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Home , David Magarshack, Mikhail Sholokhov

Notes

PART I

Chapter 1

1. See Rene Wellek, 'Realism in literary scholarship' in Concepts of Criticism (London 1963), p. 222fT; Raymond Williams, Keywords (London I976), p. 216fT; George]. Becker, Documents of Modern Literary Realism (Princeton I963). 2. Theory of the Novel (trans. Anna Bostock) (Cambridge, Mass. I970), pp. I I2-3. 3· Ibid., p. I 72. 4· The Historical Novel (trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell) (London I969). Cited in T. Burns and E. Burns (ed.), Sociology of Literature and Drama (London I973), P· 287. 5· Lukacs writes: 'Obviously one cannot call Gregor's fate tragic in spite of certain tragic features.' Der russische Realismus in der Weltliteratur (Berlin I 952) (3rd ed.), p. 363. 6. Studies in European Realism (trans. Edith Bone) (London I950), p. 63. 7. See The Meaning of Contemporary Realism (trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell) (London I963), p. I7ff. 8. See his autobiographical record, The Genesis of a Novel (Princeton I953)· 9· Modern Tragedy (London I966), p. 64. 10. Ibid., p. 77· I I. Williams, on the other hand, feels that despite Lawrence's explicit rejection of the social as the basis of tragic necessity, Women in Love is a tragic work-a form of personal tragedy, in effect, which goes beyond society. Williams, op. cit., p. I2 Iff. 12. Mimesis (trans. Willard B. Trask) (Princeton I953), p. 328. 13. Ibid., pp. 464-6. I4· Ibid., pp. 482. I5. Williams, op. cit., p. 55·

Chapter 2

1. See Frederick jameson, Marxism and Form (Princeton I97I), chapter 1. 2. See 'The Author as Producer', New Left Review 62 (I970). 3· Illuminations (London 1972), p. 101. 4· Ibid., p. 146. 5· Significantly, Benjamin moves away from the novel in his discussion ofliterary technique and concentrates his attention on theatre, journalism and film. While his discussion of the practical possibilities of these media is engrossing, there is still a basic element of theoretical mystification. His use of the term Technik has remarkable similarities with the usage ofErnstj uenger and Martin Heidegger in their proto-fascist writings. See Benjamin 'The Author as 194 Tragic Realism and Modern Sociery Producer' .New Ll[/i Review, 62, 1970; Ernstjuenger Der Arbeiter (Berlin 1932); J. Orr 'German Social Theory and the Hidden Face ofTechnology', Archives europeenes de sociologie, xv, 1974, pp. 312-336. 6 . .Noten zur Literatur, vol. 1. (Frankfurt 196s), p. 64. 7· See The Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York 1972); also Martin Jay The Dialectical Imagination (London 1973), p. 216fT. 8. One-Dimensional Man (Boston 1964), p. 77· 9· Ibid., p. 229fT. Marc use takes the term from Maurice Blanchot, whose influence on structuralism is discussed in the following chapter.

