Gary M. Simpson “the main contributor to the reshaping of step forward in advancing the emerging Craig Van Gelder christianity itself from apredominantly missional church conversation. ...Provides western to apredominantly non-western athoroughgoing incarnational model and phenomenon”? (p. 290). closer examina- theological understanding of the church’s tion of nineteenth-century missions and mission in context, enhanced greatly by the revivals that occurred in many lands might have curbed these claims. never- anumber of excellent case studies. Must theless, Spreading Fires is aworthwhile reading for church leaders and theological ISBN 978-0-8028-4567-2 investment that will pay rich dividends 253 pages •paperback educators alike.” to students and scholars alike. —Gary B. McGee $20.00 —Howard J. Loewen Gary B. McGee, acontributing editor,is distinguished Professor of Church History and At your bookstore, PentecostalStudiesatassembliesofGodTheological Seminary,Springfield, Missouri. or call 800-253-7521 7585 www.eerdmans.com

102 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Religious Diversity and Public and audi, not amity (the china christian Religion in China. council). With the breakneck pace of its development, the chinese state may well Zhibin Xie. Burlington, Vt.: ashgate, 2006. cease to be predatory,and Xie’s book may Pp. vii, 160. $89.95 /£45. turn out to be prophetic. But for religions in china today,the wolf living peacefully this volume addresses the issue of the communitarian scholars urging agreater with the lamb remains apious wish rather appropriate role of religion in public role for religion in public political debate. than apolitical reality. politicallife and its implicationsfor thecaseselectedforanalysis(theabortion —James tong china. the first part discusses Western debate)isalsovintageamerica,notchina, philosophical discourse on the publicness wherethe american framing of the issue James Tong, associate Professor in Comparative of religion and religion in public political just does not fit. in an avowedly atheistic Politics, University of California, Los angeles, culture, drawing on the views of John regime wherereligion has always been has written Disorder under heaven: collective rawls and robert audi. switching to a tightly controlled by the state, church- Violence in the Ming Dynasty (Stanford Univ. moreempirical focus, the second part sur- state relations arealtogether different Press, 1991). veysthereligioussceneinchina,dwelling from those in anation founded by Puritan on its doctrinal and organizational diver- immigrants. at least since 1949, there sity and the strict control that the state has never been any question of excessive places on religion. the thirdpart proposes religious expression in public life in china aliberal “constrained public religion” in or of using religious rather than secular china, advocating both religious contri- reasoning in publicpolicy discourse, Melanesia and Its Churches: Past butiontothepublicsphereandconstraints especially for abortion. the author’s and Present. on the state and religions for regulating proposal is not moot, but neither is it public religious political discourse. relevant in the foreseeable future. ByFrancoZocca.Goroka,PapuaNewGuinea: Based on adoctoral dissertation in the strength of this book lies in MelanesianInstitute,2007.Pp.v, 218.aus$30 philosophy,the book is largely awork its philosophical discourse, not in its / €20 /US$25. on the normative philosophy of religion. empirical analysis. thereisnot much the coreissues addressed areprimarily description of the state of the different this is an english translation of abook academic arguments within Western religions in china or of religious policy. publishedoriginallyinitalianin2006.the pluralistic, democratic societies, with the subject keywords for this book are author,who belongs to the roman catho- liberal thinkers pleading restraint and rawls,notraB(religiousaffairsBureau), lic order of Divine Word Missionaries, mission insurance Customized!

Since 1980, Adams &Associates International has been providingmission-specific policies to mission groups of all sizes, as well as to individuals. We can provide options and solutions from our extensive portfolio of missionary specific coverages— in many cases even customizingtomeet your particularneeds. When insurance companies sell you “off the shelf“ policies, you often pay for extracoverage that you don’t need. Or even worse, you may not get the coverage you do need.

•Trip Cancellation Insurance •Personal Security Services •Life Insurance &Related Products •Medical Professional Liability •Property &Casualty Programs •Automobile Insurance •Emergency Assistance •Volunteer Missionary Insurance •International Health Insurance •Accident &Special Risk Insurance

803.758.1400 •800.922.8438 •Fax 803.252.1988 www.aaintl.com

april 2008 103 began mission work in the south Pacific and current statistical data of the churches multitude of claims and insights, as well in 1974. he has been at the Melanesian across Melanesia (fiji, new caledonia, as only alimited bibliography,amplifies institute in Papua new Guinea since 1994 Vanuatu, solomon islands, east and West this problem. and is thus well qualified to produce a new Guinea). overall, however,the book is to substantialpublicationaboutthechurches the book exhibits both the strengths be warmly welcomed. the Melanesian of Melanesia. and weaknesses of such an enterprise. institute’s own publicity advocates its What is immediately striking about on the one hand, within asingle readable value as atextbook in the history of this book is the breadth of its coverage. volume it introduces an area of the world missionsandforstudentsinoceaniatoget its aim is “to present the current situation that is much neglected in writings in agood working knowledge of their own of the Melanesian christians and to trace mission studies. the detail included is missionarystories.itwillalsoserveothers these situations back to their roots, both quite extraordinary for such avolume; it whoarelookingforageneralintroduction historical and cultural” (p. 1). in eight reflects the immersion of the author in his to Melanesian cultures and churches. chapters the author addresses geography research over along period of time. on the —randall Prior and population, traditional cultures otherhand,thepublicationissoambitious and religions, european colonization, that, inevitably,ittends to overgeneralize Randall Prior,Professor of Ministry Studies and evangelization (in two chapters), and imparts only part of the story.that Missiology at the United Faculty of Theology, movements, emerging independence, thereislittle footnoted support for its Melbourne, ministered for five years in Vanuatu.

