Notes PART I Chapter 1 1. See Rene Wellek, 'Realism in literary scholarship' in Concepts of Criticism (London 1963), p. 222fT; Raymond Williams, Keywords (London I976), p. 216fT; George]. Becker, Documents of Modern Literary Realism (Princeton I963). 2. Theory of the Novel (trans. Anna Bostock) (Cambridge, Mass. I970), pp. I I2-3. 3· Ibid., p. I 72. 4· The Historical Novel (trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell) (London I969). Cited in T. Burns and E. Burns (ed.), Sociology of Literature and Drama (London I973), P· 287. 5· Lukacs writes: 'Obviously one cannot call Gregor's fate tragic in spite of certain tragic features.' Der russische Realismus in der Weltliteratur (Berlin I 952) (3rd ed.), p. 363. 6. Studies in European Realism (trans. Edith Bone) (London I950), p. 63. 7. See The Meaning of Contemporary Realism (trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell) (London I963), p. I7ff. 8. See his autobiographical record, The Genesis of a Novel (Princeton I953)· 9· Modern Tragedy (London I966), p. 64. 10. Ibid., p. 77· I I. Williams, on the other hand, feels that despite Lawrence's explicit rejection of the social as the basis of tragic necessity, Women in Love is a tragic work-a form of personal tragedy, in effect, which goes beyond society. Williams, op. cit., p. I2 Iff. 12. Mimesis (trans. Willard B. Trask) (Princeton I953), p. 328. 13. Ibid., pp. 464-6. I4· Ibid., pp. 482. I5. Williams, op. cit., p. 55· Chapter 2 1. See Frederick jameson, Marxism and Form (Princeton I97I), chapter 1. 2. See 'The Author as Producer', New Left Review 62 (I970). 3· Illuminations (London 1972), p. 101. 4· Ibid., p. 146. 5· Significantly, Benjamin moves away from the novel in his discussion ofliterary technique and concentrates his attention on theatre, journalism and film. While his discussion of the practical possibilities of these media is engrossing, there is still a basic element of theoretical mystification. His use of the term Technik has remarkable similarities with the usage ofErnstj uenger and Martin Heidegger in their proto-fascist writings. See Benjamin 'The Author as 194 Tragic Realism and Modern Sociery Producer' .New Ll[/i Review, 62, 1970; Ernstjuenger Der Arbeiter (Berlin 1932); J. Orr 'German Social Theory and the Hidden Face ofTechnology', Archives europeenes de sociologie, xv, 1974, pp. 312-336. 6 . .Noten zur Literatur, vol. 1. (Frankfurt 196s), p. 64. 7· See The Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York 1972); also Martin Jay The Dialectical Imagination (London 1973), p. 216fT. 8. One-Dimensional Man (Boston 1964), p. 77· 9· Ibid., p. 229fT. Marc use takes the term from Maurice Blanchot, whose influence on structuralism is discussed in the following chapter. Chapter 3 1. For the classic study of Russian formalism see Victor Erlich Russian Formalism, The Hague I9SS 2. 'On realism', in L. Matejka and K. Pomorska (ed.), Readings in Russian Poetics (Cambridge, Mass. 1971) pp. 40-1. 3· 'On literary evolution', Readings in Russian Poetics, p. 67. 4· Ibid., p. 72 S· 'The Concept of the Dominant', Readings in Russian Poetics, pp. 82-91. 6. 'Art as technique', in Lee Lemon and Marion Reis (ed.), Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays, (Lincoln, Nebraska 196s), p. 12. 7· Ibid., p. 13. 8. Matejka and Pomorska, op. cit., p. 61. 9· 'Thematics', in Lemon and Reis, op. cit., p. 6s. 10. Ibid., p. 81. I I. Ibid., P· 7 I. 12. For the influence ofHeidegger upon structuralism, see Frederic Jameson, The Prison-house f!fLanguage (Princeton 1972), p. 168£L 13. The Order of Things (London 1970), p. 38sff. 14. The essence ofBlanchot's theory is contained in 'La litterature et le droit a Ia mort', first published in 194 7 and 1948, then republished as the last chapter of La Part du Feu (Paris 1949). The theory is elaborated at greater length in L'Espace litteraire (paris I9SS) and Le livre a venir (paris I9S9)· There is a good critical study ofBlanchot by Sarah Lawall, Critics of Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass. 1968). A translated extract from 'Ia litterature et le droit a Ia mort' can be found in Maurice Nadeau The French .Novel since the War (trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith) London 1967. IS· La Part du Feu p. 32S· 16. Writing Degree Zero (trans. Annette Lavers and Colin Smith) (Boston 1968), p. 33· 17. Ibid., p. 77- I 8. For a rather different interpretation of the murder, see Conor Cruise O'Brien, Camus (London 1970), p. 23fT. 19. See Susan Sontag's preface to Writing Degree Zero, p. viiff. 20. '"Genetic Structuralism" in the sociology ofliterature', in Burns and Burns, op. cit., p. 1 IS· 21. Towards a Sociology of the .Novel (trans. Alan Sheridan) (London I97S), pp. 123-4· 22. Ibid., p. 134· 23. Ibid., p. I3S· Notes 195 24. Aspects of the .Novel (London I963) p. g6. 