Chapter 3 1. For the classic study of Russian formalism see Victor Erlich Russian Formalism, The Hague I9SS 2. 'On realism', in L. Matejka and K. Pomorska (ed.), Readings in Russian Poetics (Cambridge, Mass. 1971) pp. 40-1. 3· 'On literary evolution', Readings in Russian Poetics, p. 67. 4· Ibid., p. 72 S· 'The Concept of the Dominant', Readings in Russian Poetics, pp. 82-91. 6. 'Art as technique', in Lee Lemon and Marion Reis (ed.), Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays, (Lincoln, Nebraska 196s), p. 12. 7· Ibid., p. 13. 8. Matejka and Pomorska, op. cit., p. 61. 9· 'Thematics', in Lemon and Reis, op. cit., p. 6s. 10. Ibid., p. 81. I I. Ibid., P· 7 I. 12. For the influence ofHeidegger upon structuralism, see Frederic Jameson, The Prison-house f!fLanguage (Princeton 1972), p. 168£L 13. The Order of Things (London 1970), p. 38sff. 14. The essence ofBlanchot's theory is contained in 'La litterature et le droit a Ia mort', first published in 194 7 and 1948, then republished as the last chapter of La Part du Feu (Paris 1949). The theory is elaborated at greater length in L'Espace litteraire (paris I9SS) and Le livre a venir (paris I9S9)· There is a good critical study ofBlanchot by Sarah Lawall, Critics of Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass. 1968). A translated extract from 'Ia litterature et le droit a Ia mort' can be found in Maurice Nadeau The French .Novel since the War (trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith) London 1967. IS· La Part du Feu p. 32S· 16. Writing Degree Zero (trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith) (Boston 1968), p. 33· 17. Ibid., p. 77- I 8. For a rather different interpretation of the murder, see Conor Cruise O'Brien, Camus (London 1970), p. 23fT. 19. See Susan Sontag's preface to Writing Degree Zero, p. viiff. 20. '"Genetic Structuralism" in the sociology ofliterature', in Burns and Burns, op. cit., p. 1 IS· 21. Towards a Sociology of the .Novel (trans. Alan Sheridan) (London I97S), pp. 123-4· 22. Ibid., p. 134· 23. Ibid., p. I3S· Notes 195 24. Aspects of the .Novel (London I963) p. g6. 25. Fictions: The Novel and Social Reality (trans. Tom and Catherine Burns) (London I976), pp. 43-4· 26. For the argument postulating 'production' as the key element of fiction see Pierre Macherey, Pour une Theorie de fa Production littiraire (Paris I97I ), p. 8gff. 27. Zeraffa, op. cit., p. 37· 28. La Revolution romanesque (Paris 196g), p. I8. 29. Ibid., P· 55ff; Fictions, chapter I, P· 7ff. go. Fictions, p. I 25.

Chapter 4 1. Politics and the Novel (New York I957), p. I6. 2. 'Figura', in Scenes from the Drama of European Literature, p. I Iff. 3· Ibid., p. 70. 4· The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence (London I974), p. 81. 5· Frank Kermode, The Sense of the Ending (New York I 967); Alan Friedman, The Turn of the Novel (New York I967). 6. 'Henry James, An Appreciation', in Notes on Life and Letters (London I 924) pp. I8-I9.

PART II

Chapter 5 I. For a study of the radical Russian intelligentsia of this period see Franco Venturi The Roots of Revolution (London I96o) 2. Passion and Society (trans. Montgomery Belgion) (London I956), p. 233fT. g. Anna Karenin (trans. Rosemary Edmunds) (London I962), pp. II7-I8. 4· Ibid., p. 579· 5· (trans. David Magarshak) (London I958), p. I33· 6. Ibid., p. 61I. 7· Ibid., pp. 592-6. 8. (trans. David Magarshak) (London I964), vol. I, p. 305·

Chapter 6 1. 'Dostoevsky', in R. Wellek (ed.), Dostoevsky (New Jersey I962). 2. The Notebooks for the Possessed (ed. E. Wasiolek) (Chicago I968). 3· For a portrait of Nikolai Speshnev and his role in the Petrashevsky circle see Leonid Grossman, Dostoevsky: a Biography (London I974), p. I I2ff. 4· The Devils (trans. David Magarshak) (London I962), p. 420.

Chapter 7 I. Preface to the second edition of Therese Raquin (trans. Leonard Tancock) (London I975), p. 22. 2. An excellent account of how Zola collected his material is given by Richard rg6 Tragic Realism and Modern Society Zakarian, -?,ala's Germinal: a Critical Study of the Primary Sources (Droz 1972). 3· Germinal (trans. Leonard Tancock) (London 1976), pp. 273-4. 4· Ibid., p. 424. Chapter 8 1. Under Western Eyes (London 1964), p. 21. 2. Ibid., p. 291. 3· The Secret Agent (London 1963), p. 215. 4· For an account of the Greenwich bombing incident and Conrad's reaction to it see Ian Watt, Conrad, the Secret Agent: a Casebook (London 1973). 5· Nostromo (London 1963), p. 75· 6. Ibid., p. 81. 7· Ibid., p. 458. Chapter 9 1. Tonio Kroeger (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1962), p. 190. 2. Letters to Paul Amann (London 1961) p. 39· 3· The Magic Mountain (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1962), pp. 285-6. 4· Ibid., pp. 245-6. 5· Ibid., p. 374· 6. Ibid., p. 404. 7· Mario and the Magician (London 1975), p. 141. 8. Doctor Faustus (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1971), pp. 329-30.

