ure) “I have understood you.” This came too late; late; too came This you.” understood have “I ure) stat- greater (of general another by coined phrase famous the uttering committed, errors the edging acknowl- and facts the facing finally before ments, ele- subversive” and “excited to riots the to attribute only floor the takes he then force, police his of efficiency the in confident silence, in first refuge Ali takes Ben youth, of appeals the to Deaf alized. gener- become and spread protests the more the down, cut are Tunisians the more the But real and bullets. gas tear half-measures: for in go not police do the country, this of history the punctuated have that those like riot Mohammad simple a be to it Believing streets. the 2011. January 4 on to dies Bouazizi is takes which and country, roused entire the throughout wildfire like spreads movement the etc.), Feriana, Bouzid, Sidi (Kasserine, region Centre-West the in triggered. Arising is revolt of movement sweeping a and 2010 December 17 on himself immolates Bouzid, Sidi in police by harassed vendor, street young a complete: was surprise the – it admit Let’s electro- shock. an of effect the by had uprising people the Tunisian the that astonishing hardly thus is It it that displayed. and maturity and the people by Tunisian the astonished the by of victory stunned the events, of speed of turn the by founded dumb- by surprise, taken were politics in Arab ices nov- not are who those Even elsewhere? Eu- and rope in extolled were strength regime and police stability whose plundering a overturning of pable ca- be would people Tunisian Who the that hope dared agitation? such foreseen have would Who Contemporain (CERMAC), Louvain-la-Neuve Centre d’EtudesetdeRecherches surleMonde Director B Awakening Tunisiathe and Democratic Arab The NewEraoftheArabWorld ichara K hader Arabe miracle of unpredictability, it is clear that the situ- the that clear a is it needed unpredictability, of miracle only the in believing that Without ablaze. them set fields to spark scrub dry sembled re- countries they their if because And is it action. succeeded, have into them put and effect ple rip- a through population the spark can they lieve be- they Perhaps visible. despair their make to all above seeking are themselves immolate who abs whatsoever, cause any nor, for a either, with of or associated form be “enough” cannot say gesture to This order “no.” in committed act an fire, through made statement a im- simply was it port; sacrificial or religious any of devoid was self-immola- tion Bouazizi’s others.” that to believe health I give Personally, to oneself of giving like: by Christ- is “it called that adds is who it Meddeb, as Abdelwahab mode, everything sacrificial the Thus, in begins freedom. for entire up an and rising sur- himself country great immolating the youth a came the prise, Then come will freedom.” of dictatorship spring of winter that the and dawn” the “after that before just repeating darkest stopped is “night never and it for hoped deeply I change; wanted I unawares. I that caught was admit and must I Nevertheless, in world. Arab the developments social eco- and political, nomic following closely in myself pride I sides. changed fear dently, Evi- action. into going and him fearing longing no population a of face the in tiger paper a be to out turned he but arms, long and teeth sharp had tor dicta- the that believe to prone were They events. of turn the at surprised were themselves Tunisians 2011. pursued, January 14 on flees dictator, the and collapses regime The at crowd. the to shoot refuses of chief, its voice the return. through and, no rebels it but of army the in calls point Ali Ben the reached had protest the a fortiori a , a simple suicide. These young Ar- young These suicide. simple a ,

15 Med.2011 Keys 16 Med.2011 Keys tion. This negative consensus could work when the when work could consensus negative This tion. participa- political demanding not its and consent population’s the for exchange in justice social and independence political development, of matters of contract social charge take would State the populations: tacit their with a over establishing precedence democracy, take stability made They unity. of sake the for differences out rubbed regimes new the type, that of parties other and Party Ba’ath the al-khalidah alah ( mission” “eternal its and nation” Arab ous “glori- the of name the In imperialism.” of being “agents of opponents any accusing and dissent all silencing populism, elementary into lapsed quickly but societies,” of “developers and colonialism” of clutches the from nation Arab as the of posed “saviours the teams military These decades. ceding pre- the of State liberal the succeeded State bist Ara- and new socialist this nationalist, the class, Under governing origins. petit-bourgeois or rural of often and military essentially elites, new power to brought 1969), 1969, Sudan 1958, Iraq national or 1952, coups Egypt 1948, Syria 1962, ( revolutions military by created Arab The republics, else. everything over precedence took nationhood of