Women in Mission: From the New as an account of mainly,though not Testament to Today. exclusively,roman catholic women. in this section smith looks at movements SusanE.Smith.Maryknoll,N.Y.:OrbisBooks, in the Middle ages and case studies of 2007. Pp xix, 234. Paperback $25. little-known womenwith sometruly fascinating and generally unknown susan smith is anew Zealander who interesting. in the early church she writes stories. she demonstrates how women lectures at the university of auckland about Paul’s women coworkers. she wereinvolved in awide range of min- and is amember of the congregation of discovers them by reading behind the istries in the nineteenth and twentieth our lady of the Missions. she has also text, using ahermeneutic of suspicion as centuries. served in southeast asia and in Papua well as plain common sense to highlight sheconcludesbyproposingafeminist new Guinea. she brings this wealth of the role and place of women often ignored missiology that reclaims atrinitarian experience to research the neglected role oroverlookedbymalecommentatorswho theologyofmissionallowingformutuality of women in mission. in her preface she arenot expecting to find women in places and inclusivity in our engagement in asserts that women’s part in the story of of leadership or prominence. she draws mission. this book is ahelpful addition mission is still little understood, and her on the idea that the house church was a to asmall but burgeoning literatureon bookgoessomewaytowardrectifyingthis good model for women’s involvement as the role of women in mission. imbalance. she manages to give abroad it enabled them to move easily between —catherine r. ross sweep of all of church history,though the public and private spheres. admittedly mainly in the Western world. the second section, “Women strug- Catherine R. Ross, aNew Zealander who works for she uses avariety of approaches gling to Be Missionary,” covers the second the Church Missionary Society in Oxford, is the to tell the story of women in mission, century until Vatican ii in the 1960s. this J. V. Taylor Fellow in Missiology at the University which makes the content accessible and structurepoints to the bias of the book of Oxford.

Missionaries Among Miners, appear in addition to the local details, Migrants, and Blackfoot: The Van but usually only briefly and with little Tighem Brothers’ Diaries, Alberta, comment.railwaycompletionandtheriel 1875–1917. “rebellion” (pp. 22–25) happened shortly after leonard’s arrival. he mentions Edited by Mary Eggermont-Molenaar railway expansion south to Grand falls, and Paul Callens. Calgary,alta.: Univ.of Montana, and west through the crow’s Calgary Press, 2007. Pp. xx, 424. Paperback nestPasstoBritishcolumbia(pp.119–21). Ca$39.95. the miners’ strikes of 1894 and 1897 are noted in passing, as areepidemics of Missionaries among Miners, Migrants, arrived,alongwithcircumstancesleading smallpox and measles and atragic 1903 and Blackfoot publishes the diaries and to theirdeparture,introduce each of their landslide in the mining town of frank, correspondence of two flemish brothers diaries. alberta. leonardalso laments the death who came to southern alberta as catholic leonard’sdiary detailsthe growth of of Queen Victoria and Pope leo Xiii and missionaries:leonard(b. 1851) arrived thecatholiccommunity during twenty- comments on the election of the pope’s in 1882 as an oblate priest, and his older fiveyears of active ministry andincludes successor,Pius X. brother Victor (b. 1845) arrived in 1886 frequent references to Protestants, even Victor’s briefer diary recounts his as abrother.Brief sketches of the worlds to some conversions and “defections” voyage to alberta through new york from which they came and to which they (p. 171). issues of broad social significance and Montreal and his appointment to

104 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 anew “industrial school” (p. 271) on spiritual life commission affirmations), We Look for aKingdom: The the Peigan reserve, which was near his and ranks and designations. Everyday Lives of the Early brother.along with the accompanying thisvolumeisanimportantreference Christians. letters, the diary provides awindow into work for those interested in the history, the era of residential schools. over time, organization, structure, beliefs, and By Carl Sommer.San Francisco: Ignatius Victor moves from frustration in teaching activities of the salvation army.its price, Press, 2007.Pp. 457. Paperback$19.95. “savages” the value of subsistence however,willlikelyrestrictitsdistribution agriculture, saying, “Poor school! Poor to libraries and specialists in the field. Pope Benedict XVirecently remarked on savages” (p. 280), to expressions of love —Paul f. stuehrenberg the importance for christians today of the and mutual appreciation as the Peigan “creative minority,” that is, the christians gradually are“converted and civilized” Paul F. Stuehrenbergisdirector of the Yale divinity ofthefirstthreecenturies.itisencouraging, (p. 300). together these diaries offer a School Library,New Haven, Connecticut, and asso- therefore, to see carl sommer writing firsthand view of nineteenth-century ciate Professor (adjunct) of Theological Literature. about the everyday lives of christians in attempts to “christianize” the canadian West. —John c. Mellis

JohnC.MellisiscurrentlyProvostofQueen’sCollege Faculty of Theology in St. John’s, Newfoundland. He served for twenty years in pastoral ministry and theological education among First Nations in Western Canada. Preparefor the unexpected.