Chapter 10

1. See Roy A. Medvedev, Problems in the Literary Biography of Mikhail Sholokhov (London 1977); Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 'Sholokhov and the Riddle of"The Quiet '", Times Literary Supplement, 4 October 1974, p. 1056; Vladimir Molozherenko 'About a certain undeservedly forgotten name', ibid., p. 1057; and the article on Medvedev's study by Peter Osnos in the Guardian, 19 April 1975. Molozherenko, a Soviet critic, re-affirms Kurkov's literary importance as a Cossack writer. In the opening paragraphs he explicitly compares the fate ofKrukov with that of the novel's hero Gregor Melekhov. Both were forced to flee the Red advance on the Don in 1920 and both contracted typhus during the retreat. In the novel, Gregor survives the fever, but in real life Krukov died from it. Molozherenko has since claimed, as a result of the controversy arising from his article in the , that Sholokhov is the sole author of The Silent Don. 2. (trans. Stephen Garry) (London 1967), pp. 510-11. 3· From a Bolshevik point of view, Trotsky criticised his party's military strategy on the Southern Front, and claimed that it lacked social and political understanding. The Red army had driven the into the hands of Denikin's Volunteer army by invading Cossack land and committing unnecessary atrocities. Instead, Trotsky suggests, they should have bypassed the Cossacks to confront Denikin's army directly, so depriving the Whites of the chance to use Cossack help 01" Cossack territory. See My Life (New York 1960), PP· 453-5. 4· And Quiet Flows the Don, p. 311. 5· The Don Flows Home to the Sea (trans. Stephen Garry) (London 1972), p. 420. Notes 197 6. Ibid., pp. 827-8. 7· It is impossible to make any definitive judgment about the authorship on the basis of the abridged English translation in two volumes (London I967 and I 972). More than a hundred pages have been cut out from the original Russian text. Apart from general historical commentary on the civil war, the two most vital elements missing are the story ofLiza Mokhova, which is taken from the diary of a dead Cossack, and a fuller portrait of Eugene Listnitsky. Sections covering Listnitsky's relationship with Aksinia have been omitted, as have his letters to his father. The English edition, translated at the end of the thirties, does have the virtue of excluding the postwar Soviet revisions of the novel forced on Sholokhov by the Zhdanov cultural regime. For a discussion of the English omissions see David Stewart, 'The Silent Don in English', American Slavic and East European Review, vol. xv, I956, pp. 265-75.

Chapter II I. Both novels are of direct historical interest for their recognisable portraits of leading Republican figures in the war. But one must not overlook the fictional dimensions of such portraits. To use Forster's famous distinction, Malraux's characterisations tend to be 'flat', while Hemingway's, on the whole, are 'round'. In Days of Hope Colonel Escobar of the Civil Guard in Barcelona was the model for Colonel Ximenez, while Enrico Lister was the model for Manuel. Hemingway, more intrigued by the personalities of the communists he met, provided the more controversial fictionalisation. Andre Massart is modelled on Andre Marty. General Golz is modelled on the military adviser to the International Brigades, Karol Swierczewski, code-named General Walter. It was Walter who, commanding the XIVth International Brigade, mounted the counter-offensive on the Segovia front described in the novel. Karkov, the Russian journalist, was modelled on Michael Koltsov, the cor­ respondent who later perished in the Great Purge. There is some evidence to suggest that Koltsov was Stalin's personal agent in Spain. See Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (London I965), p. 336. Mitchell, the British economist whom Karkov and Robert jordan jointly ridicule as a self-important fellow­ traveller with a 'gueule de conspirateur', could well be a malicious portrait of Malraux himself. See For Whom the Bell Tolls (London I964), pp. 230-4. 2. Malraux's claim to tragic humanism is scattered through numerous written articles and interviews. See C. D. Bland Andre Malraux: Tragic Humanist (Ohio 1963), P· 49ff. 3· Man's Estate (trans. Alistair Macdonald) (London 1972), pp. 8-15. 4· Ibid., p. 84. 5· Ibid., p. 191. 6. Ibid., P· lg6. 7· Ibid., p. 2go. 8. Days cif Hope (trans. Stuart Gilbert and Alistair Macdonald) (London I 970), p. Ig6. g. For Whom the Bell Tolls (London I964), pp. I30-J. 10. Ibid., p. 155· I I. Ibid., PP· 21g-21.. I2. Ibid., p. 272. 13. Ibid., p. 395· Tragic Realism and Modern Sociery

