Sports and Identity in Tunisia Paper : Cultural Anthropology Sport and Identity in Tunisia Daisuke Sato Japan Overseas Cooperative Association B-101 2-33-7 Tsukushino, Machida, Tokyo 194-0001 Japan [email protected] [Received August 31, 2004 ; Accepted September 24, 2004] Under the rule of the Cheikhs, before Tunisia became a French colony, such traditional sports as El Koura and El’Efga took place at the village community level, but after the introduction of modern sports in accordance with French colonial policy, their existence was threatened. On the other hand, modern sports, particularly football, spread rapidly as the only opportunity for the colonized Tunisians to oppose the western European nations, especially France. As a result of the introduction of modern sports, national organizations were born, crossing regional boundaries; this contributed to a consciousness of being "Tunisian," that is, to the formation of national identity. It can even be thought that it influenced the later independence movement. After independence from France, the regime of President Habib Bourguiba introduced policies of modernization and centralization, as well as a modern educational system, in the process of forming a national state, and traditional sports, which included many magical elements, were thrown out as being pre-modern and backward, along with religious cultures peculiar to Tunisia, such as worship of the saints and Sufism. Modern sports, however, came to be positioned as having the function of forming national identity in the international sphere: that is, forming a national identity in awareness of the nation as a part of the international community. However, in 1987, under the new regime of President Ben Ali, a new policy of creating national identity was created, rooted in a unique traditional culture modeled on a pre-Islamic culture. Keywords: Identity, Sport, Tunisia [International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.3, 27-34, 2005] 1. Area of Study in each of these periods. Study of Tunisian sports culture to date has Tunisia is a North African nation, facing north on been limited to collecting materials on traditional the Mediterranean Sea. It gained independence from entertainments and sports by Tunisian researchers France in 1956. It is a region that has been home to or religious study, so that there have been no studies many peoples and cultures from ancient times, and such as this one with the aim of dealing with identity1. this fact is reflected in its sports. The author of this paper spent the years 1995-1998 This research takes up the country’s sports, past and 1999-2002 in Tunisia conducting local fieldwork. and present, discussing them in relationship to When supporting notes are lacking, data are based on identity. the author’s fieldwork. To deal with these issues, it will roughly divide Tunisian history into the following periods: 2. History and Culture of Tunisia pre-French colonial period, French colonial period, the Tunisian Republic under President Habib According to tradition, Tunisian history dates back Bourguiba and the Republic under President Ben Ali, to the ninth century B.C. In 814 B.C., Queen Elissa considering sports from the point of view of identity Didion of Tyre, on the east coast of the Mediterranean 1 See Abderrahman Ayoub, 100 Jeux traditionnels du sud de la Tunisie, Jeu et Sports en Mediterranee pp13-51, Alif-Editions de la Mediterranee 1991. Ezzeddine BOUZID, Etude des jeux et des sports de deux periodes de l’histoire tunisienne, Jeux, Sports et Societes pp35-53, CERDOJES, 2000. International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.3, 27-34, 2005 27 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Sato, D. (now Lebanon), fled across the Mediterranean Sea by fled the country. Some 2000 still live in the Isle of ship as a result of strife in the palace and drifted to Djerba, in the south of Tunisia. Their numbers are the site of Carthage, founding Qart Hadasht (meaning so small that they cause little cultural or political "new capital" in Phoenician, the tongue from which friction. Carthaginian developed). The queen requested from Following independence from France in 1956, the ruler of Carthage only as much land as could be the hero of independence, Habib Bourguiba, was enclosed by a single cowhide, and this was granted. inaugurated as the first President, and policies This is said to be the Hill of Byrssa, which lies in liberal for an Islamic nation were instituted, such as the heart of contemporary Carthage. Later Carthage progressive educational policies, freedom for women developed into a maritime nation with improvements and family planning. As a result, the present Tunisian in navigation techniques, and, as is well known, birth rate is in the 1.2% range and elementary-school finally ruled the Mediterranean Sea. It