Historical Dictionary of the Salvation Army. Beingcalledisdifferentthanbeingprepared. TheapostlePaul wasboth. So when he Edited by John G. Merritt. Lanham, Md.: unexpectedly found himself in chains, he was Scarecrow Press, 2006. Pp. xxxiv,798. preparedtoshowlove andcompassionfor his $110. prison guards. Andthey listenedtohim. Howabout you? Chancesare you’re called, the editor of this latest addition to but areyou preparedtotakethe Good News intoplaceswhereyou feel “uncomfortable”? scarecrow Press’s historical dictionary At Bethel Seminary,weare committed series,JohnG.Merritt,wascommissioned to knowingand teachingasmuch as we can as an officer in the salvation army in about culturesnearand far. Becauseifyou are 1968. he served in various positions in called to aculture differentfrom your own, it is the united states and chile beforebeing importanttounderstandthatculture and love appointed director of the salvation army itspeople. southern historical center in atlanta, a Bethel hastwo programs specifically craftedfor cross-cultural ministry. Doctor position in which he served for eleven of Ministry in Global and Contextual years beforeretiring in 2001. Leadership through our distance learning Merrittworkedwith154salvationists program,and the M.A. in Global and from around the world to compile this Contextual Studies, availablethrough either historical dictionary of adenomination our traditional classroomsetting or distance now numbering 1.5 million members in learning program. 111 nations. the list of contributors in- Theunexpectedisgoingtohappen. Preparingyou to handle it is what we do best. cludes their rank, territory or country,and Learnmore by calling 800-255-8706, ext. 6288. academic degree(s), if any.articles are signed but lack individual bibliographies; instead, thereisaseventy-two-page biblio- graphicalessayandclassifiedbibliography Take theNextStep. ChangeYourWorld. at the end of the volume. however useful this approach might otherwise be, this arrangement makes it difficult to identify sources for individual articles. the introduction includes achronol- ogy and abrief introduction to the movement. the dictionary is arranged alphabetically,with numerous cross- references to other articles. it includes appendixes listingpersonnel (generals, St.Paul•San Diego •New York chiefs of staff, wivesofgenerals, children Philadelphia •Washington D.C. •New England of William and catherine Booth, commissioners, recipients of the order www.bethel.edu of the founder), official documents of the salvation army (doctrines, international april 2008 105 theperiodbeforechristianscould“emerge on the right track when he speaks about from the agape meal and in his contention fromtheirbasements”withthelegalization theirastonishing level of charity,their that “all the local churches assumed that of christianity underconstantinei. sexual discipline andlovingfamilylife, the roman church was in some way their sommer,anamerican catholic layman, is andtheir treatmentofslaves—although leader” (p. 177). throughout, ilonged deeply interested in the early christians. in each case one would like more for sommer to delve moredeeply—into he has attentively read the traditional information, rooted in abroader reading the lives of both laity and clergy,into the sources for the orthodox christians and of the literature. it is surprising to read christians’ burial practices, into their has made good use of the church orders. atreatise on the early christians that modes of evangelization. sommer’s he writes clearly,colorfully,and (from ignores the scholarship of Peter Brown, presentation is attractive, but it simplifies the vantage point of traditional roman ramsay MacMullen, and robert Wilken. apre-christendom christianity that is catholicism) safely. sommer’s concern to uphold traditional morecomplex and regionally varied in what ways werethese early catholic convictions is especially evident than he acknowledges. isense that a christians acreative minority? sommer is inhisconsistentseparationoftheeucharist deeper treatment of the early christians’ everydayliveswouldfindthemtobemore creative—and morechallenging—than the “model citizens” (p. 227) to which he introduces us. —alan Kreider

alanKreiderisassociateProfessorofChurchHistory and Mission at associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary,Elkhart, Indiana. For twenty-six years he was amissionary in England with the Mennonite Board of Missions.

AGentle Wind of God: The Mission scholars and theirfamilies are welcome to apply for ashort-term Influence of the East Africa summer residency at OMSC Revival.

By Richard K. MacMaster,with donald R. Invest your Jacobs. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 2006. Pp. 401. Paperback $16.99 /Ca$21.29. SUMMER one of the truly remarkable revival movements in church history was that of east africa in the middle of the twentieth in researchand writing century. aGentle Wind of God tells that story and how it influenced african christianity and extended particularly to Convenientlylocated near Yale Divinity School and its renowned the Mennonites in the united Kingdom Day Missions Library,OMSC provides comfortable accommodations andtheunitedstates.richardMacMaster, from efficiencies to three-bedroom apartments. alatecomer to the fellowship, and Don Jacobs, who spent alifetime serving in • Efficiency $275 per week Discount of $25 per week for areas heavily impacted by the revival, •1Bedroom $300 per week members of the American Society of jointlywrotethebook.Bymakingextensive •2Bedroom $325 per week Missiology (ASM), the Association useoffirsthandaccountsthroughjournals, interviews,andmissionaryliterature,they •3Bedroom $370 per week of Professors of Mission (APM), the International Association for Mission illuminate several barriers that the revival overcame: from denominational leaders The rates listed are for May 23 to Studies(IAMS), and the International Association of Catholic Missiologists whosuspectedthatitwouldleadtoschism August 10, 2008. Minimum stay of to those who considered the revival too (IACM). two weeks. naive in its simplicity. starting first among africans, the revival soon affected missionaries and their sending churches across the oceans. also known in some circles as balokole,the movement was aseries of meetings and prayer gatherings in which the confession of sin, transparency,accountability,and the desireto“walk in the light” became OverseasMinistries Study Center the norm. What ensued werelifestyle 490 Prospect Street changes, including awillingness of New Haven, Connecticut06511USA african men to participate in household chores, formerly deemed below their dignity as men, as well as missionaries’