14. Ibid., pp. g, 12.

Chapter 12

1. Keep the Aspidistra Flying (London 1975), p. 49· 2. Ibid., p. 55· 3· Ibid., p. 149. 4· Nineteen Eighty-Four (London 1973), pp. 103-4. 5· ibid., pp. 211-12.

Chapter 13

1. Hope Abandoned (trans. Max Hayward) (London 1974), p. 347ff. 2. Doctor :{,hivago (trans. Max Hayward and Manya Harari) (London 1975), pp. 434-5· 3· The First Circle (trans. Michael Guybon) (London 1970), pp. 132-3. 4· Ibid., p. 251. 5· Ibid., pp. 241-2. 6. Ibid., p. 237. 7· For an account ofSolzhenitsyn's years in Vladimir province and Ryazan see David Burg and George Feifer, So/zhenitsyn (London 1972), pp. 137-55. Index

Acmeism, 25 Burnham, James, 165 Adorno, Theodor, I6, I9-24, 35, 39, 47 Burroughs, William, 23, 42 aesthetic distance, 20- I Akhmatova, Anna, I34, I72, I75 Camus, Albert, 32-3, I6o, 190 Requiem, I 75 Outsi!kr, The, 33 Albee, Edward, I88 Plague, The, 1go alienation, 9, I4, I7-I8, g8, 45-6, I28-g2, capitalism, 6-8,9-14, 2I, 35-6, g8-4o, go, I89-92 I06-I2, 115-18, 190-1 Amann, Paul, I I 7, I 20 catharsis, I7-I8, 46-7, 176 anarchism, 97-8, 101 -4, I 13- 14, I46 Chang Kai Shek, I46 aristocracy, 10-I4, 55-72, 79, 8I -g, 86, charisma, 8I-g, 125-7 184, 188-9 Chekhov, Anton, 188 Aristotle, 29 Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 54, 65, 76, 78, So, artistic dissonance, 20- I 147. Auerbach, Erich, 1, 2, 10-15, 16, I9, 42-3, What is to be done?, 54, 65, 76 44· 62 Christianity, 42-3, 6g, 6g-72, 77, 78-9,86, Austen, Jane, 45 121, I85 Averbakh, Leopold, I33 class-conflict, 2g-go, 85, 90-8, 188-9 communism, 8g, 86, I2o-g, Igg-6, Babel, Isaac, 134 144 - 58, 172-87 Bakunin, Mikhail, 43, 73-4, 79, 82, 97 Conrad,Joseph, 27, 37, 46, 47,99--114, 115, Balzac, Honore de, 6-7, 37, I89 146, I88 Old Goriot, 44 Heart rif Darkness, 99, 104, 1 1 3- q Barnes, Djuna, 45, 48 .Nostromo, 47, gg, I04-I4, 178 Barthes, Roland, 31-4, 35, 38 Secret Agent, The, 99-105, 159, 189 Beethoven, Ludwig von, 11 7 Under Western Eyes, gg-102 Belinsky, Vissarian, 53 conservatism, Io-15, 44-6, 49, I12-14, Bellow, Saul, 23 115-16, I25 Benjamin, Walter, I6-1g, 21, 39, I22, I93n Contemporary, 54 Beria, Lavrenty, I8o Cossacks, I36-42 Bettelheim, Bruno, I75 Blanchot, Maurice, go-4, 194n Dante, 42-3, 104 Amindanab, 31 democracy, 49, 82-3, 86, 108-g Thomas l'obscur, 31 De Rougemont, Denis, 56 Boell, Heinrich, I90 Derrida, Jacques, go, 31 bourgeoisie, I2-I4, 37-8, 55-7. 92-g, Dickens, Charles, 92, 189, I90 I 15-16, 188-90 Disraeli, Benjamin, 42 Brecht, Bertolt, 17, 21, I27 Don Quixote, 4 Arturo Ui, 127 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, x, 27, 37, 48, 53-4, Brezhnev, Leonid, 186 62-72,73-86,99-101, 106, II5, 120, Brach, Hermann, 39 I46, I57, 159, 174, I84, 188, Igo Bronte, Emily, I88-9 Brothers Karamazov, The, 7I -2 Wuthering Heights, I4, 44, I88-9 , 54, 62, 145 Bulgakov, Mikhail, I34 Devils, The, 73-86, I77 bureaucracy, 4I, I64-5, 183-5, 190-1 House rif the Dead, 62 200 Index