affirmation of was problem the independence passed, of threshold the once deed, post-colonial the of nature the with do to have factors these all, of First Internal Factors an internalandexternalorder. both of factors several to it ascribe I regimes. these of thelongevity on question the answer first Let’s inthe1990s? Eastern of regimes authoritarian the and 1980s the in America of dictatorships the and 1970s the Franco and Salazar regimes in and Portugal in when waves of democratization had swept away the corollary, why have the a Arab peoples waited so long, as And headwinds? such withstand to capacity their getting they were Where regimes? Arab tarian authori- by demonstrated longevity the for account T event. triggering a was was that needed all revolt; generalized for ripe was ation Yet he Longevityof if the situation was ripe for change, how can one ), as per slogans brandished by by brandished slogans per as ), A uthoritarian A A rab rab State R egimes Al-ris- In- . “lineage indicating blood relations or proximity to to proximity or relations blood indicating a order of “lineage use the social emirates), (the order of tribal on based representation hierarchical the maintain to seeks that logic a essentially is It tion.” retribu- of logic “the called Maila Joseph what is it In a logic monarchies, has different prevailed enemy. a in national against a a struggle democracy than effective is more a dictatorship whether selves them- asking ” without against for the struggle return in regimes these accepted have which tion, popula- the of sections large on impact siderable con- a had have and bywords decades for “these resounded have that is Hroub, Khaled journalist, the by indicated as thing, worst The litany. tionalist na- so-called fallacious, this abused and used have “it that and is not debate.” for time combat Regimes and occupation” its and Israel against struggle the on consensus national the “break to not versions,” di- create to “not told were enemy,” and Zionist the against ranks “close to supposed were They gans? slo- misleading with peoples their bombarded they has it Haven’t of manipulation. of sorts all object the been regimes, for but Oman, to Mauritania from by peoples Arab and humiliation of suffering source on fects democracy Algeria. and Libya of cases the in as lics, repub- in as well as just in monarchies and true emirates is This democracy. on also but efficiency, economic on only not effect negative a have nues reve- where disease,” “Dutch the as known curse” resource “natural the embody clearly they sum, In consent. populations’ the buy they and ; of generalization the and employment public thoric ple- via economy national the canker they tation”); represen- without taxation “no Americans: early the of catchphrase the (recall States empower and tion States’ taxa- reduce they the to labour; linked not are revenues since efficiency, and spirit preneurial damper a as tion func- revenues oil countries, oil-producing In reign. terror of climate real a making control, and repression of sophisti- system highly cated a and party dominant or single a to resort States the legitimacy, all lost Having corrup- tion. generalized and purchasing arms gimes, re- of excesses predatory the governance: poor by diminished been have means States’ the and eted rock- have needs its years, quadru- sixty past the over has pled population Arab the because today functions it no longer low; still was population Arab T he he aetna ise a hd eaie ef- negative had has issue Palestinian : they devalue labour, the entre- the labour, devalue they : : certainly, it is perceived as a it : is certainly, perceived : tors. This is due to its geological riches (gas and oil), ac- external by interference to submissive system a and polarised. By “penetrated system,” I understand penetrated was subsystem Arab entire the 1990s, the of beginning the at USSR the of collapse the to longevity. their in factor ing powers T interests ofexternalpowers. the of defence the in regimes these of function” tal factors, which can be summed external up as the consider “instrumen- also must we world, Arab the in contributing to the longevity of authoritarian regimes factors endogenous these to addition in Naturally, External Factors seen asanecessaryevil. phenomenon hostile a latter the making State, the ness and weakens awareness of the public nature of whose corruption raises society’s officials, sense of helpless- public of predation the of victims the are they but choices, social and economic in involved not populations are only not that means This them. around revolve that classes ruling the and family his er a “private resource,” tapped by the Head of State, ship, the State is no longer a “public good,” but rath- relation- a such In “protégés.” their and nation” the of “saviours the between “children,” his and nation the of Father Founding the between (ra’aya), jects sub- his and state of head the between necessary mediation institutional the of lack a to due citizens the for room little leaves States, monarchic and can republi- globally,in