106 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 willingness to be transparent with their (4) “God’s Creation of Acts in the Human However,“Creatures have no impact on finances with their African colleagues, Agent”; (5) “The Wise Purpose and Origin God since it is God Himself who creates also formerly unthinkable. The sense of of Evil”; and (6) “The Justice of God and their acts” (p. 232). egalitarianism that the revival fostered the Best of All Possible Worlds.” This book raises aquestion for me: attracted opposition from some in IbnTaymiyyaisinlivelyconfrontation howcanChristianscultivatedialoguewith church hierarchy.Fromthe other side, with alternative Islamic approaches Muslims, whose theodicy has no space for the movement’s lack of any formal to theodicy.Hecritiques the Kalam the God who suffers? Iwould welcome a organizational setup seems to have led to theologians, whose theodicy was sequel addressing that question. therevival’sbeingsupersededbythewave influenced by Greek philosophy.Ibn —David W. Shenk of Pentecostal awakening in Africa. Taymiyya’s Qur’anic exegesis concludes AGentle Wind of God is the story of that God creates evil for the greater good. David W. Shenk has missions experience in East William and Sala Nagenda, Simeon and Creatures arecreated to worship God and Africa and is Global Consultant with Eastern Men- EvaNsibambi,FestoandMeraKivengere, arecommanded to submit to his lordship. nonite Missions, with special interest in Islam. and also of Roy and Revel Hession, Joe and Decie Church, and Don and Anna Ruth Jacobs. With scores of photographs and testimonies, AGentle Wind of God is an indispensablerecordforanyoneinterested in mid-century East African Christianity. If thereisany criticism to be made of this warmhearted book, it is that the need forconfessionofsinsisrepeatedonalmost every page. It can become tedious unless {FULLER online } onerealizesthatinarevitalizedfaith,one’s unworthiness and Christ’s exaltation are both adaily remembrance. learning without leaving the field —Casely Essamuah

CaselyEssamuahservesasCompassionateOutreach Pastor of Bay Area Community Church, Annapolis, Maryland.

MASTER OF ARTS in Global Leadership “The MAGL’s unique program of gathering peer Christian • an accredited degree designed leaders from all over the for Christian leaders engaged in world in an online community, Ibn Taymiyya’sTheodicy of ministry, wherever they are learning about leadership, Perpetual Optimism. mission &the Bible while remaining in our ministries By Jon Hoover.Leiden: Brill, 2007. Pp. xii, • acollaborative approach to has been an invaluable, 276. €99 /$139. education through learning equipping resource for me in groups of peer leaders from around my work with impoverished Theodicyisapersistentquestionfortheists. the world communities.” If God is good and sovereign, why do peoplesuffer?Christianengagementwith Muslimsneedstoincludebeingconversant • engaging online courses that withIslamictheodicy.JonHooverexplores explore theories, practices, and Islamic theodicy through Ibn Taymiyya global contexts of missional (d. 728/1328), who significantly forms leadership Muslim thought “in the rationalistic and RENSKE AERTS egalitarian age of modernity” (p. 237). Project Manager Hoover has aPh.D. in Islamic studies Indlela (South Africa) from the University of Birmingham (2002) andisassistantprofessorofIslamicstudies intheNearEastSchoolofTheology,Beirut. Fifteen years of studying and teaching in theMiddleEasthaveenlivenedhisinterest in the Muslim response to suffering and evil. AccordingtoHoover,IbnTaymiyya’s “plain language reading of the Qur’an and Hadith is unusual and possibly unprecedented in the Islamic tradition” (p. 233). Hoover explores that exposition Theology •Psychology •Intercultural Studies within six themes: (1) “Worship, Re- ligious Epistemology,and Theological www.fuller.edu/magl Jurisprudence”; (2) “God’s Wise Purpose, 1.800.999.9578 Perpetual Activity,and Self-Sufficiency”; (3)“God’sCreationandGod’sCommand”;