Idiot, The, 44, 53, 54, 55, 62-70, 77 Hegel, G. W. F., 117 Notes from Underground, 62 Heidegger, Martin, go, 33, 35, 1ggn, 194n , 62 Hemingway, Ernest,gg,47,48, 14g, 150-g, Dreiser, Theodore, 39 '79, 188 Dubrolyubov, Nikolai, 54 Across the River and into the Trees, 1 go Durrell, Lawrence, 45 For Whom the Bell Tolls, 14g, 150-g, I 79, I go lcriture, g2-g Sun also Rises, The, 158 Ehrenberg, Ilya, 1g4 Herzen, Alexander, 53 Eichenbaum, Boris, 25, 26, 28 Who is to blame?, 54 Eliot, George, 45, 92 Hitler, Adolf, 8g, 125, 128 Middlemarch, 44 Howe, Irving, 41 Horkheimer, Max, 21 Fadeyev, Alexander, 134 Huxley, Aldous, 16o fascism, 22, 8g, 124-8, 147, 161 Faulkner, William, 22, 37, gg, 45, 188, Ibsen, Henrik, 12, 188 Hamlet, The, 44 Ideology, 20-4, 36-8, 116-23, 164, Light in August, 44 16g-7o, 183-5 Sound and the Fury, The, 44 imperialism, gg-100, 105-14, 144-6 Fedin, Konstantin, 1g4, 187 information, 19-21, 41, 185-6 .figura, 42-3, 112 intelligentsia, 41,53-4, 6g, 117-18, 164-9, figural realism, 15, 41-g, 58, 77-g, 112, 177-8, 190-1 124, 147-5o, '70-1, 18o-2, 187 irony, 20, 102-4, 107 Flaubert, Gustav, 6-7, 20, 21, 32, 188, 18g Madame Bovary, 14, 55-7 Jacobsen, Roman, 25-7, go Sentimental Education, I 4 James, Henry, 47, 61, go, 158 formalism, 15, 25-30 Joyce, James, 14, 37, 39, 44• 45, 48, 154 Forster, E. M., g6-7, 46, 197n U{ysses, 44 Foucault, Michel, go Juenger, Ernst, 127, 147, Iggn French Revolution, 11, 13 On the Marble Cliffs, 127 Freud, Sigmund, 88 Freudianism, 21-4 Kafka, Franz, 6, 18, 159, 190 Friedman, Alan, 46 Metamorphosis, 20 futurism, 25 Trial, The, 159 Kermode, Frank, 46 Gaskell, Mrs. Elizabeth, 92 Koltsov, Michael, 197n gentry, 53-5, 7' Kostov, Traicho, 183 Georg, Stefan, 129 Kristeva, Julia, go Gide, Andre, 20, g2 Krukov, Fyodor, 1g5-6 Gissing, George, 18g Krushchev, Nikita, 176 Goebbels, Joseph, 8g, 147 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 5, 117 language, go-2, 47-g, 129-30, 16g-7o, Wilhelm Meister, 5, 21 185-6 Goldmann, Lucien, g4-6, g8, 8g, 144 Lassalle, Ferdinand, go Goodman Paul, 2g Fra112. von Sickungen, go Gramsci, Antonio, 120 Laveleye, Emile, go Granovsky, David, 74, 75 Lawrence, D. H. 10, 37, 46-7, 193n Grass, Gunther, 2g, 1go Women in Love, 10, Iggn Tin Drum, The, 2g LEF (Left Front in Art), 13g-4 Grossman, Leonid, 68 Lenin, V.I., I 34 Guyot, Yves, go Leonov, Leonid, 1g4 Thief, The, 1g4 Haeckel, Ernst, 129 Leroy-Beaulieu, Paul, go Hardy, Thomas, 14, 188 Levi, Primo, '75 Index 201

