United States Policy Toward Tunisian Nationalism During World War II
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Portland State University PDXScholar Dissertations and Theses Dissertations and Theses 1985 United States policy toward Tunisian nationalism during World War II Martha Staley Marks Portland State University Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds Part of the History Commons, and the International Relations Commons Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Marks, Martha Staley, "United States policy toward Tunisian nationalism during World War II" (1985). Dissertations and Theses. Paper 3664. https://doi.org/10.15760/etd.5548 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Martha Staley Marks for the Master of Arts in History presented November 20, 1985. Title: United States Policy Toward Tunisian Nationalism During World War II. APPROVED BY MEMBERS OF THE THESIS COMMITTEE: Bernard Burke, Chairman Charles Le Guin Michael Reardbn This thesis has attempted to describe the controversy between Robert Murphy and Hooker Doolittle over American policy toward the North Africans and French during World War II. The research was based primarily on material from State Department documents found in the National Archives supplemented by material from the French archives as well as memoirs, personal interviews, and histories of the period. In order for the reader to understand this particular dispute, the problem was developed in the context of the larger political scene as it evolved in North Africa. The controversy between de Gaulle and Giraud was described since it tended to dominate relations between the United States and France at that time. As a result of the research, it was obvious that Murphy's position prevailed, but not without raising important questions about the long term implications of this position. ~ _. UNITED STATES POLICY TOWARD TUNISIAN NATIONALISM DURING WORLD WAR II by MARTHA STALEY MARKS A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in HISTORY Portland State University 1985 TO THE OFFICE OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH: The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Martha Staley 1985. ~Bernard Burke, °Chairman Mandavii1e Charles Le Guin Michael Reardon APPROV...ED: u Bernard Burke, Head, Department of History uate Studies and Research PREFACE The idea for this thesis came from James J. Dougherty's The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French West Africa 1940-1946. In Dougherty's book the chapter on "Arab Nationalism and the United States" struck me because of the problems the North African invasion caused American policy makers by raising the hopes of the North Africans for independence. I looked up some of Dougherty's references in the National Archives in Washington only to discover that a story unfolded in the despatches from Hooker Doolittle, Paul O'Neill, and Marcel Malige. Not only was the story interesting, but the strong differences of opinion about the United States policy toward the Tunisian nationalists were similar to those over policy toward Vietnam and Nicaragua. In all three cases there was a reluctance by the policy makers in Washington to heed the advice of the diplomats most knowledgeable about those areas and to ignore the basic concerns of the people living there. Instead local concerns have been subordinated to global ones. I would especially like to thank my adviser, Dr. Bernard Burke, for his help and encouragement. He went beyond the call of duty in reading and re-reading many rough iv drafts of the thesis. Dr. Jon Mandaville let me sit in on his class on Islamic Civilization and gave me some valuable insight into the North African world. I am grateful to the other members of my committee, Dr. Charles Le Guin and Dr. Michael Reardon, for their suggestions about the thesis. In talking with Paul O'Neill, I learned of things such as the outpouring of emotion in Tunisia at the time of Roosevelt's death, that were not to be found in the Archives. Marcel Malige was kind enough to write answering my questions and describing his impressions of Bourguiba. Doolittle's daughter, Katya Coon (Mrs. Maurice Coon), spent a day with me at her home in Marshfield, Massachusetts and gave me material that was otherwise unavailable. Her sister, Natasha Van Deusen (Mrs. E.R. Van Deusen), filled me in on her recollections of Doolittle's meetings with Bourguiba in Alexandria. Katya Coon's daughter, Elena Prentice, who lives in Paris, contacted people for me to meet or talk with who had been in Tunisia during the war. Sabine Vauclain arranged for my husband and me to exchange our house for Yves and Andr~e Haas' apartment in Paris making it possible for me to do research at the Biblioth\que Nationale and at the Minist\re des Affaires 'trang\res. AndrJe Haas, whose first husband