Thus, both culture, political Arab nature oftheState weakens awareness ofthepublic society’s sense of helplessness and officials, whosecorruptionraises of thepredationpublic choices, butthey arethevictims involved ineconomicandsocial Not onlyarepopulationsnot (). Faithful” of the Commander or “the of the fact being Arabia), Saudi of ” (Kingdom of Places Holy the of tion protec- “the lineage), Hashemite (the Prophet” the hese regimes’ allianceswiththemajorworld during the Cold War were a determin- a were War Cold the during Indeed, from 1956 from Indeed, suit, leading to the development of a conservative conservative a of development the to leading suit, followed have countries Arab Other schools. than built been have mosques more instance, for geria, Al- In zeal. mosque-building own in competing by their game at Islamists beat to re- sought have Elsewhere, gimes universities. Egyptian at ideology Nasserist left-wing, of students counter to order in movements Islamist student encouraged Sadat gy, the after ideolo- Arabist of erosion on, the and Nasser of Early death Mediterranean. Eastern and Southern the in societies of re-Islamisation the in regimes Arab authoritarian of role the recognize ly unanimous- matter the on experts all However, ism. warks against against warks froze democratic claimsandfossilizedregimes. War Cold the Hence bitch”). a of son (“our allies” “their nonetheless were they but allies, their by populations granted freedom of degree low the recognized it world, Western the for As Union. viet So- the for problem conscience a of much pose not did Dictatorships commitments. their to “loyal” be allies respective their that was concern dom.”Their free- “political of issue the considered Soviets the the Soviets. Yet neither the Americans nor, Americans and the “popular socialist republics” with the with sided monarchies the speaking, Roughly sectors. pro-Soviet the and contingents pro- Western) (and pro-American the between world Arab This produced a nearly systematic polarization in the single remoteareawasspared. a not complete; the became penetration the War, of Cold onset the with But rivalries. and desires of sorts all of object the been has and powers political by coveted been has world Arab the times ancient since – War Cold the predates subsystem regional Arab the of nature penetrated The religions. theistic sort of “sacred geography” by the three major mono- a with endowed is region the since dimension, cal geotheologi- its in even or market, vast a as interest and oceans bordering , Europe and Asia) and its economic with Mediterranean the (connecting its region), geopolitical and geostrategic importance its geographical location (key, corridor or crossroads reserves. gas of 20% nearly and reserves oil proven of 60% nearly possesses which world, Arab the in present widely are resources two these economy, word the flow of oil and gas. Indispensable to the operation of regular a of necessary, if and stability, of antors T T hese regimes hese hes e regimes portrayed themselves as bul- as themselves portrayed regimes e put themselves forth as guar- as forth themselves put , or even against jihad- against even or , a fortiori,

17 Med.2011 Keys 18 Med.2011 Keys oihn na slne f aiet ua Rights advocates. And it Human is as “anti-migration sentinels” that manifest of silence near tonishing as- the of face the in exiling, torturing, silencing, ing, imprison- not, or Islamist whether demonstrations, society civil on down crack to managed have gimes re- Arab authoritarian that terrorism” against wark “bul- a as is it fact, In entailed. has this damage the with allies, external their by them assigned function cribed to as- internal factors, but be also to the instrumental simply cannot decades of course regimes the over Arab authoritarian of longevity the Thus, protect sheep. ties or detention centres? This is like asking a wolf to facili- holding temporary his country,in his in grants ofmi- the rights trust protect we to Gaddafi can like someone How rights. democratic as insofar guarantees no offers control of delocalisation This the expressionofDonnanandWilson. use to border,” “alienated an into border integrated and interdependent vibrant, open, an turn peoples, their consult to need not do which regimes, tarian authori- that policing”demands tance EU the that is “long-dis- of policy this in unacceptable ethically is what But smugglers. people for profitable more and longer dangerous, more crossing the makes simply and routes migratory changes beings, human in fic traf- fosters tragedies, human causes control of tion externalisa- this that packets. know aid We financial substantial for exchange in often EU, the for border guard of role the play to them pressed that (EU) sentinels. migration T States democratic would notbecapableoffightingagainstterrorism? that assume one could case, any in And West. the not and themselves protect anti- terrorist bulwarks? as Certainly, but above effective all in order to more been regimes these Have dictatorships. of strengthening the to concomitant been