April 2008 107 Missiological Mutilations— writings of scholars such as the indian- Prospective Paralogies: Language bornmissiologistthomasthangaraj,who and Power in Contemporary speaks of responsibility,solidarity,and Mission Theory. mutuality.sørensenaddsafewotheritems to this list, such as vulnerability,relativity, By Jørgen Skov Sørensen. Frankfurt: Peter transformation, and process. he uses all Lang, 2007. Pp. viii, 282. €51.50 /$57.95 / these categories to move from traditional £33.70 /SFr 75. modern mission theories (as discussed in chapter 4) into constructive and relational this volume is aslightly revised version these three chapters repeatedly link their theology,which reconciles the radical of Jørgen sørensen’s Ph.D. dissertation, reasoning to missions and mission theory, religious diversity of the contemporary completedattheuniversityofBirmingham they arestill very abstract. world. underthesupervisionofProfessorWerner the fourth and longest chapter although traditional missiologists ustorf. today the author of the book deconstructs the mission theories of may not be convinced that the focus of is general secretary of the council on three widely recognized scholars: Paul theirstudyneedstomovefrommodernity international relations of the evangelical G. hiebert, J. andrew Kirk, and David to postmodernity in order to be relevant, lutheran church in Denmark. J. Bosch. the terminology,implications, theystillwillhavetoadmitthatsørensen’s the study has five chapters, the first and perspectives of three of their books— interdisciplinary study is outstanding three of which areintroductory in nature. respectively anthropological Reflections both in its thorough reflection on the the first chapter discusses the crucial on Missiological Issues (1994), What Is contemporarymissiologicalsituationand question of whether the modern mission Mission? (2000), and Transforming Mission in its attempt to go beyond the traditional movement is “the (illegitimate) child of (1991)—arecritically analyzed. sørensen mission theories of hiebert, Kirk, and modernity” (pp. 10–16) and proposes to concludes that these traditional authors Bosch. other missiologists, however,may move from missiology as an established “work theologically with amodern viewthisconstructivetheologicalstudyas andinstrumentalhelp-disciplineofmission epistemologicalparadigm”(p.203),buthe “a key source of inspiration” (p. 248). at to “a disestablished critical discipline, views Bosch as “probably the author who, leastthepostmoderntopicofvulnerability which focuses on critical deconstruction for the majority of traditional mission- (pp. 221–27) will be able to unite both and creative reconstruction of mission concerned theologians and individuals, groups of scholars. theory” (p. 27). the second chapter represents the most challenging mission —Jan a. B. Jongeneel deals with methodology,especially with theoretical position and theological postcolonial theory as adeconstructive approach” (p. 181). Jan a. B. Jongeneel, acontributing editor,is tool to be applied in missions and inthefifthchaptersørensendevelops Professor Emeritus of Missiology at Utrecht mission studies. the thirdchapter not his own reconstruction of mission theory. University.Heisalso editor of the series MISSION only revisits and contrasts modernism it is apostmodern theory,using anew (Boekencentrum,Netherlands)andtheseriesStudies and postmodernism but also deals with vocabulary.Key terms and issues of in the Intercultural History of Christianity (Peter their indicative parameters. although this theory arepartly available in the Lang, Germany).

Global Pentecostalism: The chapel runs aclinic, apharmacy,and a New Face of Christian Social sewing school. Engagement. somethingveryimportantisobvious- ly going on in the Pentecostal movement. donald E. Miller and Tetsunao Yamamori. although previously fixed on astrictly Berkeley: Univ.ofCalifornia Press, 2007. otherworldly salvation, now the example Pp. 263, with dVd. $60 /£35; paperback ofJesus’concernfortheimpoverished,the $24.95 /£14.95. sick, and the socially outcast, along with the vision of the kingdom of God, has it is nowwidelyrecognizedthatPentecos- breaker,crisscrossing africa, asia, and begun to play amorecentral role. talism, in its myriad forms, is the fastest latin america, interviewing hundreds of the authors wisely limit themselves growing religious movement in the people, and observing outreach efforts to to the non-Western world and do not world.Withinthisswiftlyspreadingwave drug addicts in hong Kong, sex workers study churches that have embraced a another, less noticed surge is developing, in Bangkok and calcutta, babies with one made up of thousands of Pentecostal aiDs in several places, and dozens of churches that areengaged in avariety of other programs. social programs in their communities. the result of their investigation is an Please bewareofbogus renewal Donald Miller,asociologist who directs informative and highly readable account notices. agenuine IBMR renewal the center for religion and civic culture that puts faces and names on what is notice will have areturn address at the university of southern california, quickly becoming the major expression of Denville, nJ 07834 on the outer andtetsunaoyamamori,presidentemeritus of christianity around the globe. one envelope, and the address on the of food for the hungry international, call example is Jackie Pullinger, whose reply envelope will go to Po Box it “progressive Pentecostalism” and be- ministry to heroin addicts in hong Kong 3000, Denville, nJ 07834-3000. lieve it is the leading edge of Pentecostal- succeeds by relying on the holy spirit, Please e-mail [email protected] ism, especially in the non-Western world. forgoing modern management methods orcall(203)624-6672,ext.309,with for four years they traveled around and afund-raising staff.another example any questions. thank you. the globe to investigate this cresting is Pastor oscar Muriu, whose nairobi