25. Fictions: The Novel and Social Reality (trans. Tom and Catherine Burns) (London I976), pp. 43-4· 26. For the argument postulating 'production' as the key element of fiction see Pierre Macherey, Pour une Theorie de fa Production littiraire (Paris I97I ), p. 8gff. 27. Zeraffa, op. cit., p. 37· 28. La Revolution romanesque (Paris 196g), p. I8. 29. Ibid., P· 55ff; Fictions, chapter I, P· 7ff. go. Fictions, p. I 25. Chapter 4 1. Politics and the Novel (New York I957), p. I6. 2. 'Figura', in Scenes from the Drama of European Literature, p. I Iff. 3· Ibid., p. 70. 4· The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence (London I974), p. 81. 5· Frank Kermode, The Sense of the Ending (New York I 967); Alan Friedman, The Turn of the Novel (New York I967). 6. 'Henry James, An Appreciation', in Notes on Life and Letters (London I 924) pp. I8-I9. PART II Chapter 5 I. For a study of the radical Russian intelligentsia of this period see Franco Venturi The Roots of Revolution (London I96o) 2. Passion and Society (trans. Montgomery Belgion) (London I956), p. 233fT. g. Anna Karenin (trans. Rosemary Edmunds) (London I962), pp. II7-I8. 4· Ibid., p. 579· 5· The Idiot (trans. David Magarshak) (London I958), p. I33· 6. Ibid., p. 61I. 7· Ibid., pp. 592-6. 8. The Brothers Karamazov (trans. David Magarshak) (London I964), vol. I, p. 305· Chapter 6 1. 'Dostoevsky', in R. Wellek (ed.), Dostoevsky (New Jersey I962). 2. The Notebooks for the Possessed (ed. E. Wasiolek) (Chicago I968). 3· For a portrait of Nikolai Speshnev and his role in the Petrashevsky circle see Leonid Grossman, Dostoevsky: a Biography (London I974), p. I I2ff. 4· The Devils (trans. David Magarshak) (London I962), p. 420. Chapter 7 I. Preface to the second edition of Therese Raquin (trans. Leonard Tancock) (London I975), p. 22. 2. An excellent account of how Zola collected his material is given by Richard rg6 Tragic Realism and Modern Society Zakarian, -?,ala's Germinal: a Critical Study of the Primary Sources (Droz 1972). 3· Germinal (trans. Leonard Tancock) (London 1976), pp. 273-4. 4· Ibid., p. 424. Chapter 8 1. Under Western Eyes (London 1964), p. 21. 2. Ibid., p. 291. 3· The Secret Agent (London 1963), p. 215. 4· For an account of the Greenwich bombing incident and Conrad's reaction to it see Ian Watt, Conrad, the Secret Agent: a Casebook (London 1973). 5· Nostromo (London 1963), p. 75· 6. Ibid., p. 81. 7· Ibid., p. 458. Chapter 9 1. Tonio Kroeger (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1962), p. 190. 2. Letters to Paul Amann (London 1961) p. 39· 3· The Magic Mountain (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1962), pp. 285-6. 4· Ibid., pp. 245-6. 5· Ibid., p. 374· 6. Ibid., p. 404. 7· Mario and the Magician (London 1975), p. 141. 8. Doctor Faustus (trans. H. T. Lowe-Porter) (London 1971), pp. 329-30. Chapter 10 1. See Roy A. Medvedev, Problems in the Literary Biography of Mikhail Sholokhov (London 1977); Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 'Sholokhov and the Riddle of"The Quiet Don'", Times Literary Supplement, 4 October 1974, p. 1056; Vladimir Molozherenko 'About a certain undeservedly forgotten name', ibid., p. 1057; and the article on Medvedev's study by Peter Osnos in the Guardian, 19 April 1975. Molozherenko, a Soviet critic, re-affirms Kurkov's literary importance as a Cossack writer. In the opening paragraphs he explicitly compares the fate ofKrukov with that of the novel's hero Gregor Melekhov. Both were forced to flee the Red advance on the Don in 1920 and both contracted typhus during the retreat. In the novel, Gregor survives the fever, but in real life Krukov died from it. Molozherenko has since claimed, as a result of the controversy arising from his article in the Soviet Union, that Sholokhov is the sole author of The Silent Don. 2. And Quiet Flows the Don (trans. Stephen Garry) (London 1967), pp. 510-11. 3· From a Bolshevik point of view, Trotsky criticised his party's military strategy on the Southern Front, and claimed that it lacked social and political understanding. The Red army had driven the Cossacks into the hands of Denikin's Volunteer army by invading Cossack land and committing unnecessary atrocities. Instead, Trotsky suggests, they should have bypassed the Cossacks to confront Denikin's army directly, so depriving the Whites of the chance to use Cossack help 01" Cossack territory. See My Life (New York 1960), PP· 453-5. 4· And Quiet Flows the Don, p. 311. 5· The Don Flows Home to the Sea (trans. Stephen Garry) (London 1972), p. 420. Notes 197 6. Ibid., pp. 827-8. 7· It is impossible to make any definitive judgment about the authorship on the basis of the abridged English translation in two volumes (London I967 and I 972).