has headscarves wearing of rule the of development The versions. radical and erate mod- its both in Islamization to contributed largely have powers authoritarian secular, being from Far the of creation the behind was who son-in-law Ali’s Ben was it Hammouda, Ben Hakim to according nisia, Tu-In programmes. radio and TV religious of and it, to references or Islam of signs of multiplication the and religion of role the of reinforcement the culture, 2 1 P L hese regimes hese ewis ryce , Bernard.WhatWent Wrong? Western ImpactandMiddleEastern Reponses,OxfordUniversity Press,2002. -J Ezzitouna ones , David.TheClosedCircle: AnInterpretationoftheArabs, NY, Harperand Row, 1989, p. 406. radio station and an Islamic bank. bank. Islamic an and station radio portrayed themselves as anti- as themselves portrayed t a te uoen Union European the was It Lewis on“theintrinsicdespotismofIslam.” Bernard by held thesis the is This corollary. cratic demo- its and world pluralist the to up opening of incapable theocracy of sort a with associated rably irrepa- is Islam that humanity,”implies of which rest the from off cut anthropologically islamicus, homo exception” theory? For the culturalist Muslim school, “there is a specific and “Arab the is exactly What torted image and denote great intellectual poverty. dis- a headlineslendthese lam-West ofShock.” All ImmigrantsMuslimImpossible,”tegrationof Is- “The withDemocracy?,” “IslamAgainst Republic,”the “In- seenbearing such headlines as “Is Islam Compatible wehaven’t sensationalist– onlyones not and – ers level of popular perception. How many magazine cov- Westerntheinclesand media, thereforeand the on widespreadcertainbeamongintellectual to cir-ues one from a social sciences viewpoint, was and contin- alisttheory onthe Arab exception, theleast pertinent fortiori that the culture of violence and of force supposedly force of and violence of culture the that such start, the from anarchic City Islamic the render of seditions and the succession of revolts that would visions, theconstantchallenging ofauthority, chains di- tribal out pointing lead, his followed have Others tion, butacontradictioninterms.” Pryce-Jones, David writes democrat,” Arab an present, “At pluralism. to tory refrac- is it as democratisation, of process planetary tutes the only region that has remained behind in the consti- and exception authoritarian same the from suffers Muslim, primarily is it since world, Arab the According to the proponents of the culturalist theory, is thecaseinLibya. them as mercenaries in their armies of repression, as enlist or conditions wretched under immigrants ran sub-Saha- detain to able been have regimes these we must seek an answer and not in the Koran or Koranthe in not and answer an seek must we understand socialsciencesinthat is toworld, itArab the events in sum, In entrusted. been have they haveused, and the instrumental functions with which legitimationsdifferentthey the teams,governing the of nature theconsider thus must wesystems, litical To T he Fictionofthe account for the longevity ofauthoritarian Arab po- in culturalist explanations. However, the cultur- A rab Exception

“is not even not “is 2 an idealiza- an 1 a Egyptians – like other young – have written, or and Tunisians young courage, their and blood their the theories of the Arab and Muslim exception. With debunked also they regimes; authoritarian toppled A nity) normallyprevailoverindividualrights. the of interests the corpus, where legal Muslim the by influenced are thesis this of proponents the that unlikely not is It triarchy. neopa- of notions Sharabi’s Hisham and Asabiyyah of notions Khaldun’s Ibn of reading erroneous an tyranny,”others, of in ocean “an haven”amongst “democratic a as Israel present to will a or faith, bad who live in it. Perhaps among some there is a hint of those of practices social the by manifested as Islam is, that Islam, historical and texts in Islam between determinism is nourished by a generalised confusion of the Muslim and Arab world, and that this negative history recent and ancient the regarding ignorance swer is not simple. I assume it is in part due to major has had a great deal of repercussion. Why? The an- The extreme poverty of such a theory is blatant, yet it democratic corollary up tothepluralistworld andits theocracy incapableofopening associated withasortof that Islamisirreparably rest ofhumanity,” which implies anthropologically cut off from the is aspecifichomoislamicus, For theculturalistschool, “there tributed thefeaturesofanagentrepression. at- is Leader the and dependence, and domination authority, of relations by is characterised life supposedly social sum, In father. or Sheikh Zaim, Sultan, King, Prince, a to obedience of importance the ponents of the culturalist theory go as far as evoking of Rule of Law. To back up their arguments, the pro- the emergence of a dynamic civil society and an area allow not would area Arab-Islamic the in prevailing The Arab The the Myths rab D emocratic revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt not only not Egypt and Tunisia