was killed at Toulon fighting with the Free French, introduced me to Suzanne Broche, whose husband had also been with the Free v French and had been killed in the fighting at Bir Hakeim. Madame Broche, who had grown up in Tunisia, shared with me her memories of the war years in Tunisia, especailly those under German occupation. Yves Haas, another former Free French fighter, explained how there were very few Frenchmen joining the de Gaulle forces at the beginning. Tamara Kinski, whose family had immigrated to France from Tiflis, Georgia at the time of the October Revolution, remembered seeing Hooker Doolittle in Egypt with his wife, who had also come from Tiflis. Tamara's father, a member of the French Foreign Legion, was killed fighting with the Free French at El Alamein. Tamara helped me to understand differences in French politics and offered to introduce me to Madame Mast, who was unfortunately away from Paris. Estelle de Montgoflier of Avignon, France, whose parents were French doctors in Tunisia, described many aspects of Tunisian culture. Woods Vest helped find the addresses of Katya Coon and Marcel Malige. Stuart Gates of Portland, who knew Doolittle in Tangiers, found two pictures of himself and Doolittle when they were both living in Tangiers which he had reproduced for me, one of which is included. My brother, Allen Staley, and his wife, Etheleen, let me stay in their house while I worked at the Hyde Park library and my brother had many useful suggestions about writing the thesis. My daughter and her husband, Martha and Carter Wormeley, let me combine visiting with them and doing vi research at the Archives and Library of Congress. Sally Marks, Kathy Nicastro, and John Taylor were helpful at the Archives and have subsequently found documents for me. My husband, John, has helped me with making the thesis more readable and has let the thesis take precedence over other activities. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE . iii LIST OF FIGURES . viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION . 1 II FALL OF FRANCE . 5 Notes 34 III TUNISIAN BACKGROUND 38 Notes 58 IV PALACE REVOLUTION 61 Notes . 84 v OPERATION TORCH 88 Notes . 123 VI GIRAUD-DE GAULLE CONFLICT 128 Notes . 155 VII RECALL OF DOOLITTLE 158 Notes . 210 VIII TUNISIA AFTER DOOLITTLE 218 Notes 259 BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Hooker Doolittle and Stuart Gates of Portland, Oregon leaving the Anglican Church in Tangier . ix 2. Map of North Africa. x Figure 1. Hooker Doolittle and Stuart Gates of Portland , Or egon , leaving the An ~ lican Church in Tangier. s P A J IV Al31e1- mo..tfb.... / I A/ , I ,..-. _\M-~~ r+."~ ~lll:q_t 0 ~ b1CJ'IC .. G ! •~a.sho"4.t c 0--0 ~o ./ \ "D/ r- p 1; 0 l I 7 A IV I A. I A L G £ ~ I A I -...... L l 5 nA ~ )::.: t_G '7 pl Fifrnre 2. ~fap o:::- North Africa CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A conflict arose in Tunisia during World War II among State Department representatives over the United States response to the Tunisian independence movement. Hooker Doolittle, the American Consul General in Tunis, was aware of and sensitive to Tunisian nationalism. He reported it in numerous letters to the State Department. Robert Murphy, Civil Affairs Officer on General Dwight Eisenhower's staff, on the other hand, thought any recognition by the United States of nationalist desires of the North Africans would jeopardize relations with the French. Eisenhower backed Murphy because French cooperation had been important not only in preparation for the North African invasion, but afterwards for its administration. Eisenhower wanted the French to administer the area in order not to tie up his forces in the responsibilities of an occupation army. Anticipating the landing of the Allied Expeditionary Force in France, Eisenhower was well aware that French cooperation would be equally important there. For the French, humiliated by their recent defeat, it was important to hold on to their Empire, for it along with their navy and the unoccupied portion of the mainland was 2 what remained to them to use as bargaining chips with the Germans . Later when German defeat seemed probable, they needed the Empire to regain their great power status . After United States and British troop s had landed in North Africa and driven the Germans out , the French resorted to harsh and repressive measures against the North Africans to regain the u pper hand . In Tunisia they went so far as to depose the Bey . They claimed he had collaborated with the Axis , but the real reason was his support of nationalist goals . Doolittle, aware of the injustice of this step as well as the French mistreatment of the Tunisians, urged the State Departmen t to intervene with the French and attempt to influence them not to depose the Bey and to ameliorate their treatment of t he Tunisians .