Levi-Strauss, Claude, 30, 170 Enl!J, I34 liberalism, 10, 39, 73, 75, 84-5, 106-12, O'Neill, Eugene, IO, 2I, 22, I88 119-20, 188 Orwell,George,43, I59, I6o-7I, I78-9, Lister, Enrique, 154-5, I97n I go Lowry, Malcolm, 45 Animal Farm, I6o, I6I, 163, I71, 179 Under the Volcano, 44, 45, 170, 188 Burmese Days, I63 Lukacs, Georg, I-8, Io, 17, Ig, 23, 32, 34, Clergyman's Daughter, A, I6o, I62 42, 44> 73, 74, 87, I20-3, 13I Coming up for Air, I62 Down and Out in London and Paris, I6o, I6I Macherey, Pierre, 37-8 Homage to Catalonia, I 6I, 163, I 7 I Mallarme, Stephan, 32 Keep the Aspidistra Flying, I62 -8 Malraux,Andre,35, 143-56, I6o, Igo, I97n Nineteen Eighty-Four, I59, I60-71, 182, Conquerors, The, I43-4, I45 I88, I90 DaysqfHope, I43, I47-5I, I5:.!, I5·h Igo Man's Estate, 89, I43-7, I48 passion, g, 55-70, 97, I I I, I3I -2, I36-7, Mandelstam, Nadezda, 84, I 72, I 75 I4I -2, I52-4, I64-9, I73-4, I80-2, Mandelstam, Osip, 134, I 72, I 7 5 I88 Mann, Heinrich, I I6 Pasternak, Boris, I34, I35, I72-5, I82 Mann, Thomas, 5, 7-8, 20, 2I, 27, 47, 48, Doctor Zhivago, I35, 172-5 I I5-32, I88, I8g peasantry, 7I, 75,107, I36-42, I5I-g, I76, Buddenbrooks, I I5, I I 6 I8g Confessions qf Felix Krull, The, 44 Pisarev, Dimitri, 54 Death in Venice, I 3 2 populism, 54, 75, 185 Doctor Faustus, 7, 44, 48, I I5, I 24, I 26-32, progress, the idea of, 3 7-8, I I2 - I 3 qo, I88 Propp, Vladimir, 30 Magic Mountain, The, 5, I I5-24, 125, I28 Protestantism, 43 Mario and the Magician, II5, I24-7, I32 Proust, Marcel, 20, 2I, 39, 44, 45 Tonio Kroeger, I I6 Remembrance qf Things Past, 44 Marc use, Herbert, I 6, I 8, 2 I - ·h 35 Marlowe, Christopher, I88 Racine, Jean, 34, I88 Marx, Karl, 35-6, 6I -2, 74, go, I05, I47 Andromaque, 34 mass culture, 21-2, 191 RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Medvedev, Roy, I35, Ig6n Writers), 28, I33, 135 Melville, Herman, 44, go, 188 Rathenau, Walter, I29 Confidence Man, The, 44 Raznochintsky, 53 Moby Dick, 44, 9I realism, I, 2, 20,23-4, 25-7,40, II6-I8, Mikhailovsky, Nikolai, 76 I42, I60-I, I66, I76, I87; see also Miller, Arthur, I 88 figural realism, tragic realism Miller, Henry, 23, 42, I6I affirmative realism, 44, 124, I47, I8g Molozherenko, Vladimir, I96n critical realism, 8, 73 , 8, I33-4, I4I-2, I72 Napoleon, Louis, 107 Reich, Wilhelm, I 26 naturalism, 7, 87-go, I66, I70 reflexivity, 20-1, 22, 6g, I65, I86 Nazism, 83, I25-8, I47 reification, 35-6 Nechaev, Sergei, 73-4, 82 Richardson, Dorothy, 39, 42 Nietzsche, Frederic, 79, 8g, I I 7, I 28-g, 147, Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 36 I87 Roosevelt, Eleanor, I85 nihilsm, 30-I, 33-4, 55, 80-3, 97-8, , g, 84-5, I02, I33-4I IH-7 Nin, Andres, I56 Salinger, J. D., 23 nouveau roman, 30-2, 33, 35-6, I 70 Salomon, Ernst von, I27 Sand, George, 65 O'Casey, Sean, I88 Sarraute, Nathalie, 36, 42 Olesha, Yuri, 134 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 16o, I90 202 Index