in revolutions R evolutions (Muslim commu- (Muslim D ebunk al- day theyarecited asexamplesinallArab countries. To-sidelined. they were nor margins, the on remain the movement. in Spearheads of social change in Tunisia, they did not actors efficient were Women himself. Bourguiba with lies say, to needless merit, whose Tunisia,in secularisation of progress the about deal great a says This mixed. not were demands political and claims religious it. countries: Arab in first a is This appropriate even or movement protest the trol con- to seek not did and profile low a took Islamists Tunisians,street.”the from absent is he but Tunisian ciety, as one protestor recalls, “God is in the heart of bly been a re-Islamisation of a sector of Tunisian so- indisputa- has there great.”Although is “God heard once never I dignity. employment, freedom, secular: Better yet, the slogans chanted by crowds remained power. despotic of cronies the of obstinacy the over triumphed finally protest re- the By pacific, violence. maining with violence police to respond not did they ex- self-control: and courage demonstrated traordinary people Tunisian The appro- priation. religious or partisan prevented This it. ing there and lead- organisation or party religious was no political spontaneous remained movement its united, The itremained maturity: Tunisia. population’s is this first in events from gleaned be can les- sons of number a Indeed, paradigm. Tunisian a of speak rightly can We following. a create will youth Tunisian of that revolution,” a as “successful Insofar tries, bothrichandpoor. be seen in Syria, , Libya and other Arab coun- can as contagious, is liberty of pursuit the but safe, are they believe They events. these of significance the minimise or attention divert to attempted have regimes Arab other The envy. of degree certain a Egyptian revolutions with enthusiasm, and even with and Tunisian the followed have peoples Arab The of realpolitik. regimes in the South in the name of a misconception authoritarian with States European certain of ships same time, they have the condemned the At suspect friend- status.” “advanced them granting by Egypt Tunisiaand rewarding on planned which EU, the of incoherence the revealed and stability dictatorship through of thesis the of rebuttal incisive an vided pro- have they streets; Arab walking crowds docile inert, saw only who those to lesson powerful a dealt have they so, doing In . and Arabs on ideas Arab lands, but also for the dictatorship of culturalist in dictatorship for only not epitaph, the writing are

19 Med.2011 Keys 20 Med.2011 Keys in Te ry woe rdblt hs eand in- remained has credibility whose army, The tion. revolu- Tunisian the monopolize to allowed be ever will have to Islamists be but no included, one should moderate Yes, established. be must appeasement inclusion of and democracy a and organised be to have name the of worthy elections be dismantled, to need etc.) secret system, party the single the militia, service, (the foundations regime’s the and of thedictatorship thetechnostructure difficult: be be will remaining path the sense, In this to conquered. remains democracy deposed, dictator The were notmixed claims andpoliticaldemands in Arab countries: religious even appropriateit. This isafirst control theprotestmovement or profile anddidnotseekto Tunisian Islamists tookalow for freedomthatspurredtheprotesterson. gled out, but it was above all the irrepressible desire sin- been have clientelism and corruption ployment, sia. Certainly, economic issues such as youth unem- Tuni-different hope”a and for dreams of full “minds of but bellies” “empty of one not is revolution This Mediterranean Basin. South the in revolution democratic the of merits the of least the not “Arabis with opinions.”this but And now on, it will not have to deal with the “Arab street” From Europe. awaken well could awakening cratic demo- Arab the them; open to forced be will it Now the EU has kept its eyes well closed to dictatorships. ism, radicalism and “harraguisme” (illegal migration), terror- Islamism, fundamentalism, including “isms,” the all of risks the by Paralysed general. in countries Arab with and countries Mediterranean with lations from top to bottom and thoroughly reconsider its re- policies its review to have will it EU, the as Insofar and “allnecessarymeasures.” date and Arab endorsement, to impose a no-fly zone man- international an with Westintervenes, the and the turn bloody a on takes rebellion, repression regime’s Gaddafi armed towards veers youth by tion revolu- the latter, the In paradigm. the from farthest country the is Libya whereas Council, Military the to nisian paradigm, with a more important role assigned the Egyptian revolution comes the closest to the Tu- that clear is Tunisian it these specificities, of view In racy”? democ- of “gravediggers the horizons, other under been, actually have nation” the of “saviours many How ranks. its among from nation” of the figure iour “sav- a producing of temptation the to in giving not and blunders avoiding guard, its on be should tact,