108 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 right-wingpoliticalideology.theyforesee linked in religious practice that seeks to interviews and an equal number of apossible complementarity with some of directly confront social issues affecting contextual observations offering insight the insights of liberation theology.they the place of Maya people in Guatemalan intoMayaculturalidentityamidacomplex predict that the emerging “progressive” society” (p. 35). samson illustrates mix of religious pluralism and political Pentecostalismthey witnessed—with Kaqchikel political involvement with a fault lines. itsflexible structures, its welcoming story of the community’s response to the —Michael K. Duffey of the emotional component in praise, assassinationofoneofitsministers.samson its uncanny capacity to indigenize into also describes two Maya Presbyterian MichaelK.duffey,associateProfessorofTheology, different cultures, and now its emerging organizations that have played important Marquette University,Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is commitment to the Jesus ethic—is the roles in the resurgence of Maya culture the author of sowing Justice, reaping Peace: wave of the future. they make avery and activism. case studies of racial, religious, and ethnic convincing case. this book also includes astrength of samson’s perceptive healing around the World (Sheed and Ward, alively DVD showing many of the sites study is that it includes three dozen 2001). discussed in its pages. —harvey cox

Harvey Cox is the Hollis Professor of divinity at Harvard University,Cambridge, Massachusetts. He is the author of firefromheaven: the rise '#2(8,&4#:% ofPentecostalspiritualityandthereshapingof religion in the twenty-first century (addison- Wesley,1995) and When Jesus came to harvard: MakingMoralchoicestoday(HoughtonMifflin, +8.4 48"& 2004). #: %8'/2 !#22#8: Re-enchanting the World: Maya Protestantism in the Guatemalan Highlands. (8:%4&%*0#8:*" !#22#8: *:' "&*'&42$#6 By C. Mathews Samson. Tuscaloosa: Univ.of alabama Press, 2007. Pp. 256. $60; paperback 4J:D@OI IM 0)@6: 0IF;:OI02I):M$M+&=@$ &"@+&O@I&MO $29.95. @O; I):&1 0:$8(&"@+: @0 E&0&MO $:@;:105 J: D@OI I):" IM +1@06 I): :00:O=: M8 D)M D: @1: 9I): ?M;B the Presbyterian church is the oldest M8 *)1&0I< I): =M""FO&MO M8 0@&OI0 9@O; IM Protestant denomination in Guatemala, FO;:10I@O; I)@I &O I)&0 =F$IF1: I): =)F1=) &0 I): having arrived in 1882. c. Mathews MO$B &O0I&IFI&MO I)@I )@0 ?MI) I): "@O;@I: @O; samson, visiting assistant professor of I): 6MD:1 IM ?: @1:=MO=&$&O+ 8M1=: &O 0M=&:IB53 anthropology at Davidson college, in Davidson, north carolina, has provided '1!;51 !%&"%.+- 0.(41)*1%, avery readable study of the Maya/ 2%'/1$$'% '/ "'(-%1-.#+'(.) 3+$$+'( Presbyterian identity in Guatemala. he begins by reconstructing the past century of religious developments amid &0=ME:1)MD %M; &0 $:@;&O+ BMF1 =)F1=) &OIM "&00&MO Guatemala’s violent political lurches. notingthat“evangelicalismisnowwoven "&O BMF1 =MOI:CI5 #FI):1 L:"&O@1B20 'M=IM1 M8 !&O&0I1B &O intothefabricofquitepossiblythemajority *MO+1:+@I&MO@$ !&00&MO@O; #:@;:10)&6 61M+1@"61:6@1:06@0IM10 8M1 of Guatemala’s Maya communities,” he examines specifically the development I):M$M+&=@$$:@;:10)&6 8M1I): "&00&MO@$=)F1=)&ONM1I) ,":1&=@5 of the Mam and Kaqchikel indigenous presbyteries, describing the development ofMayaspiritualityandreligiouspractices, dynamicsbetweenindigenouspeopleand ladinos, and the churches’ struggle for 9<)-5 73-< indigenous rights and ajust peace. focusing on the period from the /7K(/-K(HGAH >DDD5$FI):10:"5:;F.="$ height of the civil war through the peace accords(ca.1980–96),samsondescribesthe internal activities and the role within civil society of these two Maya Presbyterian 1&2,#2$*$/*(+(1-02+ *,#02$-() groups.the Mam, he concludes, have responded to local needs through the development of anew familial kinship system reflecting their Maya background 3$'42#+. !-))*%($2 and biblical faith. for the Kaqchikel, theologicalandpoliticalinvolvement“are april 2008 109 Think on These Things: Harmony and Diversity By Wisnu Sasongko Dissertation “I paint what Ican see, what Ican touch, what I can feel—a utopia of love expressed in the reality of life. All of that inspires me in my ar- notices tistic way,” says Wisnu Sasongko,agraduate of the Faculty of Fine Art, Institut Seni Indonesia, Only asmall sampling of recent disserta- Yogyakarta. This book includes “All Dreams Con- tions can be listed in the iBMr.For OMSC’s online database (in cooperation with Yale nected,” a28-minute DVD about Sasongko and divinity School Library) listing nearly his art. 6,000 dissertations, go to www.omsc.org/ 96 pages and aDVD, $29.95 dissertationscollection.html.