Age rif Reason, The, 46 Resurrection, 70- 1 Schoenberg, Arnold, 20-1, 128 War and Pel1£e, 44, 58-9 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 117, 120 totalitarianism, 21, 84, 163-71, 176-87 Shakespeare, William, 11-12, 188 tragedy, 1, 8-12, 17, 23-4, 18g King Lear, 176 tragic heroism, 14-15, 42, 44-5, 112-13, Shlovsky, Victor, 25, 27-8 132 shock, the literature of, 20-1 collective hero, 8g-g6, 144, 151 Sholokhov, Mikhail, 134, 140-1 problematic hero, 2, 4-5, 35, Bg, g6, 144 Silent Don, The, 9, 134, 135-42, 159, tragic nobility, 10-14, 55-72, 18g I97n tragic realism, 1, 2, 7, 10-14,38-40,41-9, Virgin Soil Uptvrned, 135, 140, 150 6g, 86, 92, 112, 124, 132, 142, 147, 151, Simmel, Georg, 129 •s7-9, 176, 1Bo-1, 187-92 Snow, C. P., 42 Trollope, Anthony, 42, 61 socialism, 43-4· n, 8!, 93-6, 178 Trotsky, Leon, 9, 134, 144, 165, 172, 1g6n Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 8, 175-87, 188, Turgenev, Ivan, 53-4, 74, 75, Bo, 173 1g6n Fathers and Sons, 54, 75, 88 August 1914, 186 Virgin Soil, 7 5 Cancer Ward, 178, 186 Tvardovsky, Alexander, 176 Day in the Lift ofIvan Denisovitch, A, 176-7, Tynjanov, Juri, 26 186 First Circle, The, 177-86, 188 values, 36-40, 83-4, 101-4, 106, 108, Lenin in <;urich, 186 ••s-•7. •48, •68 Matryona's Pl11£e, 186 'life-by-value', 36-7, 40, 149, 176 Spanish Civil War, 143, 147-59 Voronsky, Alexander, 134 speech, 32-3, 47-9, 129-30, 185-6 Spender, Stephen, 45 Wayne, John, 105 Speshnev, Nikolai, 79, 195n Weber, Max, 6g, 105 Stalin,Joseph, 133, 172, 175, 177, 179-80, Wells, H. G., 16o, 163, 18g 183, 184 Williams, Raymond, 1, 8-10, 15, 45, 159, Stalinism, 140-2, 143, 154-8, 161, 171-84 I6o, 193n Stendhal (Henri Beyle), 12-14, 188 Williams, Tenessee, 22, 188 Sterne, Laurence, 27 Woolf, Virginia, 14, 39 T ristam Shandy, 27 working-classes, 87-gB, 107, 121-2, 144, stream of consciousness, 20, 39-40 163- 5, 188-91 structuralism, 15, 30-40 genetic structuralism, 31, 34-40 Yeats, W. B., 83 linguistic structuralism, 30-4 sublimation, 21 -3 Zamyatin, Yevgeny, 16o, 164, 165, 166 Swierczewki, Karol (General Walter), 197n We, 165 symbolism, 44-5, 97-8, 127 Zeraffa, Michel, 34,36-40,87, 112, 115 Zola,Emile,6, 14,21,87-gB, 115,136,146, Tel Quel, 30, 31 151, 189 Tomashevsky, Boris, 25, 28-30 L'Assommoir, 88-9, go Tolstoy, Alexei, 134, 135 Deb!1£le, The, Bg, 97 Road to Calvary, The, 135 Germinal, 14, 87, Bg-98, 136, 142, 151, Two Sisters, 134 189 Tolstoy, Leo,x, 21, 28, 44, 47,54-62,63,64, Nana, 89 66, 6g, 70-1, 157. 174, !88 Therese Raquin, 87" Anna Karenin, 44, 54, 55-62 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author and publishers wish to thank the following who have kindly given permission for the use of copyright material:

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