produced the enrollment is nearly 100%, equal to any advanced great general Hannibal and the agricultural scholar nation. Magon, eventually exerting great influence on Europe In 1987, the present leader, President Ben Ali, in both infantry strategy and agricultural technology. took power from the aging President Bourguiba in After its defeat by the Romans in the Punic Wars, a so-called "bloodless coup." Basically continuing which began in 264 B.C., it lost its dominion over the the former president’s policies, while limiting free Mediterranean to the Roman Empire, and Carthage expression and introducing hard-line policies that was utterly destroyed in 146 B.C. in the 3rd Punic have at times drawn criticism from the west as being War. undemocratic, he has also introduced a multi-party Thereafter Carthage became a Roman province, system and undertaken friendly relations with both and the fertility of its soil made it a granary for the the West and Arab nations, promoted moderate Islam Romans. We are able to see a picture of Tunisia in and policies toward the poor, combining tough and the time of the Romans in mosaics in Roman ruins, moderate policies, and though surrounded by such such as chariot races and gladiatorial contests in the unstable states as Algeria and Libya, he has achieved Circus, but of the life of the native Berbers, whose political stability and continued economic growth2. presence predates even the founding of Carthage, and who preserved their ancient culture, we can find no 3. Sports and Identity in the pre-Colonial Period trace in the mosaics. In the 5th century, Carthage was subjugated by The introduction of modern sports such as football Germanic tribes, and thereafter ruled successively and track and field occurred with its colonization by by the Byzantines (6th century), the Arabs (7th France, that is, since 1883. What kinds of sports were century), Spain (16th century), the Ottoman Turks there in Tunisia before this time? (16th century) and France (19th century), resulting in a Elloumi Ali has recorded and analyzed 120 great mixture of cultures. The penetration of the Arab different games and sports in the pre-colonial period3. people in particular, beginning in the 7th century, The most important of these are Jeu de crosse and greatly influenced all regions of Tunisia, and together Qalif. with the Arabization of the land, Islamization also Jeu de crosse is a game resembling hockey in progressed. Of the present-day 9.5 million people of which two men with sticks battle each other. One Tunisia, 96% are Islamic Arabs, and the constitution player tries to use the stick to put a ball into a hole in makes Arabic the official language and Islam the the ground, and the other player tries to prevent him. official religion. Native Berbers make up less than Whenever a goal is scored, the attacker and defender 2%. In addition, of some 55,000 Jews who dwelled exchange roles. there until independence from France, nearly all have Qalif is more like football. Several players kick 2 See the following papers for Tunisian history and culture: La Tunisie, Andre Raymond et Jean Poncet, Que sais-je, 1977. Histoire Ancienne de l’Afrique du Nord, Albert Ayache, EditionsSociales, 1964. Les trois decennies Bourguiba, Tahar Belkhodja, Arcanteres Publisud, 1983. 3 ELLOUMI Ali, Jeux, Sports et Societes Actes du colloque Tuniso-francais pp121-144, CERDOJES, 2000. International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.3, 27-34, 2005 28 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Sports and Identity in Tunisia a ball and try to kick it into a goal defended by a keeper. Those who score are withdrawn from the Tunisia became a French colony in 1883. game, and the player left at the end is not allowed to However, they retained the previous Bey, Caid and participate in the next game. Finally, the one who Cheik system, making the smallest unit of government remains is the winner. the Cheikhat, adding the Commune as a new unit In "Ethnography of physical exercise in encompassing multiple Cheikhats, with multiple pre-colonial Tunisia," Borhane Errais mentions El Communes bundled into the Caidat, retaining the Bey Koura (a game like football in which two teams try to name for the governor. kick a ball into a goal), El’ Egfa (a game like hockey Modern sports were introduced under the auspices using wooden sticks. However, the aim is not a of the "Youth Sports Department." In point of fact, goal but one’s coat), and La Rekla (a game in which there were many French people doing business in competitors kick each other, resembling the French Tunisia before it became a colony, and the French game Savate) in regard to the people’s exercise population played football, but for the average culture in pre-colonial Tunisia during the Ottoman Tunisian, contact with modern sports occurred only rule4.