Christ on the BangkokRoad: The Art of Sawai Chinnawong arockiam, Sebastian. Sawai Chinnawong of Payap University,Chiang Mai, Thailand, is known for por- “The Yoke of the Dalits and the Cross traying Christianity through aThai graphic idiom. of Christ: AChristological Study in the Sawai is an ethnic Mon whose Buddhistancestors North Indian Context.” migrated to Thailand from Myanmar.His drawings d.Theol. Rome: Pontifical Urban Univ., and paintings, inspired by traditional art from central 2006. Thailand, reflect adeep Christian faith. 80 pages, $19.95 Brown, Gerald arlan. “God’sCommunication in the City: Pentecostal Churches in Urban Look Toward the Heavens: Mission in Latin America.” The Art of He Qi Ph.d. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary,2006. He Qi, anoted con- temporary Chinese Christian artist, is aprofessor dantas, Elias Filho. at Nanjing Union Theological Seminary.Hehopes “Twentieth-Century Mission Theology: to help change the “foreign image” of Christian- Conciliar and Evangelical Streams in ity in China through his art and, at the same time, to Conversation.” supplement Chinese art the way Buddhistart did in Ph.d. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological ancient times. Seminary,2006. 128 pages, $19.95 Gomez, Ricardo. “The Mission of God in Latin America: ATime for My Singing: Redefining the Theology and Practice Witness of aLife of the Church Based in Luke-Acts.” by Nalini Marcia Jayasuriya Ph.d. Wilmore, Ky.: asbury Theological “I come from aland of rich, ancient, and Seminary,2006. diverse cultures and traditions. While Icarry the enriching influences of both West and East, Kang, Peter S. Iexpress myself through an Asian and Christian “Developing an Approach to Inner consciousness with respect for all confessions Healing for Korean-American of religious faith,” says Nalini Jayasuriya of Sri Families.” Lanka. Her book offers richly diverse and evoca- Ph.d. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological tive expressions of faith from an Asian perspec- Seminary,2006. tive. Her reminiscences are included. Longgar,William K. 128 pages, $19.95 “Toward aTheology of Land for the New Guinea Islands.” d.Miss. Wilmore, Ky.: asbury Theological For Sale: Sacred Art by Asian Christians Seminary,2006. More than 150 pieces of sacred art by Asian Christians, Mensah, Raphael Boah. including some of the works reproduced in these art books, “A Comparative Study of Impediments are now available for sale. For more information and to to Marriage in the Code of Canon Law view the online gallery,visit www.OMSC.org/art.html. (1983) and Akan Traditional Marriage Law.” d.Iur.Can. Rome: Pontifical Urban Univ., 2007.

Gifts from OMSC Publications Tudu, Sebastian. “The Significance of the Small Overseas Ministries StudyCenter Christian Communities as aPastoral 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 Model in Bangladeshi Church and Visit www.OMSC.org/books.htm or call (203) 624-6672,ext. 315 Society.” d.Miss. Rome: Pontifical Urban Univ., 2007.

110 international Bulletin of Missionary research,Vol. 32, no. 2 Following Jesus as Mission Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students,and Lay Leaders

September 8–12, 2008 November 3–7 How to Develop Mission and ChurchArchives. Understanding the Western Missionary Movement IV: Ms. Martha Lund Smalley,special collections librarian and cu- The Second World Warand the Old Age of the Western rator of the Day Missions Collection at Yale Divinity Library, Missionary Movement. New Haven, Connecticut, helps missionaries and church lead- Dr.Andrew F. Walls, honorary professor,University of Edin- ers identify,organize, and preserve essential records. Eight ses- burgh, and former director of the Centre for the Study of sions. $145 Christianity in the Non-Western World, presents OMSC’s fourth Distinguished Mission Lectureship series—five September 15–19 lectures with discussions. Consultation with participants The Internet and Mission: Getting Started. on topics of interest. $115 In ahands-on workshop, Mr.Wilson Thomas, Wilson Thomas Systems,Bedford, New Hampshire, and Dr.Dwight P. Baker, November 10–14 OMSC associate director,show how to get the most out of the Mission in Europe—East and West World Wide Webfor mission research. Eight sessions. $145 Dr.Peter Kuzmič, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary and Evangelical Theological Seminary,Osijek,Croatia, explores September 22–26 the new context and new role for missions in achanged Europe, Doing Oral History: Helping Christians Tell Their Own Story. both East and West. Eight sessions. $145 Dr.Jean-Paul Wiest, director of the Jesuit Beijing Center, Beijing, China, and Ms. Michèle Sigg, DACB project man- November17–21 ager,share skills and techniques for documenting mission and Multicultural Partnerships: Strategies for Training and church history.Eight sessions. $145 Leadership. Dr.Judith E. Lingenfelter,Biola University,and Dr.Sherwood G. October 6–10 Lingenfelter,Fuller TheologicalSeminary,focus on strategies Communicating Gospel Truth to the Totally Unreached. for building communities of trust and for equipping leaders to Rev.Ajith Fernando,Youth for Christ, Sri Lanka, leads partici- empowerteam members from different cultural backgrounds pants in considering how the Gospel can be communicated to to work more effectively together.Eight sessions. $145 people with worldviews that are very different from the biblical worldview.Eight sessions. $145 December 1–5 The Gospel of Peace Engaging the Muslim Ummah October 13–17 (Community). Culture,Interpersonal Conflict, and ChristianMission. Dr.David W. Shenk, Eastern Mennonite Missions, explores the Dr.Duane H. Elmer,Trinity Evangelical DivinitySchool, helps church’s calling to bear witness to the Gospel of peace in its Christian workers strengthen interpersonal skills and resolve engagement with Muslims whether in contexts of militancy or conflicts among colleagues, including host-country peoples. in settings of moderation. Eight sessions. $145 Eight sessions. $145 December 8–12 October 20–24 Exploring Images of Jesus in Various Cultures. Nurturingand Educating Transcultural Kids. Dr.Diane B. Stinton, Daystar University,Nairobi, examines Ms. Janet Blombergand Ms. ElizabethStephens of Interaction God’srevelation of Christ as recorded in the New Testament International help you help your children meet the challenges and then explores human reflection on Christ in latercenturies they face as third-culturepersons. Eight sessions. $145 and across various cultures.Eight sessions. $145

2009 January Student Seminars on World Mission OVERSEASMINISTRIES STUDY CENTER “YOUr NExT STEP IN MISSION” 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 Amonthlong survey of the Christian world mission (203) 624-6672, ext. 315 [email protected] Cosponsored by 30 seminaries For details, visit www.OMSC.org/study.html Visit www.OMSC.org/january.html Book notes In coming Eitel, Keith E., ed. Missions in Contexts of Violence. Issues Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library,2007. Pp. xi, 415. Paperback $14.99. Missiology in Environmental Grams, Rollin G., and Parush R. Parushev,eds. Context: Tasks for an Ecology Mapping Baptistic Identity: Towards an Understanding of European Baptist of Mission Identity; Listening to the Churches in Armenia, Bulgaria, Central Asia, Willis Jenkins Moldova, North Caucasus, Omsk, and Poland. Prague: International Baptist Theological Seminary,2006. Pp. 196. Paperback. CzK 200. Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short- Term Missions into Context Jeong, Paul Yonggap. Brian M. Howell Mission from aPosition of Weakness. New York: Peter Lang, 2007. Pp. xiii, 154. $61.95 / €50.90 /£30.90. World Christianity and Christian Mission: Are They Compatible? Karotemprel, Gregory,C.M.I., Jacob Marangattu, C.M.I., and Mark Barco, S.J., eds. Insight from the Asian Churches Evangelizing in the Third Millennium. Peter C. Phan Rajkot, India: deepti Publications, 2006. Pp. 410. Paperback Rs 350. Missions and Fiction Kreis, Karl Markus. Translated by Corinna dally-Starna. Jamie S. Scott Lakotas, Black Robes, and Holy Women: German Reports from the Indian Theological Education in aWorld Missions in South Dakota, 1886–1900. Christian Context Lincoln: Univ.ofNebraska Press, 2007. Pp. xviii, 303. $55 /£36. dale T. Irvin Park, Joon-Sik. Christian Mission and the Sexuality Missional Ecclesiologies in Creative Tension: H. Richard Niebuhr and John Struggle: The Case of the Episcopal Howard Yoder. Church in the Anglican Communion New York: Peter Lang, 2007. Pp. x, 180. $64.95. Titus Presler Park, Timothy K., ed. Oral Theology in Lomwe Songs Tracing the Apostolic WayofMission: Compendium of Ninth AMA Triennial Stuart J. Foster Convention. Lesslie Newbigin’sMissionary Seoul: Institute for asian Mission, 2007. Pp. vi, 260. Paperback $10. Encounter with the Enlightenment, Pérennès, Jean-Jacques. 1975–98 ALife Poured Out: Pierre Claverie of Algeria. Timothy Yates Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2007. Pp. xv,286. Paperback $30. Remembering Evangelization: Peterson, daniel C. The Option for the Poor and Muhammad: Prophet of God. Mission History Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. Pp. xi, 186. Paperback $15. Paul V. Kollman In our Series on the Legacy of Porterfield, amanda, ed. Outstanding Missionary Figures Modern Christianity to 1900. Vol. 6ofAPeople’sHistory of Christianity. of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007. Pp. xiv,348. $35. Centuries, articles about Rolfes, Helmuth, and angela ann Zukowski, eds. thomas Barclay Communicatio Socialis: Challenge of Theology and Ministry in the Church; George Bowen Festschrift for Franz-Josef Eilers. hélène de chappotin Kassel: Kassel Univ.Press, 2007. Pp. ii, 249. €24. carl fredrik hallencreutz hannah Kilham Sung, John. Compiled by Levi [John Sung’sdaughter]. Translated by Thng Pheng Soon. Jacob a. loewen The Journal Once Lost: Extracts from the Diary of John Sung. George leslie Mackay Singapore: armour Publishing, 2008. Pp. xl, 551. Paperback $35. lesslie newbigin Swartley,Willard M. constance Padwick Send Forth Your Light: AVision for Peace, Mission, and Worship. Peter Parker Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 2007. Pp. 349. Paperback $18.99. James howell Pyke Pandita ramabai VanGelder,Craig. Bakht singh The Ministry of the Missional Church: ACommunity Led by the Spirit. James stephen Grand Rapids: Baker,2007. Pp. 205. Paperback $16.99. Philip B. sullivan Wijsen, Frans. James M. thoburn Seeds of Conflict in aHaven of Peace: From Religious Studies to Interreligious M. M. thomas Studies in Africa. harold W. turner amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007. Pp. 282. Paperback €60 /$90. Johannes Verkuyl William Vories